BX8067  .L98  1906 

Lutheran  Liturgical 

Association. 

Memoirs  of  the  Lutheran 

Litiiraical  Association. 


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PUBLISHED  BY  THE  ASSOCIATION 

PITTSBURGH.  PA.,  1906 


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Copyright,  1906, 

by 

The  Lutheran  Liturgical  Association. 


PREFACE. 


The  study  of  our  historical  antecedents  and  the  attainment  of 
doctrinal  definiteness  by  our  Church  in  this  country  have  empha- 
sized the  great  points  which  Lutherans  of  every  land  and  lan- 
guage hold  in  common  and  which  show  us  to  be  more  truly 
united  and  to  stand  more  firmly  within  the  unbroken  historical 
development  of  the  Church  Universal  than  any  other  Christian 
Communion.  Our  wide  dispersion,  the  various  national  and  lin- 
guistic factors  and  especially  the  un-Lutheran  and  sectarian  in- 
fluences to  which  various  parts  of  the  Church  were  subjected 
have  naturally  resulted  in  ^  very  decided  lack  of  uniformity  in 
our  external  life.  The  recognition  of  our  essential  doctrinal 
unity,  the  growing  appreciation  of  the  meaning  and  value  of 
the  liturgical,  musical  and  other  art  treasures  of  our  fathers,  the 
adoption  of  common  liturgical  forms  upon  the  basis  of  a  con- 
census of  historic  usage,  the  general  advancement  in  intelligence 
and  culture  as  well  as  the  rapid  Anglicization  of  our  vast  num- 
bers in  this  country, — these  are  the  potent  factors  in  the  present 
powerful  movement  that  seeks  to  secure  beauty,  correctness  and 
desirable  uniformity  in  the  department  of  Liturgiology  and  Ec- 
clesiastical Art— our  Public  Worship,  Church  Architecture  and 
Ornament,  Church  Music,  Hymnology,  Ministerial  Acts  and 
every  other  element  of  a  churchly  life.  Such  consistent,  histor- 
ical and  distinctive  practice  with  all  its  evident  advantages  can 
be  established  only  upon  a  discriminating  knowledge  of  liturgical 


U  MEMOIRS- 

history  in  general  and  of  the  historical  development  of  Church 
Art,  as  well  as  upon  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  particular 
liturgical  and  artistic  principles,  usages  and  tradition,  of  our  own 
distinctive  Church-life.  To  encourage  and  promote  such  study 
the  Lutheran  Liturgical  Association  was  organized.  Its  con- 
sistent purpose  and  effort  have  been  to  assist  clergymen  and  lay- 
men in  developing  an  intelligent  and  deeply  spiritual  devotional 
life,  and  in  rightly  interpreting  our  beautiful  Services,  to  guard 
against  the  hasty  adoption  of  innovations  and  practices  foreign 
to  Lutheran  principles  or  usages,  and  to  meet  and  solve  the  many 
important  and  practical  questions  constantly  arising  in  the  indi- 
vidual parish. 

The  organization  of  the  Association  was  suggested  by  the 
President  in  a  conversation  with  the  future  Vice  President  and 
Secretary  during  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Pittsburgh  Synod 
of  the  General  Council  at  East  Liverpool,  Ohio.    A  preliminary 
meeting  was  held  during  this  session  of  the  Synod,  September 
3rd,  1898,  which  was  attended  by  twenty  or  more  clergymen.    A 
permanent  organization  was  effected  at  a  meeting  held  in  the 
First  English  Lutheran  Church,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  the  Rev.  Dr.  D. 
H.  Geissinger,  Pastor,  October  3rd,  1898,  by  the  adoption  of  a 
constitution  and  the  election  of  the  following  officers : 
President,  The  Rev.  Luther  D.  Reed, 
Vice  President,  The  Rev.  Prof.  Elmer  F.  Krauss,  D.  D. 
Secretary  and  Treasurer,  The  Rev.  R.  Morris  Smith, 
Archivarius ,  The  Rev.  George  J.  Gongaware. 
These  officers  have  been  re-elected  every  succeeding  year. 
Together  they  constitute  the  Executive  Committee.     The  prac- 
tical direction  of  the  interests  of  the  Association  has  thus  been 
uninterruptedly  in  the  hands  of  those  most  active  in  its  organi- 
zation seven  years  ago. 


PREFACE.  Ill 

The  regular  monthly  meetings  have,  without  exception,  been 
held  in  the  First  Church,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  the  Revs.  D.  H.  Geis- 
singer,  D.  D.,  and  George  J.  Gongaware,  Pastors.  Fifty-one  such 
regular  Conventions  have  been  held,  at  which  many  valuable  pa- 
pers, prepared  by  many  of  the  best-informed  men  in  all  parts  of 
the  Church,  have  been  presented.  During  the  first  few  years  of 
the  Association's  history,  in  addition  to  the  afternoon  sessions  in 
the  First  Church,  an  evening  session  was  held  each  month  in  one 
of  the  various  churches  of  Pittsburgh  or  vicinity,  to  which  the 
congregations  of  the  city  were  especially  invited.  At  these  ses- 
sions Vespers  were  read  and  various  liturgical  subjects  of  a  more 
generally  popular  nature  were  discussed. 

From  the  very  beginning  the  Association  endeavored  to  give 
the  results  of  its  studies  permanent  form  and  thus  to  make  them 
useful  to  a  far  larger  number  than  could  possibly  attend  the  meet- 
ings. The  income  received  from  subscriptions  permitted  the  pub- 
lication of  the  most  valuable  papers  in  the  Memoirs.  Sub- 
scribers receive  every  single  publication  as  it  is  issued,  as  well  as 
copies  of  all  programs,  etc.,  and  are  also  entitled  to  club  reduc- 
tion upon  publications  controlled  by  American  publishers  and 
importers. 

The  work  and  membership  of  the  Association  soon  expanded 
beyond  all  anticipation  and  demonstrated  that  the  Association 
had  found  a  sphere  of  real  usefulness  in  almost  every  portion  of 
the  English-speaking  Lutheran  Church  in  America.  Synodical 
boundaries  and  distinctions  have  never  limited  its  work. 

The  first  year  the  membership  comprised  seventy-five  sub- 
scribers in  seven  different  States.  Last  year  (1905)  there  were 
enrolled  nearly  four  hundred  memb-rs,  most  widely  distributed 
throughout  twenty-two  States  of  the  Union,  four  Provinces  of 
Canada,  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  India,  and  representing 


IV  MEMOIRS. 

five  General  Bodies  of  the  Church.  Members  of  nearly  all  the 
Synods  of  the  General  Council,  the  General  Synod,  the  United 
Synod  of  the  South,  the  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio,  the  Icelandic 
Synod  and  the  United  Norwegian  Synod  have  prepared  papers 
for  the  Memoirs  and  the  surprisingly  extensive  correspondence 
which  from  the  beginning  has  devolved  upon  the  President  and 
the  Secretary  of  the  Association,  is  unmistakable  evidence  of  a 
widespread  and  genuine  interest  in  all  parts  of  the  Church  and 
in  all  parts  of  the  country  on  subjects  within  the  liturgical  field. 

In  the  publication  and  dissemination  of  its  printed  literature 
the  Association  finds  its  most  important  work — the  work  that  is 
of  permanent  value  to  the  Church.  The  first  publication  issued 
was  a  sixteen  page  "Bibliography  and  Outline  of  Study"  which 
soon  was  out  of  print.  Four  papers  were  also  published  the  first 
year  and  comprised  Volume  I  of  the  Memoirs,  issued  at  a  cost 
of  $64.75.  rhe  growth  of  the  work  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
the  mere  printing  of  last  year's  Memoirs  (Volume  VII,  187 
pages)  cost  the  Association  $319.25.  The  total  receipts  from 
membership  dues,  sale  of  publications  and  other  sources  since  the 
organization  has  been  $2,249.60;  total  expenditures  $2,243.28. 

The  papers  collected  and  issued  in  the  various  volumes  of 
the  Memoirs  are  undoubtedly  of  very  unequal  merit.  Some  are 
quite  brief;  others  are  exhaustive  treatises  which  embody  the 
fruits  of  years  of  earnest  and  patient  investigation.  Altogether 
they  unquestionably  comprise  the  most  extensive  and  most  valu- 
able collection  of  IvUtheran  liturgical  literature  in  the  English 
language.  Gathered  from  innumerable  sources  and  adapted  to 
the  conditions  of  our  Church  in  this  country  by  special  students 
of  acknowledged  standing,  many  of  these  papers  present  informa- 
tion that  is  invaluable.  The  Memoirs  are  regularly  used  as  sup- 
plementary text  books  in  some  of  our  Theological  Seminaries 


PREFACE-  V 

and  they  have  certainly  proved  of  inestimable  service  to  pastors 
and  laymen  in  many  parishes. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Association  held  December  4th,  1905, 
the  Association  declined  to  accept  the  resignation  of  the  Presi- 
dent, but  by  resolution  acceded  to  his  urgent  request  to  be  re- 
lieved of  the  duties  of  his  office  for  the  present.  It  was  also  re- 
solved that  the  regular  meetings  and  publications  be  for  the 
present  discontinued  and  that  the  present  publications,  in  so  far 
as  possible,  be  collected  and  issued  in  a  single  bound  volume. 

Volumes  I  and  II  of  the  Memoirs  are  out  of  print.  The 
members  of  the  Association  have  been  invited  to  forward  their 
copies  of  these  volumes  and  have  them  bound  together  with  the 
later  annual  numbers.  Otherwise  this  volume  is  necessarily 
limited  to  Volumes  III-VII,  inclusive.  The  exceedingly  valu- 
able Index,  prepared  by  the  Secretary,  however,  includes  the 
entire  seven  volumes. 

In  taking  advantage  of  this  resting  point  in  the  Association's 
work  and  in  issuing  this  bound  volume,  it  was  deemed  advisable 
to  include  the  facts  and  figures  given  above  relating  to  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  Association  and  its  work.  In  years  to 
come  they  may  seem  of  greater  interest  than  even  in  the  imme- 
diate present. 

Luther  D.  Reed. 

Advent  1906. 


CONTENTS. 


VOLUME    I. 

PAGE 

1.  The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Christian  Wor- 

ship -  -  -  -  -  -  -       I 

The  Rev.  J.  C.  F.  Rupp 

2.  Our  Distinctive  Worship — The  Common   Service 

and  Other  Liturgies,  Ancient  and  Modern      9 

The  Rev.  Luther  D.  Reed 

3.  The  Significance  of  Liturgical  Reform       -        -     19 

The  Rev.  Edward  T.  Horn,  D.  D. 

4.  The  Sources  of  the  Morning  Service  of  the  Com- 

mon Service  -  -  -  -  -    41 

The  Rev.  R.  Morris  Smith 

VOI.TJIVIE    II. 

1.  The  Architecture  of  the  Chancel  -  -       i 

The  Rev.  Prof.  Elmer  F.  Krauss,  D.  D. 

2.  The  Significance  of  the  Altar       -  -  -       7 

The  Rev.  W.  E.  Schramm 

3.  The  Swedish  Liturgies  -  -  -  -     15 

The  Rev.  Prof.  N.  Forsander,  D.  D. 

4.  Altar  Linen  -  -  -  -  -         -     29 

The  Rev.  Luther  D.  Reed 

5.  The  Sources  of  the  Minor  Services  -  -     35 

The  Rev.  R.  Morris  Smith 

6.  The  History  of   the   Liturgy  of  the  Lutheran 

Church  in  Denmark  -  -  -  -     57 

The  Rev.  E.  Belfour,  D.  D. 

(V) 


VI  MEMOIRS. 

PAGE 

7.  Thematic  Harmony  of  Introit,  Collect,  Epistle 

AND  Gospel  -  -  -  -  -     75 

The  Rev.  D.  H.  Geissinger,  D    D. 

8.  Art  in  Worship  -  -  -  -  -     83 

The  Rev.  J.  F.  Ohl,  Mus.  Doc. 

VOLXJIVIE    III. 

1.  The  Administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  Dif- 

ferent Ages  of  the  Church        -  -  -       i 

The  Rev.  G.  S.  Seaman 

2.  The  Liturgical  History  of  Confirmation  -       9 

The  Rev.  C.  Theodore  Benze,  B.  D. 

3.  The  Church  and  the  Liturgy  -  -  -     19 

The  Rev.  Charles  M.  Jacobs 

4.  The  Church  Prayer      -  -  -  -  -     35 

The  Rev.  C.  Armand  Miller 

5.  The  Value  of  Liturgical  Study  for  Organists      -     47 

Thh  Rev.  Gomer  C.  Rees 

6.  A  General  Survey  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer     59 

The  Rev.  Samuel  A.  Bridges  Stopp 

7.  Means  of  Liturgical  Reform  -  -  -     75 

The  Rev.  T.  W.  Kretschmann,  Ph.  D. 

8.  Liturgical  Education  of  the  Church's  Youth       -     81 

The  Rev.   R.  E.  McDaniel,  Ph.  D. 

9.  The  Sacrificial  Idea  in  Christian  Worship  -     89 

The  Rev.  Prof.  G.  F.  Spieker,  D.  D. 

10.  The  Place  of  Liturgy  in  the  Church's  Thought, 

Life  and  Art         .  .  .  .  .  loi 

The  Rev.  John  A.  W.  Haas,  D.  D. 

11.  The  Liturgical  History  of  Baptism  -  -   113 

The  Rev.  H.  S.  Gilbert 

VOLXJIME     IV. 

I.     The   Liturgical    Influence    of    the    Lesser    Re- 
formers       -  -  -  -  -  -       I 

The  Rev.  C.  Theodore  Benze,  B.  D. 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

PAGE 

2.  The  Ecclesiastical  Calendar  -  -  -     17 

The  Rev.  N.  R.  Melhorn 

3.  Luther's  Liti;rgical  Writings  -  -  -     29 

The  Rev.  Earnest  Anton  Trabert 

4.  The  Pericopes    -  -  -  -  -  -     47 

The  Rev    Prof.  A.  Spaeth,  D.  D..  LL.  D. 

5.  Litukqical  Development   in   the   Period  of  the 

Refor.mation  -  -  -  -  -     63 

The  Rev.  Edward  T.  Horn,  D.  D. 

6.  The    Ln  urgical    Deterioration    of    the   Seven- 

teenth  AND   Eighteenth   Centuries   -  -     67 

The  Rev.  J.  F.  Ohl,  Mus.  Doc. 

7.  Liturgy  and  Doctrine  -  -  -  "79 

The  Rev.  D.  II.  Geissinger,  D   D. 

8.  Early  American  Lutheran  Liturgies  -  -     85 

The  Rev.  D.  M.  Kemerer 

9.  The  Liturgy  of  the  Icelandic  Church        -  -     95 

The  Rev.  Prof.  F.  J.  Bergm.\nn 

VOI^XJME    V. 

1.  The  Liturgical  Influence  of  Gregory  the  Great       i 

The  Rev.  A.  L.  Ramkr,  Ph.  D. 

2.  The  Function  of  the  Minister  in  Divine  Worship       9 

The  Rev.  Prof.  Elmer  F.  Krauss,  D.  D. 

3.  A  Laity  Liturgically  Well- Informed         -  -     21 

The  Rev.  A.  B.  Markley 

4.  The  Significance  of  Symbolism  and  Its  Employ- 

ment in  the  Ser\ice  of  the  Church      -  -     31 

The  Rev.  Prof.  George  J.  Gongaware 

5.  The  Collects     -  -  -  -  -  -     41 

The  Rev.  Samuel  A.  Bridges  Stopp 

6.  The  Fundament.'\l  Principlf;s  of  Divine  Service     53 

The  Rev.  G.  W.  Mechling,  D.  D. 

7.  Regulations  and  Customs  Pertaining  to  the  Use 

of  the  Sacraments  -  -  -  -     69 

The  Rev.  Ira  M.  Wallace,  Ph.  D. 

8.  Liturgical  Accuracy  and  Spirituality       -  -     85 

The  Rev.  H.  Douglas  Spaeth 


vni  MEMOIRS. 

volxjm:e   VI. 

PAGE 

1.  CONTRIBUTIVE    INFLUENCES    NoTED    IN    THE    HiSTORY 

AND  Structure  of  the  Liturgy  -  -       i 

The  Rev.  W.  A.  Lambert 

2.  Remarks  on  Some  of  Our  Liturgical  Classics     -     17 

The  Rev.  Edward  T.  Horn,  D.  D. 

3.  Preaching  and  the  Day         -  -  -  -     23 

The  Rev.  Paul  Zeller  Strodach 

4.  Christian  Worship  in  the  Apostolic  Age  -     41 

The  Rev.  Charles  M.  Jacobs 

5.  The  Liturgical  History  of  Confession  and  Ab- 
solution -  -  -  -  -  -     65 

The  Rev.  James  F.  Lambert 

6.  The  Sacramental  Idea  in  Christian  Worship     -     77 

The  Rev.  Prof.  A.  Spaeth,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

7.  Paraments  of  the  Lord's  House     -  -  -     89 

The  Rev.  G.  U.  Wenner,  D.  D. 

VOLUME    VII. 

I      Liturgical  Colors        -  -  -  -  -       i 

The  Rev.  Paul  Zeller  Strodach 

2.  Consecration     -  -  -  -  -  -     19 

The  Rev.  George  U.  Wenner,  D.  D. 

3.  The  Liturgical  Use  of  the  Creeds  -  -     27 

The  Rev.  Prof.  John  W.  Horine 

4.  The  Liturgy  of  the  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church     35 

The  Rev.  Prof.  E.  Kr.  Johnsen 

5.  Christian  Worship  in  the   First  Post- Apostolic 

Age  -  -  -  -  -  -  -     49 

The  Rev.  Charles  M.  Jacobs 

6.  The  Application  of  Lutheran  Principles  to  the 

Church  Building  -  -  -  -  -     75 

The  Rev.  Edward  T.  Horn,  D.  D. 

7.  The  Bidding  Prayer,  Litany,  and  Suffrages       -  121 

The  Rev.  Charles  Krauth  Fegley 

8.  The  Use  of  Stained  Glass  in  Ecclesiastical  Ar- 

chitecture -  -  -  -  -  159 

The  Rev.  Prof.  Elmer  F.  Krauss,  D.  D. 

9.  Sacred  Monograms — The  Chrisma  and  the  Holy 

Name  .-...-  169 

The  Rev.  Edwin  F.  Keever 


Vol.  III. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  lyORD'S  SUPPER 
IN  DIFFERENT  AGES  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


The  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  described  by  the  sjaiop- 
tists  and  by  St.  Paul.  The  latter,  who  received  the  revelation 
from  the  Lord,  gives  the  fullest  account.  We  have  therefore 
the  firm  historic  basis  of  inspired  Scripture  for  the  account  of  the 
institution,  whilst  that  which  pertains  to  the  subsequent  history 
and  the  churchly  development  of  its  doctrine  and  forms  of  admin- 
istration is  shrouded  in  considerable  obscurity. 

It  was  on  the  night  of  the  betrayal,  in  the  large  upper  room 
in  Jerusalem,  in  the  presence  of  the  eleven  disciples,  that  the  Lord 
instituted  the  Supper.  It  followed  immediately  upon  the  paschal 
meal.  The  elements  used  were  the  unleavened  bread  and  the 
wine  upon  the  table  at  the  time.  The  apostles  reclined  about  the 
table  according  to  the  custom  at  meals.  The  Lord  took  the 
bread,  gave  thanks,  brake  it  and  distributed  to  the  disciples.  As 
to  its  nature  and  use.  He  said,  "Take,  eat;  this  is  My  Body,  which 
is  given  for  you;  this  do  in  remembrance  of  Me."  "After  the 
same  manner,  also,  when  He  had  supped.  He  took  the  cup,  and 
when  He  had  given  thanks,  He  gave  it  to  them,  saying.  Drink 
ye  all  of  it;  this  cup  is  the  New  Testament  in  My  Blood,  which 
is  shed  for  j'ou,  and  for  many,  for  the  remission  of  sins;  this  do, 
as  oft  as  ye  drink  it,  in  remembrance  of  Me."  Doubtless  all  the 
eleven  ate  and  drank  of  it.  Having  fiu-ther  instructed  them  that 
through  such  participation  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  the  True 
Passover,  each  believing  communicant  had  a  foretaste  of  that 
feast  when  he  should  eat  and  drink  with  Him  in  the  Father's 
Kingdom,  they  sang  a  hymn  and  went  to  the  Mount  of  Olives. 

Great  simplicity  marked  the  administration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  in  the  first  Christian  congregation  in  Jerusalem.  The  ser- 
vices of  the  Church  were  homiletical  or  sacramental.  The  service 
of  the  Word  was  of  a  popular  and  missionary  character,  and  was 


2  MKMOIRS, 

even  held  in  the  temple  or  in  Jewish  synagogues  and  usually  in 
the  morning.  The  sacramental  services  at  the  first  took  place  in 
the  evening  and  usually  in  the  close  circle  of  the  Church  alone,  all 
others  being  dismissed.  When  the  services  were  held  in  one 
place  the  first  part  was  the  Missa  Catechumenorum,  the  second, 
the  Missa  Fidelium.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  there  ap- 
peared a  growing  tendency  to  separate  the  services  of  the  Word 
and  of  the  Sacrament.  The  former,  whose  forms  were  contained 
in  the  Breviary,  became  more  and  more  the  distinct  type  of  ser- 
vice for  monastics.  The  sacramental,  especially  the  eucharistic, 
whose  forms  were  embraced  in  the  Missal,  became  the  special 
service  for  the  people,  and  preaching  the  Word  fell  into  disuse. 
The  importance  of  the  homiletic  services  was  recognized  by  the 
Reformers,  and  these  were  again  restored  to  their  proper  place. 

From  the  earliest  period,  probably  in  imitation  of  the  paschal 
meal  which  preceded  its  institution,  there  was  combined  with  the 
Supper  the  "Agape"  or  I^ove  Feast.  The  Eucharist  afforded 
the  believers  fellowship  with  their  I^ord;  the  Agapse  were  of  a 
social  nature,  showing  the  fraternity  and  fellowship  among  be- 
lievers. Much  obscurity  still  hangs  about  this  institution.  But 
it  is  clear  that  the  Agape  was  closely  associated  with  and  com- 
bined in  form  with  the  Eucharist.  In  the  parent  congregation  at 
Jerusalem  they  had  a  community  of  goods,  they  assembled  daily 
in  the  temple  and  from  house  to  house  did  eat  their  bread.  They 
were  a  new  spiritual /«;;///>'.  What  more  appropriate  than  to  eat 
at  a  common  table?  At  their  meetings  the  Word  was  read 
and  prayers  made.  Oblations  (offerings)  of  common  bread  and 
wdne  were  brought.  After  Thanksgiving  and  the  Kiss  of  Peace, 
they  joyfully  ate  the  common  meal.  When  this  was  done  the 
leader  took  the  bread,  gave  thanks,  brake  and  gave,  or  assisted 
by  the  deacons,  divided  it  and  the  cup  among  the  people. 

The  Agape  is  mentioned  in  Jude  1 2 .  But  St .  Paul  already 
refers  to  it  in  i  Cor.  11,  and  seeks  to  correct  certain  abuses,  as 
that  "Each  took  before  other,"  (perhaps  the  rich  before  the 
poor)  or  that  of  excess  in  eating  and  drinking,  whereby  they 
were  in  danger  of  forgetting  the  Sacrament  connected  therewith. 
Paul  did  not  propose  to  abolish  the  Agape  but  to  correct  its  abuse 
as  he  did  in  reference  to  the  homiletical  services  in  the  same  con- 
gregation . 

The  whole  service  is  sometimes  called  the  Eucharist,   some- 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THK   LORD'S   SUPPER.  3 

times  the  Agape.  The  Didache  includes  the  Agape  in  the  de- 
scription of  the  lyord's  Supper.  The  Epistle  of  Ignatius  shows 
that  they  were  celebrated  together  if  not  combined  in  one  form. 
Probably  the  customs  differed  in  the  several  churches.  Justin 
Martyr  (ob.  165)  vrlio  gives  the  earliest  description  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  makes  no  mention  of  the  Agape.  He  says,  "On  Sunday 
all  gather  in  one  place,  the  memoirs  of  the  Apostles  are  read,  the 
president  instructs  and  verbally  exhorts  to  the  imitation  of  these 
good  things.  Then  all  arise  together  and  pray.  After  praj-er 
bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought,  praj^ers  and  thanksgivings 
are  offered,  the  people  responding  Amen.  There  is  a  distribution 
and  participation  by  all  present  and  a  portion  is  sent  to  the  ab- 
sent. The  offerings  are  taken  and  deposited  with  the  president 
who  succors  the  orphans,  widows,  destitute  and  strangers  among 
us." 

St.  Paul's  rebuke  of  the  Corinthian  Church  implies  that  the 
social  meal  or  Agape  was  combined  with  the  Eucharist.  To 
avoid  abuses,  he  teaches  them  to  eat  at  home  and  to  meet  in  the 
church  for  the  Divine  Service  and  Sacrament.  This  rebuke,  to- 
gether with  the  edict  of  Trajan  against  strange  religions,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  subordination  of  the  Agape.  A  further 
step  is  observed  in  Justin  who  tells  us  that  the  Sacrament  was 
transferred  to  the  Sunday  morning  service.  The  Agape  was 
doubtless  continued  as  the  evening  social  or  charitable  feast  of 
Christians.  At  Alexandria  it  was  still  connected  with  or  fol- 
lowed the  Eucharist  in  the  third  centur}'.  Its  final  stages  were 
reached  when  the  Agapse  were  prohibited  in  the  churches,  and  at 
last  were  altogether  suppressed  by  the  second  Trull  an  Council, 
A.  D.  692.  This  was  necessar}-  that  the  Lord's  Institution  might 
retain  its  proper  place  and  meaning. 

We  have  a  description  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  administered 
in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries:  "After  the  common  homiletical 
service  and  dismissal  of  all  but  the  faithful,  the  deacons  gather 
the  oblations  of  bread  and  wine.  One  loaf  is  selected  as  the 
'hostia.'  Then  follows  the  Kiss  of  Peace,  the  clergy  wash  their 
hands,  the  bread  and  wine  are  placed  on  the  altar,  a  subdeacon 
stands  at  each  end  with  fan  in  hand  to  keep  off  the  flies,  the  robed 
bishop  and  priests  approach.  Then  follows  a  long  General  Prayer 
and  special  supplications  for  various  estates  and  conditions,  the 
thirty-fourth  Psalm  is  sung,  after  which,  first  the  clergy,  then  the 


4  MEMOIRS. 

congregation  receive  the  Sacrament . ' '  The  simple  primitive  forms 
of  administration  gave  way  to  various  and  divergent  enlargements 
called  lyiturgies,  which,  though  often  incorrectly,  were  ascribed 
to  Apostles  or  celebrated  Church  Fathers.  There  are  many  de- 
tails which  need  to  be  mentioned  to  complete  the  history- . 

Ancient  paintings  represent  the  priest  consecrating  the  ele- 
ments laid  upon  the  altar,  b}'  extending  both  hands  over  them 
and  doubtless  using  the  words  of  institution. 

Originally  the  Communion  was  celebrated  every  day,  then 
every  Sunda5^  Later  it  was  restricted  to  the  three  great  festivals 
and  at  the  Lateran  Council,  12 15,  the  minimum  was  fixed  at  the 
Easter  Communion. 

The  people  prepared  themselves  by  fasting,  ablutions,  dress- 
ing in  clean  clothes  and  the  Kiss  of  Peace.  In  earliest  times  the 
deacons  distributed  to  the  people,  later  the  people  approached  the 
altar,  two  by  two,  and  received  the  elements  standing  (Apost. 
Const.).  Afterward  the  women,  then  the  men,  were  excluded 
from  the  altar  and  choir  and  the  elements  were  handed  to  them 
over  the  rail  which  separated  the  choir  from  the  nave .  In  earlier 
periods  the  bread  was  received  with  the  hand,  then  it  was  put 
into  the  mouth  in  order  to  prevent  the  people  from  taking  it  home 
for  superstitious  purposes.  Kneeling  does  not  occur  till  the 
twelfth  centtury. 

The  Eastern  Church  continued  the  use  of  leavened  bread 
whilst  the  Western  Church,  referring  to  the  circumstances  at  the 
institution,  began  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. The  wine  was  commonly  mixed  with  water  with  no  dis- 
tinction between  red  and  white. 

By  heretical  sects  various  substitutes  were  used  for  wine,  as 
water,  milk,  hone}^,  unfermented  grape  juice.  The  breaking  of 
the  bread  in  the  consecration  was  the  general  custom  and  has  been 
retained  b}^  all  except  the  Lutheran  Church  which  rejects  it  as  a 
protest  against  the  symbolizing  tendency.  Sometimes  the  bread 
was  dipped  into  the  wine,  and  the  Greek  Church  even  drops  the 
bread  into  the  wine  and  offers  it  by  means  of  a  spoon,  to  the 
communicants. 

Since  the  third  century  children  were  admitted  to  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Cyprian  approves  of  this  custom  and  implies  that  it 
was  common.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions  and  Augustine  also 
mention  it. 


THU    AD^IINISTRATION    OF   THE    I^ORD'S   SUPPER.  5 

The  form  of  celebration  developed  in  the  Greek  Church  dif- 
fers from  the  Roman.  It  is  more  symbolical,  representing  the 
Lord's  passion.  Five  loaves  are  laid  on  the  altar.  The  priest 
selects  one,  pierces  it  with  a  lance,  while  the  deacon  pours  wine 
and  water  into  the  cup,  Amid  solemn  dirges,  with  lighted  can- 
dles and  burning-  incense,  the  elements  are  borne  through  the 
church,  and  then  back  to  the  altar  and  placed  like  the  bod}-  of 
Christ  in  the  tomb.  A  curtain  is  lovv'ered  before  the  altar, 
unseen,  the  bishop,  with  an  invocation  of  the  Hoty  Ghost,  conse- 
crates the  elements.  When  the  curtain  is  raised,  the  altar  repre- 
sents the  tomb  from  which  Christ  is  arisen.  Vv^hile  the  choir 
sings  a  hj^mn  of  praise,  the  elements  are  distributed  without  any 
special  formula. 

The  Roman  rite  displays  (if  possible)  a  still  Vv^ider  diver- 
gence from  the  original  institution.  The  name  "oblation"  or 
offering  was  indeed  from  the  first  applied  to  the  people's  gifts  of 
bread  and  wine.  When  the  idea  of  a  Christian  priesthood,  so 
earnestly  advocated  b}'  Cyprian,  came  into  vogue,  the  other  re- 
lated idea  of  a  sacrifice  also  appeared.  The  consecrated  elements 
Vv'ere  offered  to  God  as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  sin.  Gregorj^ 
the  Great,  (A.  D.  590),  saw  a  sacrificial  victim  in  the  bread  on 
the  altar.  Masses  began  to  be  offered  for  the  dead,  who  could 
thus  be  delivered  from  purgatory,  and  magical  effects  also  were 
claimed.  Thus  the  Eucharist  was  divided.  The  congregational 
Communion  began  to  be  overshadowed  by  the  sacrificial  mass, 
which  was  celebrated  with  more  than  apostolic  frequency  and 
often  privately.  The  thirteenth  century  brought  radical  changes. 
Transubstantiation  was  fixed  in  the  Lateran  Council,  12 15,  as  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church.  Thomas  Aquinas  taught  that  the  Sacra- 
ment is  consummated  in  the  act  of  consecration,  according  to  the 
intention  of  the  priest,  not  in  the  Communion  of  believers.  The 
mass  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  whose  benefits  extend  to  the  ab- 
sent and  to  the  dead.  The  Council  of  Trent  established  these 
doctrines  in  all  their  baldness.  So  far  as  the  Eucharist  is  a  sac- 
rifice, it  is  the  sole  act  of  the  priest,  who  is  a  mediator  between 
God  and  the  congregation .  The  words  of  consecration  are  spoken 
in  Eatin  in  an  undertone  and  addressed  to  the  elements.  When 
the  priest  speaks  the  words,  "This  is  My  Body,"  he  bows  his 
knees  and  prays  to  the  Christ  who  is  present  in  the  host,  and 
shows  it  to  the  people  wlio  ma}'  also  adore  it.     Likewise  with  the 


h 


MEMOIRS. 


cup.  This  is  the  elevation  and  adoration  of  the  host.  The  priest 
then  communicates  and  distributes  to  the  people,  if  any  are 
present. 

Fear  that  the  consecrated  wine  might  be  spilt,  afforded  the 
pretext  for  withholding  the  cup  from  the  laity  at  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  real  motive  being  a  purpose  to 
elevate  the  priesthood.  Even  before  this,  we  meet  with  the 
occasional  use  of  gold  or  silver  tubes  for  taking  the  wine.  The 
Commiinio  sub  unaque  was  further  supported  by  the  scholastic 
invention  of  the  doctrine  of  Concomitance. 

The  doctrine  of  the  lyord's  Supper  decidedly  affects  its  ad- 
ministration .  Consequently  in  those  branches  of  the  Protestant 
Church  in  which  the  Supper  is  viewed  as  only  a  memorial,  little 
importance  attaches  to  the  manner  of  its  administration  and  the 
Sacrament  itself  falls  into  neglect.  There  is  a  wide  divergence 
of  method  between  those  branches  that  are  rooted  in  the  past  and 
the  growths  of  recent  days.  Where  the  spiritualizing  tendencies 
are  very  marked,  the  objective  means  of  grace  are  but  lightly  es- 
teemed. The  Quakers  have  no  sacraments,  and  many  others  are 
in  danger  of  losing  theirs,  even  if  their  false  doctrine  had  not 
already  practically  destroyed  them. 

We  will  close  with  a  brief  excirrsus  upon  the  Essentials  of  a 
Proper  Administration. 

1.  The  presence  of  the  congregation  which  believes  the 
lyOrd'  s  promise  and  is  assembled  in  Plis  Name  to  do  according 
to  His  appointment,  is  necessary  for  the  consummation  of  the 
Communion.  The  minister  is  but  the  organ  of  the  congregation, 
which  blesses  the  elements  and  receives  the  Communion.  The 
validity  of  the  Sacrament  does  not  depend  upon  the  intention  of 
the  ministrant,  as  Rome  erroneously  teaches,  nor  upon  the  faith 
of  the  individual  recipient,  nor  upon  the  exact  and  literal  repeti- 
tion of  the  words  of  institution,  but  only  upon  this,  that  it  is  an 
act  of  the  Christian  congregation,  performed  according  to  the  in- 
tention and  appointment  of  Christ,  in  faith  in  His  Word  and  for 
the  purpose  of  its  institution.  "No  human  work  nor  any  decla- 
ration by  the  minister  of  the  Church  can  effect  the  presence  of 
the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  in  the  Sacrament,  but  only  the 
omnipotent  power  and  grace  of  the  lyord  Jesus  Christ." 

2.  With  reference  to  the  elements,  bread  and  wine  are  es- 
sential according  to  the  Lord's  institution.     Christ  without  doubt 


THK    ADMINISTRATION   OF   THB    LORD'S   SUPP:eR.  7 

used  the  unleavened  passover  bread.  The  ancient  Church,  how- 
ever, used  the  common  leavened  bread.  The  kind  of  bread  used, 
the  breaking  of  bread  in  the  consecration,  whether  the  wine  is 
red  or  white,  pure  or  mingled  with  water,  whether  the  elements 
are  received  by  the  hand  or  mouth,  whether  the  communicants 
stand,  sit  or  kneel,  are  adiaphora. 

3.  The  elements  are  to  be  used  onlj'  according  to  Christ's 
appointment,  that  is,  they  are  to  be  consecrated  and  distributed. 
Augustine's  famous  dictum, — Accedit  verbuni  ad  elcmenhini  et 
Jit  sacramentum ,  is  defective.  This  would  make  it  a  Sacrament 
without  its  distribution  and  for  other  uses  than  that  of  its  insti- 
tution. It  needs  to  be  supplemented  by  the  words  of  Luther  and 
the  Formula  of  Concord, — Nihil  habet  rationem  sacrainenti  extra 
7isum  a  Christo  institutum  seu  extra  actionem  divinities  institutani. 
Reqiiiritiir  consecratio  seu  verba  institiitionis ,  distributio  et  snmptio. 

According  to  ancient  custom  the  consecration  is  by  the  sol- 
emn recitation  of  the  verba  testamenti.  With  this  was  combined 
the  Lord's  Praj^er  as  the  filial  and  fraternal  petition  for  the  sanc- 
tificatipn  of  the  congregation,  but  it  does  not  possess  the  nature 
nor  has  it  the  design  of  a  consecratory  prayer  and  its  proper  place 
is  after  the  Words  of  Institution. 

While  there  is  no  sacrament  and  no  promise  of  Christ  without 
the  distribution,  we  must  nevertheless,  view  the  consecration  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  act  and  of  the  command,  "This  do."  By  the 
explanatory-  addition  "which  we  bless"  (i  Cor.  10:  16),  the 
Apostle  gives  special  emphasis  to  the  consecration  through  which 
the  cup  is  set  apart  to  become  the  "Communion  of  the  Blood  of 
Christ."  Hence  we  must  regard  it  as  an  essential,  and  the  words 
of  institution  should  never  be  omitted.  The  plural  form  shows 
that  it  is  the  act  of  the  whole  congregation,  which  also  indicates 
its  participation  and  assent  by  its  Amen.  By  the  consecration, 
the  bread  and  wine  are  separated  from  the  ordinary  sphere  of 
natural  gifts  for  bodily  nourishment,  and  are  transferred  into  the 
service  of  Christ  for  the  application  of  the  gifts  of  redemption. 

"The  true  consecration,"  saj^s  Gerhard,  "does  not  alone  con- 
sist in  the  recitation  of  those  four  words,  ''Hoc  est  corpus  i?ieui?i,'* 
but  in  this,  that  we  do  as  Christ  did,  that  is,  that  we  bless,  dis- 
tribute and  receive  the  bread  and  wine  as  He  appointed."  This 
is  the  chief  thing  in  the  Sacrament.  For  it  the  other  acts  are 
but  a  preparation.     The  givi?ig  and  receiving  are  always  neces- 


o  MEMOIRS. 

sary,  while  the  mode  of  giving  and  receiving  is  left  in  the  sphere 
of  the  Church's  liberty. 

Not  so  Vv'eighty,  but  still  of  great  importance  is  the  formula 
of  distribution.  Here  the  aim  must  be,  not  only  to  promote  pious 
feelings  in  the  heart,  but  to  speak  for  Christ  Who  gives,  and  in 
His  Name  to  assure  the  penitent  and  believing  communicant  that 
to  him  belong  the  full  benefits  of  the  broken  Body  and  the  shed 
Blood  of  his  gracious  Lord  and  Savior.  Here  the  Church  should 
give  unequivocal  expression  of  its  faith,  as  the  Oriental,  Roman 
and  Lutheran  Churches  do  in  the  use  of  the  ancient  formula  of 
distribution,  "The  Body  of  Christ,  the  Blood  of  Christ,  the  cup 
of  life." 

G.    S.    SUAMAN. 

Homestead,  Pa. 


THE    LITURGICAI,  HISTORY  OF  CONFIRMATION. 


Just  as  the  character  of  the  works  manifests  the  nature  of  the 
faith  which  produces  them,  and  as  the  objective  factors  of  wor- 
ship are  but  the  outward  expression  of  the  real  Hfe  of  devotion 
itself,  so  also  any  liturgical  observance  is  ever  the  outgrowth  or 
embodiment  of  a  corresponding  doctrinal  view.  Therefore  the 
history  of  any  liturgy  or  part  of  it,  is  the  history  of  the  doctrine 
out  of  which  it  has  grown  and  which  is  its  life  and  spirit.  To 
trace  the  liturgical  history  of  Confirmation,  is  almost  impossible 
without  tracing  at  the  same  time  the  views  which  the  Church 
has  held  concerning  this  rite. 

The  custom  of  Confirmation  has  its  beginnings  in  the  early 
days  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  while  many  outward  conditions 
have  changed  since  then,  there  is  still  much  in  the  catechum.enate 
and  subsequent  Confirmation  of  the  present  day  that  is  closely 
connected  with  the  customs  of  the  first  few  centuries.  It  need 
hardly  to  be  stated  here  that  in  the  early  days,  catechisation  pre- 
ceded baptism,  as  the  accessions  to  the  church  were  principally 
through  adults.  It  is  this  fact  however,  that  accounts  for  the 
catechetical  observances  of  that  period.  In  early  Apostolic  days, 
the  instruction  was  confined  to  that  which  was  absolutely  essen- 
tial, and  baptism,  whether  of  adults  or  of  infants,  represented  full 
entrance  and  admission  into  the  Church  of  Christ,  without  any 
additional  ceremonies.  As  the  missionary  activities  of  the  Church 
extended  and  Christianity  came  into  contact  with  Hellenic  culture 
and  Roman  power,  with  philosophic  thought  and  heretical  doc- 
trine, adults  of  all  descriptions  entered  the  catechumenate,  and 
these  needed  both  instruction  and  refutation  by  argument.  Dur- 
ing this  period,  which  Zockler  calls  that  of  the  Ancient  Church, 
the  catechumenate  consisted  of  two  distinct  periods:  the  actual 
catechumenate  or  period  of  instruction,  lasting  about  two  years, 
and  the  period  of  immediate  preparation  by  fasting  and  prayer. 

(ix) 


10  MKMOIRS. 

During  the  former  period  the  aspirants  for  baptism  were  called 
KaTrjxov/xevot,  catecJucineni,  or  catechumens;  during  the  latter,  ^wn^- 
o/xevot,  competentes,  i.  e.  eligibles.  A  further  distinction  was  made 
as  to  their  participation  in  the  services  of  the  church.  During 
the  catechumenate  (of  the  first  stage)  they  were  distinguished  as 
dKpo(i)fjia'oi,  aziditores,  or  hearers,  and  yow  kXlvovtcs,  genii  fledentes, 
or  kneelers,  i.  e.  such  as  had  the  privilege  of  joining  in  the 
prayers.  While  they  were  known  as  hearers,  they  had  only  the 
privilege  of  listening  to  the  sermon  and  were  required  to  withdraw 
.before  the  acts  of  prayer  and  the  administration  of  the  L,ord's 
Supper.  There  are  still  extant,  the  acts  of  consecration  by  which 
the  hearers  were  set  aside  as  fellow- worshipers,  genu  JJede?ites, 
and  were  known  specifically  as  catechumens.  Frequently  the 
transition  from  the  first  stage  to  the  second  was  immediate,  but 
separate  acts  of  consecration  were  in  use  for  the  two  stages,  as 
well  as  a  special  prayer  for  the  gam  fledejites  after  the  dismissal 
of  the  midientes  from  the  public  services.  In  these  acts  of  conse- 
cration or  setting  apart,  we  must  find  the  beginnings  of  the  rite 
of  Confirmation. 

When  the  period  of  the  genu  fledentia  was  passed,  i.  e.  after 
the  two  years  of  the  catechumenate,  the  genu  fledentes  were  set 
apart  as  competentes  or  eligibles,  by  a  special  act  of  prayer  and 
benediction,  occurring  directly  after  the  sermon.  The  final  stage, 
that  of  competentia,  was  passed  in  special  prayer-meetings  in 
which  according  to  the  custom  of  the  times,  exorcism  was  repeat- 
edly practiced.  The  congregation  was  entitled  to  take  part  in 
these  meetings  for  prayer  and  as  they  usually  occurred  in  the 
Quadragesima  before  Easter,  they  were  for  all  a  time  of  earnest 
fasting  and  contrition,  known  as  the  i^oixoXoyrjai's,  confessio,  period 
of  confession.  This  shows  us  a  grand  feature  of  the  life  of  the 
early  Church,  for  the  preparation  for  baptism  or  ingrafting  into 
the  body  of  Christ,  took  place  in  the  verj^  midst  of  the  congrega- 
tion and  was  accompanied  by  the  devotional  acts  of  all.  This 
meant  especially  much  for  the  competentes,  for  while  they  could 
not  take  part  in  the  celebration  of  the  Mass  like  those  baptized 
(this  was  the  period  of  liturgical  growth  and  establishment,  con- 
sequently also  of  the  Mass  Service)  they  learned  to  look  forward 
to  higher  mj^steries  and  higher  honors.  This  gave  them  a  grad- 
ual participation  in  the  liturgical  acts  of  the  worship  and  a  special 
system  of  prayers,  while  also  their  names  were  already  entered 


THE    UTl'RGICAL    HISTORY    OF    CONFIRMATION.  11 

upon  the  lists  of  the  congregation.  The  Hturgical  acts  mentioned, 
took  place  during  the  period  directly  before  baptism  and  while 
they  were  learning  the  formulated  "sums"  of  doctrine  by  heart, 
and  occurred  in  the  public  services  during  the  service  of  the  Mass 
proper,  and  they  were  called  in  from  time  to  time,  for  the  partici- 
pation in  these  litiu"gical  acts.  The  acts  themselves  were  called 
''scnttmjes"  and  formed  a  beautiful  parallel  to  the  periods  of  cate- 
chumenate  passed  through.  The  first  scrutiny  was  the  signatio 
crucis  or  marking  with  the  cross.  Bj'  it  they  had  once  been  re- 
ceived as  hearers.  By  it  now  they  were  reminded  of  the  real  im- 
port of  the  Xpio-Tiavovs  TToieiaOai,  the  becoming  Christians.  The 
second  scrutiny  was  the  laying  on  of  hands  and  corresponded  to 
the  second  period  of  the  catechumen  ate,  the  specific  Karrjxpvixevov^ 
TToiiiadat  or  becoming  catechumens.  Exorcism  and  pra3^er  accom- 
panied these  acts  and  in  many  of  our  Lutheran  orders  the  same 
pra3-ers  are  still  used  for  the  same  acts  in  baptism.  The  signing 
with  the  cross  signified  the  negative  moment  of  renouncing  the 
devil,  etc.,  by  removal  from  heathenism,  and  the  laying  on  of 
hands  the  positive  moment,  corresponding  to  the  rearing  in  the 
faith  and  bearing  the  promise  of  God's  mercy  and  hearing  of 
pra3-er.  Corresponding  to  the  two  principal  subjects  of  the  in- 
struction the  baptismal  sj'mbol,  traditio  symboli,  and  the  Lord's 
prayer,  trad,  orationis  dominiccs,  were  now  formally  and  solemnly 
delivered  to  them.  Then  followed  the  scrutiny  in  which  an  ex- 
press deliverance  of  the  key  to  the  understanding  of  Scriptures 
was  made  in  a  special  act,  officiuin  quattiior  evangeliorum  or  evan- 
gelista7-iun.  Finally,  in  the  last  scrutiny  came  the  act  of  baptism 
itself,  hedged  in  with  sj-mbolico-liturgical  acts.  With  all  this 
rich  development  of  liturgical  forms,  the  practices  of  the  catechu- 
men ate  were  far  from  being  formal.  The  very  fact  of  such  a 
long  catechumenate  showed  that  the  Church  was  not  eager  for 
promiscuous  reception  of  members  and  while  great  stress  was  laid 
upon  the  foundation  of  a  true  Christian  character,  individual  free- 
dom was  guarded  to  such  an  extent  that  manj'  catechumens 
deferred  their  baptism  until  their  time  of  death,  for  fear  of  the 
greater  re.'-ponsibility  devolving  upon  them  in  the  datio  nominis 
at  the  time  of  entering  the  competcnfia.  Special  emphasis  was 
laid  on  the  remintiaiio  before  baptism  and  in  all  the  acts  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  catechumenate  denoted  the  training  of  a  real  Chris- 
tian   life  almost   to    the   exclusion    of  the  theoretico-douniatical 


12  MEMOIRS. 

element,  and  that  liturgical  functions  served  to  impress  this  fact 
while  they  were  the  logical  crown  of  the  work  of  the  stages  pre- 
ceding them. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  much  of  the  character  of  the  catechu- 
menate_was  lost,  while  the  liturgical  acts  were  retained  and  de- 
veloped. The  soil  was  the  Teutonic  world  with  its  individually- 
ethic  propensities.  The  Church  herself  maintained  herself  on  the 
basis  of  her  traditions.  Infant  baptism  became  almost  universal. 
The  task  of  missions  among  uncivilized  races,  favored  a  catechu- 
menate  of  masses,  and  compulsion,  not  free  choice,  was  often  its 
characteristic.  It  was  during  this  period  that  Confirmation  as 
such  became  a  distinct  and  separate  rite  and  was  finally  declared 
to  be  a  sacrament.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Tertullian,  baptism 
is  described  as  consisting  of  three  parts,  viz.,  baptism  itself, 
anointing  with  the  holy  oil,  and  the  laying  on  of  hands.  The  last 
act  is  said  to  bring  down  the  blessings  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  con- 
sequently to  be  the  culmination  of  the  whole  act.  The  unity  of 
the  three  moments  (or  acts)  is  dependent  upon  the  person  of  the 
bishop.  As  the  hierarchical  system  was  more  developed,  while 
the  administration  of  baptism  was  permitted  to  the  lower  clergy 
and  others,  the  laying  on  of  hands  was  regarded  as  the  special 
privilege  and  function  of  the  bishop.  This  gave  to  the  laying  on 
of  hands  a  sort  of  sacramental  character,  against  which  Jerome 
and  Augustine  inveighed  in  vain.  The  fact  remained,  that  the 
child  which  had  been  baptized,  needed  a  still  higher  blessing,  and 
this  was  bestowed  in  Confirmation.  In  the  time  of  Innocence  I. 
we  meet  with  a  distinction  between  the  anointing  at  baptism  and 
that  at  Confirmation.  The  special  importance  gradually  given  to 
Confirmation  was  due  to  the  hierarchical  interests  of  the  clergy, 
and  the  episcopal  act  of  Confirmation  was  finally  declared  a  sac- 
rament at  the  synods  of  Lj-ons  (1274)  ^^'^^  Florence  (1439).  This 
sacrament  is  the  second  in  order  in  the  Roman  Church.  As  to 
its  object  it  is  called  Confirmation,  as  to  its  success  sigillum  or 
consignatio  (sealing),  as  to  its  matter  r/'r/.r;;m  (anointing),  as  to 
its  form  impositio  manuum.  It  is  accompanied  by  a  host  of  for- 
malities. As  to  its  effect  it  is  said  to  bestow  the  Holy  Ghost  as 
an  aiigmenhim  and  firmitas  jiistitice,  as  an  armor  in  the  battle  of 
life,  and  in  opposition  to  baptism  as  an  entrance  into  the  real  ac- 
tivity of  the  g7-atia  gratum  faciens .  This  sacrament  is  not  strict- 
ly necessary;  but  as  giving  a  character  it  can  not  be  repeated.     The 


THE    IvlTURGICAIv   HISTORY    OF   CONFIRMATION.  13 

Greek  Church  considers  Confirmation  a  sacrament  as  does  the 
Roman;  but  this  is  administered  by  any  priest  and  immediately' 
after  baptism,  thus  retaining  ancient  tradition  and  later  develop- 
ment in  unmitigated  contradiction. 

Of  all  the  ancient  rites  of  the  Church  none  met  with  such 
opposition  at  the  hands  of  the  Reformers  as  that  of  Confirmation. 
It  was  not  only  considered  that  there  was  too  little  Scriptural  au- 
thority for  it,  but  what  was  more,  there  was  so  much  unscriptur- 
al  and  even  superstitious  ceremonial  connected  with  it,  that  it 
was  thrown  overboard  with  other  Romish  rites  and  institutions  as 
being  equall}-  harmful.  This  being  the  general  view  among  the 
Reformers,  very  few  Kirchenordnungen  of  the  earlier  reconstruc- 
tion period  of  the  Reformation  contain  any  provisions  for  its 
observance.  Later  on  a  few  KOO  purified  the  rite  from  objec- 
tionable features  and  retained  it.  While  the  Lutheran  church 
hesitated  between  the  objections  to  the  Romish  style  of  Confirma- 
tion and  the  necessity  of  a  regulation  for  the  admittance  to  the 
Lord's  Supper  of  only  approved  persons,  they  began  to  see  the 
practical  utility  as  well  as  the  churchly  suitability  of  a  pure  rite 
of  Confirmation.  During  the  subsequent  times  of  the  Interim, 
so  many  compromises  were  made  with  Rome,  that  anything  orig- 
inating in  this  period  was  regarded  with  suspicion  bj'  strict  Lu- 
therans. The  disturbances  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  interfered 
so  largely  with  all  education  and  also  catechetical  instruction, 
that  during  this  tim.e  nothing  was  done.  When  the  Pietistic 
movement  brought  about  a  revival  of  religious  activity,  Confir- 
mation too,  received  more  attention  and  gradually  won  its  way  in 
every  land  until  it  became  an  institution  dear  to  all  Lutherans 
and  held  in  honor,  not  as  a  divine  institution,  but  as  a  most 
efficient  churchly  rite. 

Luther,  as  early  as  1522,  in  his  sermon  on  Matrimony,  in 
speaking  of  the  Roman  rite  of  Confirmation  (Firmelung)  calls  it 
an  apish  foolery  and  a  play  of  lies.  He  concedes  that  we  may 
confirm,  if  we  maintain  the  rite  as  a  human  ordinance.  He 
proves  from  Titus  3:  5,  that  the  Apostle  does  not  recognize  a 
sacrament  of  Confirmation,  but  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is  bestowed 
in  baptism.  Melanchthon  refers  to  the  examination  of  doctrine 
made  in  olden  times  and  says  it  was  a  custom  most  useful  for  the 
instruction  of  men  and  for  distinguishing  between  the  evil  and 
the  pious,     "After  this,"  he  says,  "public  prayer  was  made  and 


14  MEMOIRS. 

the  Apostles  laid  their  hands  upon  them  and  thus  the  manifest 
gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  were  bestowed.  But  now  the  rite  of  Con- 
firmation of  the  Bishops  is  an  empty  ceremony.  But  it  would  be 
useful  that  an  examination  and  confession  of  doctrine  be  made 
and  public  prayer  for  the  confessors,  nor  would  this  prayer  be 
without  avail."  The  Augsburg  Confession  rejects  Confirmation 
as  a  sacrament  by  implication,  the  Apology  and  the  Smalcald 
Articles  expressly.  (Apol.  Chap.  7,  6  and  S.  Art.  App.  Pt.  II. 
73.)  At  the  Ratisbon  Colloquium,  Melanchthon,  Bucer  and 
Pistorius  proposed  (1541)  "That  Confirmation  comprise  remind- 
ing, admonition,  prayer,  blessing  and  thanksgiving  and  be  ad- 
ministered only  to  those  of  suflBcient  age,  who  had  been  well 
instructed  before  their  first  approach  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Thus 
constituted,  they  could  and  would  readil}-  consent  that  it  be  re- 
tained, and  also  allow  the  imposition  of  hands  and  the  use  of  the 
sign  of  the  cross  in  the  blessing,  as  both  these  were  unobjectiona- 
ble observances  and  might  suggest  many  good  thoughts."  In 
the  Wittenberg  Reformation  (1545)  prepared  by  Melanchthon, 
assisted  by  Caspar  Cruciger  and  George  Major  with  L,uther's  ap- 
proval, demand  was  made  for  a  thus  purified  order  of  Confirma- 
tion and  provision  made  for  its  observance. 

At  the  Augsburg  Interim  (1548)  Confirmation  was  declared 
a  sacrament,  its  necessity  conceded  and  the  apostolic  institution 
of  it  and  the  right  of  bishops  alone  to  administer  it,  were  main- 
tained. To  this  the  lyUtherans  objected  vigorously  and  at  last  at 
the  Council  of  Trent,  L,utheran  Confirmation  was  condemned. 
Naturally  the  lyUtheran  theologians  defended  themselves  and 
among  much  written  at  that  period,  nothing  sets  forth  the  Luther- 
an position  so  clearly  as  Martin  Chemnitz'  statements  in  his  Exam- 
en  Concilii  T^'identini  (Pt.  2  L,.  3  De  Confirrnatione^ .  He  declares 
there  that  the  lyUtherans,  after  freeing  the  rite  from  all  supersti- 
tions and  useless  superstructure,  insist  on  a  thorough  indoctrina- 
tion of  the  catechumens  after  which  they  are  to  be  presented  to 
the  bishop  and  the  Church.  Then  follows  first,  the  admonition 
concerning  the  efficacy  of  holy  baptism  and  the  sealing  of  the 
promises  therein  b}^  the  entire  Trinity,  by  which  act  was  included 
a  renunciation  of  Satan,  a  profession  of  faith  and  a  promise  of 
obedience.  Second,  by  the  catechumen  himself,  a  personal  pub- 
lic profession  of  this  doctrine  and  faith.  Third,  a  thorough  ex- 
amination in  doctrine.     Fourth,  an  admonition  that  this  implies  a 


THE   LITURGICAL    HISTORY   OF    CONFIRMATION.  15 

dissent  from  all  heathen,  heretical,  fanatical  and  unholy  opinions. 
Fifth,  a  weighty  exhortation  to  persevere  in  the  baptismal  cove- 
nant. Sixth,  public  prayer,  that  God  should  be  pleased  bj-  His 
Holy  Spirit  to  govern,  preserve,  and  confirm  them  in  this  profes- 
sion. To  this  prayer  might  be  added  the  imposition  of  hands, 
without  any  superstition.      (Schmucker.) 

The  Catechism  was  adopted  in  all  Lutheran  lands  and  church- 
es. There  was  a  diligent  instruction  of  those  admitted  for  the 
first  time  to  the  Lord' s  Supper  and  a  careful  examination  of  their 
preparation,  but  a  special  act  of  Confirmation  was  left  among  the 
adiaphora  or  m.atters  in  which  evangelical  liberty  was  allowed. 
By  man}'  Lutherans  Confirmation  was  not  adopted,  or,  on  account 
of  interimistic  and  adiaphoristic  controversies,  positively  rejected. 
By  others  it  was  retained,  or  its  introduction  desired,  either  be- 
cause an  ancient  and  wholesome  usage,  or  in  order  to  differ  as 
little  as  possible  from  the  Catholic  Church,  or  for  the  maintenance 
of  discipline.     (Schmucker.) 

As  early  as  the  i6th  century-  we  meet  three  distinct  views  of 
Confirmation,  which  differ  according  as  they  view  the  relative  im- 
portance of  the  sacraments  between  which  Confirmation  logically 
stands  and  vvdiich  are  the  two  biblical  pillars  of  churchlj-  instruc- 
tion, and  as  they  view  separately  or  emphasize  specially  the  three 
essential  and  component  parts  of  Confirmation,  viz. ,  Examination, 
Profession  and  Vow,  Prayer  (intercession)  with  imposition  of 
hands.  The  first  view  is  the  catcxhctical.  This  is  most  closely 
connected  with  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  means  of  grace: 
Word  and  Sacraments.  On  the  basis  of  baptism,  the  child  is  to 
be  brought  hy  instruction  and  training  to  the  ability  of  giving  a 
reason  for  the  faith  that  is  in  it  and  when  this  end  is  reached,  it 
is  to  be  examined  in  church,  is  to  affirm,  confess  and  promise 
what  the  sponsors  have  done  for  it  in  baptism,  and  if  it  thus  be 
proven  prepared  for  the  Lord's  Supper,  it  is  to  be  admitted  to  the 
same.  Among  the  representatives  of  this  view  there  is  never  any 
mention  made  of  a  renewal  of  the  covenant  of  baptism,  but  only 
of  a  reminding  of  this  covenant.  Another  view,  just  as  old,  may 
be  denoted  as  the  sacramental  one,  in  so  far  as  it  lays  stress  on  the 
third  point  in  Confirmation:  the  prayer  with  the  laying  on  of 
hands.  It  looks  upon  this  as  an  act  that  is  sacramental,  bestow- 
ing grace  and  salvation.  It  appeals  to  Acts  8:  17;  19:  6,  2  Tim. 
1:6.     It  arose  in  such  German  churches  as  witnessed  in  their 


16  MEMOIRS. 

midst,  especially  in  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation,  Swiss  Re- 
formed ideas  and  German  Lutheran  ideas  in  constant  intermin- 
gling, and  in  which  beside  the  desire  to  apply  grace  and  salvation 
to  men  by  churchly  means,  there  was  a  secret  distrust  of  the 
complete  efficiency  of  infant  baptism.  According  to  this  view 
Confirmation  is  the  completion  of  baptism.  (Cf.  Kassel  KO. 
1539  where  occurs  for  the  first  time  the  formula  of  benediction: 
"Receive  the  Holy  Ghost,  protection  and  defence  from  all  evil,  etc. , 
etc.")  A  third  view,  in  some  instances  approaching  the  sacra- 
mental view,  is  called  the  church-disciplinary  view.  According  to 
this  special  stress  is  laid  not  as  in  the  catechetical,  on  the  exami- 
nation, or  as  in  the  sacramental,  on  praj^er  and  imposition  of 
hands,  but  on  the  profession  of  faith  and  the  vow  connected  with 
it.  (Hessen — Kassel — Nassau.)  This  view  looks  upon  the  con- 
gregation of  the  baptized  merely  as  the  congregation  of  the  called, 
from  which  the  congregation  of  believers  must  be  segregated. 
Thus  Confirmation  becomes  the  act  by  which  a  Christian  is  re- 
ceived into  the  narrower  circle  or  congregation  privileged  to  ad- 
minister the  power  of  the  Church.  This  view  depreciates  baptism 
in  favor  of  a  churchly  ordinance  of  human  election,  and  leads  to 
a  separation  or  disjunction  of  the  Church,  which  can  not  be  admit- 
ted according  to  Art.  VIII  Conf .  Augsb.  Schmucker,  in  his  article 
The  Rite  of  Confirmation  (lyUtheran  Church  Review,  April  1883) 
gives  a  list  of  the  various  KOO  which  either  omit  or  reject  Con- 
firmation and  those  which  adopt  it  and  make  provision  for  it.  To 
give  these  lists,  which  have  the  merit  of  personal  investigation  by 
their  author,  would  unduly  swell  the  length  of  the  present  article 
but  the  following  summary'  which  Schmucker  quotes  from  Bach- 
mann,  may  perhaps  be  of  interest,  as  presenting  a  brief  geograph- 
ical survey: — 

"The  original  Lutheran  churches  (gnesio-Lutheran),  that 
is,  those  of  middle  Germany  distinctivel5^  except  Mansfield,  know 
nothing  of  Confirmation  as  a  special  rite ;  it  is  found  ouXy  in  north- 
ern, western  and  southwestern  Germany^  and  there  is  not  of  uni- 
versal acceptance.  In  Austria,  in  addition,  it  is  found  standing 
alone  through  the  personal  influence  of  Chytrseus  and  with  much 
opposition  from  congregations  and  pastors.  In  North  German}^ 
it  was  carried  from  Pomerania  by  Bugenhagen  to  Stralsund  and 
from  Brandenburg  by  the  relation  of  the  reigning  houses  to  Bruns- 
wick, where  afterwards  Chemnitz  secured  and  enlarged  its  preva- 


THE   LITURGICAL   HISTORY   OF   CONFIRMATION.  17 

lence.  From  Brunswick  it  passed  to  Hoya  (Hannover).  In  the 
western  countries  it  owed  its  acceptance  partly  to  the  Reformation 
of  Cologne,  but  preeminently  to  Hesse,  which  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Strasburg,  and  especially  of  Francis  lyambert,  tended 
toward  a  Reformed  type.  Waldeck,  Nassau  and  I^ower  Saxony 
received  their  order  of  Confirmation  from  Hesse."     (Bachmann). 

"The  efforts  for  the  restoration  or  introduction  of  Confirma- 
tion began  here  and  there  early  in  the  seventeenth  century-  and 
increased  in  energy  until  in  and  after  Spener's  time,  they  so  in- 
fluenced the  action  of  the  Church  as  to  effect  its  official  adoption 
in  one  land  after  another.  Among  its  early  advocates  were  Tele- 
m.an  Heshusius,  Aeg.  Hunnius,  Polycarp  Lyser,  Leonh.  Hutter, 
Fred  Baldwin,  Jno.  Tarnow,  Jno.  Gerhard,  Conr.  Dietrich,  Geo. 
Calixtus,  Theopli.  Grossgebauer,  Martin  Heinsius,  and  preemi- 
nently in  practical  efficiency,  Jacob  Spener."     (Schmucker. ) 

It  was  Spener  who  after  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  in- 
troduced Confirmation.  He  based  his  viev^'s  on  the  pietistic  view 
of  baptism,  which  in  connection  with  i  Peter  3:  21  is  regarded 
more  as  a  covenant  between  God  and  men,  than  a  laver  of  regen- 
eration, so  that  infant  baptism  necessarily  appeared  incomplete 
and  defective.  The  kej^- word  now  became  "renewal  of  the  bap- 
tismal covenant"  and  this  was  to  be  accomplished  bj'  means  of 
conversion  (piercing  of  the  heart),  for  which  the  time  of  Confirma- 
tion was  deemed  to  be  the  most  suitable  time.  The  main  stress 
was  laid  on  the  vow,  which  was  regarded  as  a  sign  of  conversion 
and  renewal  of  the  baptismal  covenant.  The  universal  practice 
was  to  appeal  to  the  emotions  of  the  children  and  to  work  with 
all  available  means  to  bring  about  a  conversion  (Die  Bekehrung 
zurn  "Durchbruch"  zu  bringen). 

Rationalism  finally  voided  Confirmation  of  its  churchlj-  con- 
tents. The  renewal  of  the  baptismal  covenant  now  became  an 
actual  covenant-pledging,  which  the  child  itself  performed  in  Con- 
firmation. In  a  strange  contrast  to  this  inner  voiding,  the  ration- 
alistic Confirmation  appeared  in  very  pretentious  garb.  The  inner 
emptiness  and  shallowness  was  concealed  by  outward  pomp;  the 
children  were  dressed  up;  they  were  marched  out  in  solemn  pro- 
cession, grouped  theatrically  and  were  made  to  perform  their  vow 
to  the  covenant  of  virtue  in  the  most  touching  manner.  In  this 
form  Confirmation  found  its  way  into  most  congregations  and  be- 
came a  part  of  their  church  life.     But   the  influences  of  rational- 


18  MEMOIRS. 

ism  upon  Confirmation  are  seen  also  in  another  direction.  While 
it  had  been  officially  adopted  in  various  parts  of  Germany  from 
1646  to  1724,  its  actual  insertion  into  the  system  of  church  life 
was  not  completed  until  the  period  of  rationalism.  In  this  period 
we  find  the  regulations  of  age,  time  of  the  year,  etc.;  in  it  also 
the  connection  between  Confirmation,  catechisation  and  the  pub- 
lic schools  of  German3^ 

With  the  revival  of  religious  life  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
Confirmation  too,  has  had  the  gain  of  material  advantages. 
Through  this  revival  it  received  again  its  original  import,  and  its 
relation  to  the  sacraments  once  scripturally  and  confessionally  es- 
tablished, has  given  its  important  parts  correctly  according  to 
this  relation.  Still  there  is  not  yet  a  uniform  view  of  the  full 
meaning  of  Confirmation.  The  original  three  views  of  the  i6tli 
century  have  again  found  representatives,  the  sacramental  view 
is  defended  by  Villmar,  the  church-disciplinary  view  by  Schleier- 
macher,  Hoefling,  von  Hoffmann,  Harnack,  von  Zezschwitz. 
The  latter  are  influenced  by  the  desire  to  prevent  an  unworthy 
participation  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  to  j)rotect  the  church 
from  violence  by  unbelieving  majorities. 

This  closes  the  outline  of  the  liturgical  history  of  Confirma- 
tion. The  writer  of  the  article  has  endeavored  to  trace  the 
development  of  the  rite  in  its  details  historically  and  in  their  re- 
lation to  the  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  One  feature  still 
might  remain  for  inquiry,  namely,  the  relation  of  Confirmation  to 
the  doctrines  of  the  sacraments,  of  catechization  and  of  Christian 
life,  and  the  successive  development  of  each  detail  bearing  upon 
these  relations,  but  that  would  unduly  increase  the  extent  of  tlie 
article  and  might  best  be  made  the  subject  of  further  inquiry. 


Authorities  consulted: — Schmuckkr:  Confirmation  in  the 
Lutheran  Church;  LohE:  Liturgische  Fornudare ;  Schaefer: 
Evangelisches  Volkslcxikon;  Herzog-Peitt:  Real  En  cyclop  edia; 
M-£,\]Sm.:  Kirchliches  Hajidlexikon;  Paemer'S  Katechetik;  ZoCK- 
EER'S  Handbuch  der  theol.  Wissenschaften;  Kurtz'  Church  His- 
tory; etc.,  etc. 

Chief  Authorities: — Bachmann:  Die  Confirmation,  etc.; 
KeiEFOTh:  ^^.  J/  W.  Caspari:  Die  evang.  Confitrmation. 

C.    Tl-IEODORE    BENZE. 
Erie,  Pa. 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  UTURGY. 


The  subject  indicated  in  the  title  of  this  paper — The  Church  and 
the  lyiturgy — is  so  broad  that  there  is  need  to  preface  the  discus- 
sion of  the  theme,  with  a  few  words  of  explanation  and  definition. 

There  have  been  two  great  epochs  in  the  history  of  church 
doctrine,  the  formative — in  which  the  self-consciousness  of  the 
Church  was  developed  from  its  rudimentary  form  in  the  minds  of 
the  Apostolic  Fathers  and  their  immediate  successors  with  the 
elaborate  corpora  dodrince  of  the  later  Middle  Ages,  and  the  re- 
formative— in  which  the  results  of  the  earlier  period  were  tested 
and  sifted,  emerging  finally  in  the  three  or  four  types  of  dogmat- 
ic theology  which  are,  in  the  main,  the  recognized  standards  of 
the  present  day.  Similarly  the  liturgical  idea  has  had  its  two 
epochs,  W\^  formative — during  which  the  rudimentary  liturgy,  the 
earliest  indications  of  which  are  found  in  the  Didache,  grew  into 
the  elaborate  ritual  of  the  Mediaeval  Church,  and  the  reformative — 
in  which  that  liturgy — subjected  to  the  same  criticism  as  its  co- 
temporary  doctrine,  was  tested  and  proved,  emerging  finally  in 
the  forms  of  worship  used  in  the  modern  churches.  This  histor- 
ical parallelism  is  not  witliout  its  significance.  It  is,  in  fact, 
more  than  mere  parallelism,  for  the  two  lines  of  development  are 
closely  related  and  the  general  relation  is  one  of  cause  and  effect. 
Unconscious  this  relation  may  at  times  have  been,  other  than 
doctrinal  considerations  have  certainly  had  their  influence  in  li- 
turgical development  and  practice,  but  the  underlying  principles 
of  liturgical  sen-ice,  the  decisive  factors  in  moulding  the  Church's 
forms  of  worship  have  been  neither  artistic  nor  aesthetic  but  doc- 
trinal, and  the  mere  circumstance  that  the  greatest  diversit)^  in 
methods  of  conducting  public  worship  exists  among  those  denom- 
inations which  are  most  radically  different  in  dogmatical  bias, 
furnishes  convincing  testimonj'  to  this  fact. 

Now  the  doctrines  which  have  most  vitally  affected  the  litur- 

(xix) 


20  MEMOIRS. 

gy  are  four,  viz.,  the  Word,  the  Sacraments,  the  Church,  and  the 
Ministry;  which  fall  into  two  groups,  the  first  containing  the  log- 
ically precedent  but  historically  subsequent  pair — the  Word  and 
the  Sacraments;  the  latter  containing  the  logically  subsequent  but 
historically  precedent  pair — the  Church  and  the  Ministry.  It  is 
with  this  latter  group  that  we  shall  attempt  to  deal,  merely  touch- 
ing on  the  former  when  its  importance  is  too  great,  or  its  bearing 
on  the  subject  too  obvious  to  be  disregarded.  The  subject  of  this 
paper  ma}^  therefore,  be  more  definitely  stated  as — "The  Doc- 
trines of  the  Church  and  the  Ministry  in  Relation  to  the  lyiturgy ." 
That  such  a  relation  actuallj/  exists  and  is  widely  recognized  is 
shown  by  a  practice  current  among  the  unthinking  and  theolog- 
ically ignorant — unfortunately  also  among  some  who  should 
know  better — I  mean  the  practice  of  using  the  term  "High- 
church,"  the  significance  of  which  is  essentially  doctrinal,  to  de- 
note a  distinction  in  mere  elaborations  of  ritual  observance.  The 
true  relation,  however,  is  an  historical  relation  and  must  be  treat- 
ed as  such.  We  shall  therefore  discuss  our  theme  under  the 
three  heads: — A.  The  Formative  Epoch,  B.  The  Reformative 
Epoch,    C.  The  Outcome. 

A.     THE  FORMATIVE  EPOCH. 

I.      THE   DOCTRINES. 
/.      The  CJmrch. 

a).  It  is  doubtful  whether  in  the  earliest  times  there  ex- 
isted any  clear  conception  of  a  universal  church.  Certain  is  it 
that  for  a  long  while  there  was  no  definitely  stated  doctrine  of 
the  Church  in  our  modern  sense.  The  unit  of  church  organi- 
zation seems  to  have  been  the  individual  Christian  congregation, 
these  congregations  recognizing  the  right  of  other  similar  congre- 
gations to  the  name  Christian,  but  acknowledging,  after  the  death 
of  the  Apostles,  no  authority  higher  than  that  of  their  own  local 
officers.  What  the  exact  form  of  organization  in  these  churches 
may  have  been  is  yet  to  be  determined  and  is  a  matter  of  small 
importance  except  as  it  throws  light  on  the  development  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  ministry.  This  much,  however,  we  do  know: 
i).  In  each  congregation  there  were  two  classes  of  ministers, 
the  bishops  or  presbyters,  terms  used  interchangeably  in  the  New 
Testament  and  earliest  sub-apostolic  writings  as  names  for  the 


THE   CHURCH    AND   THE   LITURGY.  21 

superior  officers  of  the  congregation,   and  deacons  whose  ofi&ce 
was  subordinate.* 

2).  In  course  of  time  there  arose  a  distinction  between  the 
bishops  and  the  presbyters,  the  name  of  Bishop  being  appHed  to 
only  one  man  among  the  presbyters  of  each  congregation. 

b).  In  the  conflict  with  Gnosticism  the  emphasis  laid  on 
purity  of  doctrine  caused  the  first  great  advance  in  the  doctrine 
of  the  Church.  Faith  in  the  truth  becoming  the  important  thing, 
all  those  who  believed  the  truth  as  handed  down  from  the  Apostles 
were  to  be  considered  members  of  the  Church,  and  thus  the  way 
was  opened  for  a  broader  conception  of  church  unity.  At  the 
same  time  the  authority  of  the  Bishop  was  extended,  for  he  was 
designated  the  officer  of  the  congregation  whose  special  duty  was 
to  guard  the  pure  doctrine  of  the  Apostles.  Thus  a  beginning 
was  made  in  the  gradual  advancement  of  the  Bishop  to  the  chief 
place  in  the  congregation,  over  which  he  became  pastor,  and  the 
subordination  of  the  presbyters  to  the  secundary  position  of  as- 
sistants.f  So  we  find  that  early  in  the  3rd  century  the  rul- 
ing conception  of  the  Church  was  "the  community  of  those  who 
believe  the  truth,"  the  Bishops,  in  addition  to  their  pastoral  of- 
fice, standing  as  sponsors  and  guarantors  of  that  truth. | 

c).  The  next  considerable  change  in  the  idea  of  the  Church 
was  brought  about  by  Callistus,  Bishop  of  Rome  217-222,  who 
asserted  the  right  of  intei'preting  and  limiting  the  discipline  of 
the  Church  as  he  saw  fit,  thus  making  membership  in  the  Church 
to  depend  exclusively  on  the  toleration  of  the  Bishop,  and  the 
Church  itself  instead  of  the  holy  people  of  God  became  known  as 
the  society  ruled  by  the  Bishop  who  was  now  lord  over  life  as 
well  as  over  faith.  It  remained,  however,  for  Cyprian  (7258)  to 
carry  this  idea  to  its  conclusion  and  it  was  his  view  that  proved 
the  deciding  factor  in  moulding  the  old  Catholic  doctrine  of  the 
Church  into  its  final  form.  His  doctrine  may  be  briefly  sum- 
marized as  follows: — 

i).     The  Bishop  is  the  successor  of  the  Apostles.  § 


•  A  full  discussion  of  the  ministry  in  the  Early  Church  is  to  be  found  in  Light- 
foot,  Appendix  to  Comm.  on  Phil,  to  which  cf.  Hatch,  Organization  0/  the  Early 
Christian  Churches,  and  Allen,  Christian  Institutions,  Book  I;  Rothe,  Anfaenge  d. 
Christenthums,  though  old  (1837)  is  still  valuable. 

t  Cf.  Hatch,  in  Diet.   Chris.  Ant.  Art.  Priest. 

X  Cf.   Seeburg,  Dogmengeschichte ,  I.  133. 

§  The  view  of  Irenaeus. 


22  MEMOIRS. 

2).  According  to  Matt.  16:  18,  the  Church  is  therefore  built 
upon  the  Bishop,  who  is  both  a  priest  and  "a  judge  in  place  of 
Christ."  As  priest  he  conducts  service  and  offers  sacrifice  on  the 
altar,  and  as  judge  decides  on  all  questions  of  church  membership 
and  reinstatement. 

3).  The  Bishops  form  the  colleghun  episcopahis  in  whose 
unity  consists  the  unity  of  the  church.  In  this  collegium  the 
Bishop  of  Rome  holds  the  highest  place  as  he  is  successor  of  St. 
Peter. 

4).  Rebellion  against  the  Bishop  is  therefore  rebellion 
against  God.     Extra  ecclesiain  nulla  salus. 

Thus  obedience  to  the  Bishop,  not  faith  in  Christ,  is  made 
the  condition  of  membership  in  the  Church,  and  the  Church  itself 
becomes  an  institution  founded  on  law  instead  of  a  community 
based  on  faith.  There  needed  only  Augustin's  distinction  be- 
tween the  visible  and  invisible  Church  to  silence  critics  and  afford 
theological  justification,  and  the  conversion  of  an  Emperor  to 
give  an  opportunity  for  the  advance  of  Rome  and  Constantinople, 
and  the  hierarchical  system  was  ready  for  occupancy,  the  "Cath- 
olic" doctrine  of  the  Church  was  practically  complete. 

2.      The  Ministry. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Ministry,  as  we  have  seen,  was  closely 
connected  with  the  development  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
each  step  of  that  development  being,  in  fact,  the  result  of  a  pre- 
ceding advance  in  the  conception  of  the  Episcopate,  but  there  is 
one  important  feature  on  which-  we  have  barely  touched.  We 
have  seen  that  Cyprian  made  much  of  the  idea  that  the  Bishop 
was  a  priest.  The  sacerdotal  idea  was  not  new  with  him,  how- 
ever. Clement  of  Rome  had  previously  compared  the  Christian 
minister  to  the  Old  Testament  priest,  and  Origen  and  Tertullian 
had  applied  the  term  sacerdos  to  Bishops  and  Presbyters,  but 
there  is  nothing  to  show  that  they  regarded  the  clergj^  as  a  sepa- 
rate class,  and  the  original  idea  of  the  priesthood  of  all  Christians 
still  maintained  itself,  preventing  any  sharp  line  of  distinction  be- 
tween clergy  and  laity.  But  Cyprian  declared  the  Bishop  to  be  a 
priest  in  a  special  sense.  All  the  ministerial  functions,  therefore, 
belonged  of  right  to  him,  and  without  the  express  authorization 
of  a  Bishop  no  one  could  hold  office  in  the  Church  or  perform  any 
official  acts.  Such  authorization,  however,  was  conferred  in  or- 
dinatio7i,  by  which  men  were  set  apart  for  those  duties,  and  ordi- 


THE   CHURCH    AND   THE    LITURGY.  23 

nation  thenceforth  became  the  line  of  distinction  between  clergy 
and  laity,  the  clergy  being  thus  constituted  a  separate  class  and 
the  convenient  analogy  of  the  I,evitical  priesthood  was  used  to 
legitimate  this  new  Christian  order.  From  this  time  on  the 
Christian  minister  was  a  "priest,"  and  the  doctrine  invented  by 
Augustin,  of  a  character  indelibilis,  convej^ed  in  ordination  was 
later  used  to  give  material  ground  for  the  distinction.* 
J.     Sacrifice. 

The  sacrificial  is  a  necessary  corollary  of  the  sacerdotal 
idea.  The  sacrificial  conception  contained  in  the  doctrine  of  uni- 
versal Christian  priesthood  was  of  course  eucharistic.  The  Chris- 
tian sacrifices  were  faith,  obedience  and  righteousness,  which 
attained  visible  expression  in  prayer  and  charity.  That  there 
was  from  the  first  a  special  sacrificial  idea  connected  with  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  undeniable.  The  congregations  brought  to  the 
Agape  its  "oblations"  of  bread  and  wine — the  offerings  for  cliar- 
ity  were  also  included  in  the  oblations — and  the  bread  and  wine 
so  offered  were  then  used  in  the  lord's  Supper,  but  the  "sacri- 
fice" was  made  by  the  congregation  as  an  expression  of  thanks, 
symbolic  of  the  yielding  to  God  of  heart  and  life  commanded  by 
St.  Paul  (Rom.  12:  i).  The  idea  of  propitiatory  sacrifice  found 
its  first  clear  expression  in  Tertullian's  conception  of  asceticism 
as  an  atoning  sacrifice,  but  it  remained  for  Cyprian's  doctrine  of 
the  priesthood  to  give  the  Church  a  new  sacrificial  idea.  If  the 
priesthood  is  a  specific  order  it  must  offer  a  specific  sacrifice. 
This  sacrifice,  which  the  layman  cannot  offer,  is  the  Mass,  and 
the  Mass  is  the  passio  dommi,  even  the  sanguis  Christi  and  hostia 
dominica.  Though  Cyprian,  and  even  Augustin,  was  not  quite 
clear  as  to  the  real  object  in  the  sacrifice  the  natural  outcome  was 
to  regard  every  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  repetition 
of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  and  to  attach  to  it  a  full  propitiatory 
value,  t  When  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  had  been 
adopted  to  justify  this  view  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  the 
Mass  was  essentially  complete. 

Throughout  this  line  of  development  there  runs  one  consist- 
ent idea.     It  was  all  a  part  of  that   process  of  externalization 

*  Cf.  Harnack,  Dognietigeschichte  I.  420  ff.  Match,  Art.  Ordination  and 
Priest,  Diet.  Christ.  Ant. 

t  Cf.  Harnack,  DG.  I.  422.  Seeburg,  DG.  I.  153  ff.  Keal-Encyclopedie, 
Art.  Messopfer,  also  Hoefling,  Die  Lehre  d.  aell,  Kirche  v.  Opfer,  Erlangen  185 1. 


24  MEMOIRS. 

which  was  to  mean  so  much  for  the  subsequent  history  of  the 
church,  exalting  its  temporal  power  at  the  expense  of  spiritual 
life,  sacrificing  the  pure  ideal  for  a  glittering  but  empty  reality. 
It  belonged  to  what  Hamack  has  well  called  the  ''Eihnisirung''' 
of  the  church. 

II.      THE     LITURGY. 

We  pass,  next,  to  the  influence  of  these  doctrines  upon  the 
liturgy,  and  here  we  meet  a  much  mooted  question: 

I.      Wliat  xcas  the  earliest  form  of  'worship  f  * 

a).  It  is  quite  impossible  to  answer  this  question  explic- 
itly, for  our  knowledge  of  the  most  ancient  rituals  depends  en- 
tirely upon  a  few  brief  fragments,  but  from  the  traces  of  liturg}^  in 
the  Didache  and  Justin  Mart3-r  we  know  that  the  formal  Christian 
worship  was  at  first  an  accompaniment  of  the  Agape  or  evening 
meal,  and  that  it  must  have  been,  in  the  main,  an  adaptation  of  the 
Jewish  synagogue  service  with  the  addition  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
It  seems  to  have  comprised  the  following  elements: — Reading  of 
Scripture,  Sermon,  Prayer,  Consecration  b}'  ^vxapuTTia,  or  Prayer  of 
Thanksgiving,  of  bread  and  wine  selected  from  the  oblations. 
Distribution  and  Communion. 

b) .  In  course  of  time  the  Lord's  Supper  was  separated  from 
the  Agape,  and  as  the  Christian  communities  increased  in  num- 
bers it  became  necessary  to  guard  the  Communion  more  closely. 
Bearing  originally  the  name  "Mj-stery,"  it  is  likely  that  the  exam- 
ple of  the  Greek  Mysteries,  from  which  the  uninitiated  were  ex- 
cluded, had  some  influence  on  the  Christian  practice,!  but,  at  all 
events,  only  those  who  had  been  baptized  and  were  not  under  dis- 
cipline were  allowed  to  be  present  at  the  celebration,  which  was 
known  as  the  missafideliiim.  But  in  order  that  those  under  dis- 
cipline and  those  who  were  candidates  for  baptism  might  not  be 
entirely  deprived  of  participation  in  the  ser\nce,  the  missa  fidelium 
was  preceded  by  a  homiletic  and  didactic  ser\'ice  known  as  the 
missa  catechumenoriim  at  which  all  were  present. 

This  is  the  form  that  is  found  in  the  earliest  complete  htur- 


*  A  list  of  works  bearing  on  this  subject  is  to  be  found  in  Allen,  Lect.  on 
Primitive  Liturgy  in  Christian  Worship,  Scribner's,  1897. 

t  A  full   discussion  in   Hatch,  Hihberi  Lectures  for   iSc)"],   Scribner's,  though 
Hatch  is  an  extremist  on  this  point. 


THE   CHURCH    AND   THE   I.ITURGY.  25 

gies  that  have  come  down  to  us.  When  the  liturgy  assumed  this 
form  we  cannot  say  definitely  since  until  after  the  conversion  of 
Constantine  the  liturgy  belonged  to  the  disciplina  arcani,  and  was 
held  a  profound  secret,  but  it  is  likely  that  some  such  form  had 
been  reached  by  the  year  250 — the  time  of  Cyprian. 
2.      The  infliience  of  Church  Doctrine. 

a).  The  "Catholic"  conception  of  the  Church  directly  es- 
tablished the  theory  that  whatever  liturgical  form  authorized  by 
the  Church — i.  e.  by  the  Bishops — might  be,  that  form  must  be 
jure  divuio  binding.  Thus  Christian  worship  was  deprived  of  one 
of  its  greatest  prerogatives,  the  freedom  to  choose  the  medium  of 
expression  best  suited  to  its  own  spirit,  and  while  the  conse- 
quences of  this  deprivation  may  not  have  been  immediately  ap- 
parent they  were  far-reaching,  and  to  the  present  day  this  theory 
remains  the  root  of  ritual  formalism. 

b) .  The  ' ' Catholic' '  conception  of  the  ministrj^  as  a  priest- 
hood had  a  still  greater  effect,  which  made  its  appearance  in  three 
prominent  ways: 

I ) .  It  made  public  worship  a  ceremon}^  performed  exclu- 
sively by  the  priest  in  which  the  people  were  allowed  only  the 
part  of  silent  spectators. 

2) .  It  caused  all  the  emphasis  of  the  public  service  to  fall 
upon  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  forcing  the  reading  and  preaching 
of  the  Word  into  the  background. 

3).  Making  of  the  Lord's  Supper  a  repetition  of  the  sac- 
rifice of  Christ  it  opened  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  Pagan 
and  Jewish  elements  into  the  service.  The  ceremonies  borrowed 
from  the  Temple  service,  prominent  among  which  are  the  vest- 
ments of  the  priests,  carried  of  course,  the  authority  of  the  Old 
Dispensation,  but  in  the  "Catholic"  theoiy  there  was  no  pomp  or 
ceremony  of  Pagan  sacrifice  which  could  not  be  introduced  into 
the  ritual  for  Christian  worship,  since  the  sacrifice  of  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  Christ  so  far  surpassed  in  dignity  and  meaning  the 
sacrifices  to  the  heathen  gods.  Where  no  analogy  could  be  found 
in  the  Old  Testament  these  practices  were  legitimated  by  invest- 
ing them  with  .some  symbolic  meaning.  Thus  the  Mass  became 
laden  with  unchristian  and  anti-christian  elements  centering 
around  the  doctrine  of  the  priesthood,  and  the  result  was  the 
Mass  of  the  Middle  Ages  which  differs  in  no  essential  feature 
from  the  Roman  Mass  of  the  present  day. 


26  MEMOIRS. 

B.     THE  REFORMATIVE   EPOCH. 

I.      THE    DOCTRINES. 

The  completion  of  the  course  of  doctrinal  development  the 
beginnings  of  which  have  been  sketched  was  a  slow  process.  It 
took  a  thousand  years  to  carry  the  premises  of  Cyprian  to  their 
logical  conclusion.  But  after  Ecumenical  Councils  and  Church 
Synods  had  converted  earlier  doctrine  into  dogma  and  the  scho- 
lastic theologians  had  elaborated  and  interpreted  these  dogmas 
into  imposing  systems,  the  result  was  only  a  stronger  indorsement 
of  the  position  of  Cyprian,  reinforced  by  the  theology  of  Augus- 
tin  and  still  further  clinched  by  the  acknowledged  supremacy  of 
Rome.  Along  with  a  theoretical  distinction  between  the  visible 
and  invisible  Church  w^ent  the  practical  contention  that  the  visible 
Church  possessed  by  virtue  of  divine  institution  all  the  character- 
istics and  prerogatives  of  the  invisible.  The  Church  was  con- 
ceived as  a  divinely  appointed  earthly  organization  administered 
by  a  priesthood,  whose  forms  were  practically  unlimited.  This 
priesthood  formed  a  hierarchy  in  which  the  Pope  was  the  high- 
priest,  to  whom,  as  the  representative  of  God  and  the  earthly 
vicar  of  Christ,  the  individual  was  in  all  respects  absolutely  sub- 
ject, not  only  in  matters  of  faith  and  doctrine  but  in  every  thing 
that  had  to  do  with  his  daily  life. 

The  Reformation  was  in  this  respect  a  protest  against  this 
conception  of  the  Church,  and  stands  for  the  emancipation  of  the 
individual  from  the  domination  of  the  institution.  It  brought  to 
light  an  idea  of  the  Church,  new  and  yet  closely  approximating 
the  most  ancient  conception  of  the  Church  as  the  holy  people  of 
God.  Time  forbids  detailed  discussion  of  all  the  factors  which 
entered  into  the  Reformation  doctrine  of  the  church  and  we  shall 
content  ourselves  with  a  brief  sketch  of  lyUther's  doctrine  which, 
though  differing  in  detail  from  those  of  the  Swiss  Reformers,  may 
be  considered  essentially  representative.  On  the  doctrine  of  the 
ministry,  however,  the  divergence  is  so  great  as  to  call  for  sepa- 
rate treatment. 

/.      The  Church. 

a) .  Euther  begins  with  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  an 
invisible  Church,  which  is  the  Church  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
word, — the  esseyitial  in  contradistinction  to  the  empirical  Church. 
It  is  invisible  only  in  the  sense  that  the  members  of  this  essential 


THE    CHURCH    AND   THE    LITURGY.  27 

church  are  unknown  to  all  but  God.  Is  it,  therefore,  no  earthly 
organization  and  contains  no  hierarchy;  it  is  the  "communion" 
or  "congregation  of  saints,"  and  the  saints  are  those  who  in  true 
faith  receive  and  acknowledge  Christ  as  their  Lord.  There  are 
only  two  factors  necessary  to  the  existence  of  this  Church — the 
Word  of  God  and  individuals  to  receive  it — and  individual  recep- 
tion is  the  sole  condition  of  membership. 

b).  On  the  other  hand,  since  the* Word  is  necessary  to  the 
existence  of  the  essential  Church  there  must  be  some  means  of 
preserving  and  communicating  the  Word.  This  is  the  function 
of  the  visible  or  empirical  Church  which  is  the  congregation  of 
confessors  of  Christ,  to  which  is  committed  the  oral  and  sacra- 
mental administration  of  the  Word.  The  existence  of  the  Church 
in  this  sense  depends  not  on  form  or  continuity  of  organization, 
but  solely  on  the  fulfilment  of  its  original  purpose — i.  e.  the  ap- 
plication of  Christ  to  individuals  through  the  medium  of  Word 
and  Sacraments.* 

Where  these  means  are  rightly  used  the  Church  exists  re- 
gardless of  form  of  organization;  where  they  are  neglected  the 
Church  does  not  exist,  the  organization  may  continue  but  it  is  no 
longer  the  Church.  The  "marks"  by  which  the  true  Church — 
empirically  considered — is  to  be  known  are  therefore  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Word  and  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments. 

c).  Furthermore,  since  the  Word  of  God  is  always  efiSca- 
cious,  the  presence  of  these  "marks"  of  the  empirical  Church  is 
the  guarantee  of  the  presence  of  the  essential  Church.  There  has 
been  no  age  in  which  the  Church  has  been  without  the  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  One  result  of  the  Spirit's  guidance  appears 
in  the  tradition  of  the  Church,  but  that  tradition  must  be  tested 
by  the  Word  of  God.  All  that  is  found  to  be  contrary  to  the 
Word  must  be  rejected  as  human  invention,  but  that  which  is  not 
contrary  to  the  Word  should  be  received.  It  is  this  doctrine  that 
makes  Luther's  Reformation  so  essentially  conservative,  forbid- 
ding the  wholesale  rejection  of  the  legacy  of  the  preceding  cen- 
turies of  Christianity. 
2.      The  Ministry. 

lyUther's  doctrine  of  the  Ministrj'^  develops  logically  from 


*  An  admirable  outline  of  Luther's  doctrine  of  the  Church  is  to  be  found  in 
Seeburg,  DG.  II.  277  ff.  to  which  cf.  KoestHn,  Theology  of  Luther  (Eng.  trans.)  II. 
538  ff. 


28  MEMOIRS, 

his  doctrine  of  the  Church.  Since  the  Word  and  the  Sacraments 
— which  are  significant  only  as  they  apply  the  Word — are  put  in- 
to the  hands  of  the  Church  they  are  the  property  not  of  any  one 
class  of  the  Church's  members  but  of  the  whole  Church.  By  vir- 
tue of  his  faith  in  Christ  every  Christian  is  a  priest,  whose  duty 
is  to  proclaim  the  Word,  but  in  order  that  the  preaching  of  the 
Word  and  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments  may  not  suffer, 
it  is  necessary  that  men  properly  qualified  shall  be  appointed  in 
due  order  by  the  Church,  to  whom  shall  be  committed  the  duty  of 
representing  the  congregation  in  public  functions — the  public 
preaching,  administration  of  the  Sacraments  and  pastoral  duties. 
These  men  are  to  be  looked  upon  not  as  an  order,  a  separate  class 
who  derive  from  ordination  a  specifically, priestly  character,  but 
merely  as  the  office  holders  or  properly  authorized  public  servants 
of  the  congregation,  from  which  alone  they  derive  their  right 
of  ministration.  This  conception  of  the  Ministry  as  an  office 
meant  of  course  the  absolute  denial  of  the  Roman  Catholic  doc- 
trine of  the  priesthood  and  all  that  went  with  it. 

3,     Before  concluding  this  survey  a  word  is  necessary  touch- 
ing the  Calvinistic  doctrines  which  bear  on  our  subject. 

a).  Calvin  insisted  strongly  on  the  distinction  between 
the  invisible  Church — which  he  called  the  congregation  of  the 
elect — and  the  visible  or  empirical  Church.  Holding  as  he  did 
the  possibility  of  the  ineffectual  preaching  of  the  Word,  he  could 
not  make  the  existence  of  the  empirical  Chuich  depend  entirely 
upon  the  presence  of  the  Word  of  God,  as  did  lyUther,  and  was 
obliged  to  fall  back  upon  a  divinely  instituted  ministry  to  ensure 
the  existence  of  the  Church.  He  rejected  the  priesthood  of  the 
clergy — maintaining  the  divine  institution  of  the  presbyterate  in- 
stead— and  affirmed  emphatically  the  spiritual  priesthood  of  the 
elect,  but  never  disassociated  the  empirical  Church  from  the  idea 
of  the  institutional  ministry. 

b).  There  is  also  one  other  doctrine  of  Calvin's  which 
touches  closely  on  our  subject  and  that  is  his  conception  of  the 
Word  of  God.  Starting  as  he  does  with  the  idea  of  God  as  abso- 
lute, sovereign  Will,  he  is  obliged  to  regard  the  Scriptures  prima- 
rily as  the  revelation  of  God's  Will,  therefore  God's  Law,  and 
this  legalistic  conception  pervades  his  entire  system.* 


♦  Cf.  Seeburg,  DG.  II.  398  ff. 


THE   CHURCH   AND  THE   LITURGY.  29 

II.      THE     I.ITURGY. 

The  question  now  arises,  what  influence  had  these  doctrines 
on  the  Reformation  of  the  liturgy?  And  the  question  is  not  easy 
to  answer.  The  Reformation  in  doctrine  and  Hturgy  was  a  process 
differing  radically  from  the  process  which  formed  doctrine  and 
liturgy.  The  formative  process  was  evolution.  Starting  with  a 
mass  of  comparatively  vague  ideas,  the  conditions  of  the  Church's 
life  rendered  the  definition  now  of  one,  now  of  another  phase  of 
doctrine  necessary,  and  thus  the  emergence  of  the  doctrine  and  its 
assimilation  into  a  system  was  the  work  of  centuries.  The  for- 
mation of  the  liturgy  was  a  similar  process.  Small  and  simple  in 
its  beginnings,  each  succeeding  age  added  its  contribution  to  the 
forms  of  worship  until  the  sum  was  complete.  The  reformative 
process  however,  was  criticism.  Starting  with  one  or  two  funda- 
mental principles  which  were  treated  as  criteria,  it  applied  them  in 
rapid  succession  to  every  feature  of  the  Catholic  system.  Every 
truly  reformative  conception,  therefore,  either  in  doctrine  or  prac- 
tice, bears  the  marks  of  those  doctrines  which  were  used  as  the 
standards  of  criticism.  The  great  criterion  with  all  the  Reform- 
ers was  the  Word.  I^uther  began  with  Justification  and  by  it  his 
conception  of  the  Word  is  conditioned;  Calvin  began  with  the  doc- 
trine of  Predestination,  and  with  that  in  view  formed  his  concep- 
tion of  the  Word.  Both  Luther  and  Calvin  then  applied  the  latter 
doctrines  to  the  Church  as  they  found  it.  Thus,  as  we  have  seen, 
IvUther's  doctrines  of  Church  and  Ministry  are  the  direct  outcome 
of  his  doctrine  of  the  Word  and  the  same  is  true  of  his  conception 
of  the  liturgy.  He  believed  that  every  public  service  had  but  one 
aim — the  proclamation  and  application  of  the  Word — to  which  all 
else  was  subordinate,  but  despite  the  direct  influence  which  this 
doctrine  had  on  his  liturgical  conception  we  find  indisputable 
traces  of  the  doctrines  with  which  we  are  dealing. 

That  this  may  be  more  fully  apparent  it  may  be  well  to  state 
briefly  Luther's  idea — which  remains  the  Lutheran  idea — of  the 
sen-ice: — The  ser\dce  is  a  service  of  the  congregation,  led  or  con- 
ducted by  the  representative  whom  they  have  chosen,  in  which 
all  the  members  are  not  only  privileged  but  bound  in  duty,  as 
one  of  the  functions  of  spiritual  priests,  to  take  part.  The  es- 
sential factors  of  the  service  are  the  Word  and  the  sacraments,  the 
ritual  setting  in  which  they  are  placed  belonging  to  the  non-es- 
sentials, to  be  determined  by  the  time,  place,  circumstances  and 


30  MEMOIRS. 

spiritual  needs  of  the  congregation.  The  Church  has  no  authori- 
ty to  command  the  observance  in  the  service  of  anything  save 
what  God's  Word  expressly  commands,  i.  e.  Word  and  Sacra- 
ment; on  the  other  hand  the  Church  has  no  authority  to  forbid 
the  observance  of  any  ordinances  save  such  as  are  contrary  to 
God's  Word  or  tend  to  obscure  and  obstruct  the  pure  administra- 
tion of  Word  and  Sacraments;  but  it  is  the  privilege  of  the  Church 
to  recommend  for  use  those  forms  of  public  worship  which  histo- 
ry has  developed  as  expressions  of  the  idea  of  worship,  and  which 
are  found  to  be  not  contrar^^  to  the  Word  of  God. 

What  place  L^uther's  doctrines  of  Church  and  Ministry  have 
in  this  theory  may  be  clearly  seen: 

a).  His  rejection  of  the  specific  priesthood  of  the  clergy 
and  his  afiirmation  of  the  priesthood  of  all  believers  is  evidenced 
in  the  importance  he  attaches  to  the  fact  that  the  service  is  the 
service  of  the  congregation  and  the  large  significance  he  la^'s  upon 
their  participation,  a  pertinent  illustration  of  which  is  found  in 
the  stress  which  he  laid  on  the  hymn  in  the  service. 

b).  His  rejection  of  the  formal  idea  of  the  Church  appears 
in  small  emphasis  which  he  laj's  on  the  rigidit)'  of  the  forms  of 
service.  The  Church,  he  believes,  depends  on  no  form  of  organ- 
ization for  its  existence  but  only  on  the  presence  within  it  of 
Word  and  Sacrament;  so  the  seiA-'ice  is  a  true  service  without  the 
use  of  prescribed  forms,  if  only  the  Word  and  Sacraments  are  ad- 
ministered. 

c).  The  essential  conserv^atism  of  Luther's  doctrine  of  the 
Church  is  seen  in  his  liturgical  conservatism.  If  the  Church  has 
always  had  the  Spirit  of  God  then  the  forms  of  worship  long  used 
by  the  Church  are  not  to  be  lightly  cast  aside  merely  because  they 
have  been  misused  or  have  been  covered  over  with  false  ideas. 
They  are  to  be  tested  and  proved  by  the  Word  of  God.  If  con- 
trary to  the  Word  of  God  they  must  be  rejected;  if  not,  they 
should  be  retained. 

d).  Finally  Luther's  doctrinal  position  is  refiected  in  his 
absolute  disregard  for  rules  of  liturgical  practice.  The  kind  and 
extent  of  ceremonial  usage  practiced  in  an^^  congregation  was  a 
matter  of  utter  indifference  to  him.  Personally,  he  could  not 
conceive  that  such  accessories  as  incense,  tapers,  vestments  and 
processions  could  affect  the  purpose  of  the  service  in  any  way  so 
long  as  the  pure  Word  was  preached.     It  remained  for  the  adia- 


THE   CHURCH   AND  THE   LITURGY.  31 

phoristic  controversy  to  discuss,  and  the  Formula  of  Concord  to 
decide  the  principle  that  such  ceremonial  might  have  a  serious 
effect  on  the  servace,  but  that  where  it  did  not  tend  to  interfere 
with  the  pure  Word  or  obscure  the  pure  conception  of  the  Sacra- 
ments, its  use  was  optional  with  the  congregation. -'- 

So  much  for  the  influence  of  Lutheran  doctrine  on  the  litur- 
gy. Space  forbids  a  similar  treatment  of  the  Calvinistic  influence 
which  will,  however,  be  touched  upon  later.  We  pass  on  to  a 
view  of  the  latest  development  of  the  liturg)^ 

C.     THE    OUTCOME. 

The  real  meaning  of  the  Reformative  epoch  can  only  be 
understood  after  a  survey  of  its  results.  The  criticism  of  the 
Reformative  time  furnished  the  Protestant  Churches  with  an  ag- 
gregate of  doctrine  and  practice  which  the  intervening  centuries 
have  busied  themselves  with  assimilating  and  interpreting.  The 
results  have  been  similar  to  those  which  attended  the  development 
of  the  formative  period,  in  so  far  that  the  doctrines  have  been 
crystallized  into  dogmas,  and  the  dogmas  elaborated  into  systems, 
while  the  practical  life  of  the  Protestant  Churches, — one  side  of 
which  the  liturgy  represents — has  also  attained  fairly  definite 
form.  Excluding  the  Greek  Church,  which  followed  an  inde- 
pendent line  of  development,  the  liturgical  result  has  been  to  give 
the  world  four  distinct  types  of  Christian  worship. 

1 .  The  first  of  these  is  the  Roman  Mass  which  retains  all 
the  distinctive  features  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  based  on  the 
same  externalizing  conception  of  the  Church  which  permits  it  to 
prescribe  invarying  forms  for  even  the  smallest  parts  of  the  litur- 
gy; it  centers  around  the  same  doctrine  of  priesthood  of  the  clergy 
and  exhibits  the  same  pagan  attitude  toward  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Mass.  It  is  enriched  with  all  the  beauty  of  symbolic  art  and  sur- 
rounded by  all  the  pomp  and  ceremon}-  of  the  empire  under 
which  it  grew.  It  is  artistically  beautiful  and  aesthetically  im- 
pressive, but  it  is  a  spectacle  rather  than  a  form  of  worship. 

2 .  The  second  type  is  that  which  finds  its  expression  in  the 
ideal  Lutheran  service.  It  centers  around  the  Word  of  God,  and 
rests  upon  the  conception  of  the  Church  as  the  congregation  in 


*  On  this  subject  see  Formula  of  Concord  Chap.  X,  and  Frank,  Theologie  d. 
Concordienformels. 


32  MKMOIRS. 

which  every  member  is  a  priest,  who  has  his  part  in  all  the  ser- 
vice. It  lays  all  the  emphasis  upon  the  two  essentials — Word 
and  Sacrament,  and  while  providing  the  forms  which  the  constant 
practice  of  a  thousand  years  has  shown  most  helpful  and  the  rigid 
test  of  God's  Word  has  sanctioned,  it  allows  the  widest  liberty  in 
the  use  of  whatever  forms  may  be  best  suited,  in  any  given  case, 
to  the  fullest  expression  of  the  idea  and  the  most  perfect  fulfil- 
ment of  the  purpose  of  public  worship.  It  lacks  the  artistic  sym- 
bolism and  sensuous  ceremonial  of  the  Roman  Mass,  but  in  sim- 
plicit}^  unity  of  purpose,  and  power  to  express  and  satisfy  the 
needs  of  the  heart,  it  is  the  nearest  approximation  to  what  we 
believe  to  be  the  highest  ideal  of  Christian  worship.  Doctrinally 
it  differs  from  the  Roman  Mass  in  its  fundamental  conception  of 
the  unity  and  authority  of  the  Church  and  in  the  conception  of 
the  clerical  priesthood  and  the  sacrifice,  no  less  than  in  the  esti- 
mate it  places  on  the  Word. 

3.  The  third  type  is  the  so-called  "non-liturgical,"  and  is 
the  child  of  Calvinism.  Following  Calvin's  legalistic  conception 
of  the  Word  of  God  to  which  reference  has  previously  been  made, 
it  disregards  set  forms  of  worship  because  it  fails  to  find  them  ex- 
pressly commanded  in  Holy  Scripture.  Emphasizing  the  divine 
institution  of  the  ministry  but  affirming  the  universal  priesthood, 
it  makes  the  pleasure  of  the  minister  the  rule  of  the  liturgy  and 
subordinates  everything  to  the  sermon,  sacrificing  depth  of  feel- 
ing, beautj'  of  meaning  and  unity  of  worship — everything  to  the 
pedagogical  element.  Its  great  doctrinal  anthesis  to  Rome  is  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church;  to  lyUtheranism  its  doctrine  of  the  Word. 

4.  A  fourth  type  remains.  It  is  the  Anglican.  What  it 
represents  is  difficult  to  say,  for  it  represents  so  many  things. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Church  and  the  liturgy  are  in  fact  the  only 
basis  of  unity  in  the  Anglican  Communion,  and  both  are  different- 
ly interpreted  by  the  two  great  Anglican  schools.  To  the  I,ow- 
Church  Anglican  the  liturgy-  means  very  nearly  what  the  IvUther- 
an  liturgj'  means  to  us.  He  holds  a  doctrine  of  the  Church  that 
is  "Catholic"  in  the  sense  that  it  lays  stress  on  the  external  form 
of  the  Church;  he  holds,  in  theorj^  at  least,  a  doctrine  of  the 
priesthood  of  the  clerg}'  which  he  fails  to  carry  consistently  into 
his  liturg>";  he  retains  the  ancient  forms  of  worship  purged  of 
their  non-Christian  elements  and  believes  them  binding  because 
they  are  the  latest   authorized  by  his  Church.     But  his  Church 


THE   CHURCH   AND  THE   LITURGY.  33 

doctrine  and  his  liturgical  practice  are  inconsistent,  and  liis  prac- 
tice is  better  than  his  doctrine. 

The  High- Church  Anglican,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  con- 
sistent, but  he  presents  a  peculiar  problem.  To  what  extent  is 
his  doctrine  the  result  of  his  liturgical  practice,  and  conversel}', 
how  much  of  his  practice  depends  directly  upon  his  doctrine? 
He  holds  with  great  tenacity  to  the  Cyprianic  conception  of 
Church  and  Ministry.  "The  Church"  is  the  Church  founded  on 
the  successors  of  the  Apostles,  who  are  the  Bishops;  the  clergy  is 
an  order,  a  specific  priesthood  offering  the  specific  sacrifice  of  the 
Mass;  the  fact  that  the  Church  in  its  formative  period  surrounded 
the  Mass  with  high  ceremonial  affords  him  abundant  reason  for 
using  the  same  ceremonies;  he  fills  his  service  with  the  same  sym- 
bolism and  strives  for  the  same  imposing  sesthetic  effect  that  is 
seen  in  the  Roman  Mass;  he  puts  the  Word  of  God  into  the  same 
relatively  unimportant  place  and  reads  his  lessons  in  Latin  when 
he  dares.  His  liturgy  is  in  fact  the  Roman  Mass  with  Rome  left 
out.  He  has  long  since  discarded  his  Church's  doctrinal  confes- 
sion and  professed  to  find  his  doctrine  in  his  Prayer  Book;  now 
he  has  altered  the  liturgy  of  his  Pra^^er  Book  and  appealed  to 
the  Ecumenical  Councils  and  the  "unbroken  tradition  of  the 
Church."  Laughed  at  by  Rome,  disowned  by  his  own  denomina- 
tion, he  is  consistent  with  himself  but  with  nothing  else  under 
Heaven.  These  are  the  two  extremes  and  the  Anglican  Church 
exhibits  every  shade  of  doctrine  and  practice  which  can  exist 
between  them. 

If  the  limits  of  such  a  paper  as  this  were  coextensive  with 
the  limits  of  the  subject  it  would  be  interesting  to  go  a  step  far- 
ther and  note  how  closely  the  worship  of  the  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed Churches  of  the  present  day  corre.sponds  to  type,  and  in 
what  degree  variations  are  due  to  doctrinal  influence,  but  space 
and  time  forbid.  Permit  me,  however,  in  conclusion  to  touch 
upon  a  very  important  question  that  connects  directly  with  the 
subject  in  hand  and  is  a  matter  of  practical  moment  to  all  of  us. 

It  is  evident  to  all  that  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America  is 
leaving  the  period  of  liturgical  infancy  and  will  soon  enter  the 
stage  of  adolescence.  As  the  appreciation  of  our  liturgy  broadens 
and  deepens,  its  use  becomes  more  wide-spread  and  more  intelli- 
gent. The  question,  Shall  we  use  the  liturg>^  ? — a  burning  ques- 
tion within  the  memory  of  all  save  the  youngest  of  us — is  pass- 


34  MEMOIRS. 

ing,  and  in  its  place  the  question  is  rising, — How  shall  we  use 
the  liturgy  ?  There  are  some  who  feel  that  the  liturgy  should 
be  used  in  its  simplest  form,  with  as  few  accessories  as  possible; 
there  are  others  who  believe  that  the  use  of  such  accessories  as 
may  serve  to  interpret  and  emphasize  its  meaning  is  a  distinct 
gain;  there  are  some  who  would  make  use  of  every  ceremonial 
precedent  which  the  lyUtheran  store-houses  of  Germany,  Denmark 
and  Sweden — and  they  are  capacious — contain.  There  is  a  strong 
feeling  in  certain  quarters  that  a  limit  should  be  set.  Who  is  to 
set  the  limit  ?  Consistently  with  Lutheran  doctrine  the  Church 
has  no  legislative  jurisdiction  in  the  matter.  It  dare  not  pre- 
scribe a  minimum  limit  save  that  prescribed  in  its  doctrine,  i.  e. , 
the  presence  of  Word  and  Sacrament,  and  just  as  little  has  it 
authority  to  say:  "Thus  far  and  no  farther."  In  either  case  it 
trespasses  on  Christian  liberty  by  making  an  issue  of  an  adi- 
aphoron  and  so  does  violence  to  its  own  doctrine.  But  there  is  a 
limit  and  it  is  already  set.  It  lies  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Word. 
All  that  is  contrary  to  God's  Word  must  be  summarily  rejected; 
and  whatever  tends  to  cover  over  the  clear  teaching  of  the  Word 
or  to  interfere  with  the  pure  conception  of  the  Sacraments  is,  in 
effect,  contrar}^  to  God's  Word,  If  liturgical  practice  needs  regu- 
lation let  it  be  governed  by  a  few  safe  rules,  i)  No  accessory 
of  the  liturgy  should  be  used  unless  it  has  a  clear  meaning. 

2)  That  meaning   must   be   understood   by    the   congregation; 

3)  must  bear  directly  upon  the  interpretation  of  the  liturgy,  and 

4)  must  be  consistent  with  Lutheran  doctrine.  Uniformity  of 
practice  cannot  be  enforced,  nor  is  it  desirable,  since  the  varying 
needs  and  circumstances  of  different  congregations  call  for  a  di- 
versity of  administration.  In  uniformity  of  doctrine  and  in  that 
alone  the  Church  finds  its  true  unity — that  unity  of  the  Spirit 
which  is  the  bond  of  peace. 

Charles  M.  Jacobs. 

North   Wales,  Pa. 


THE   CHURCH    PRAYER. 


This  title  suflSciently  denotes  that  the  object  of  our  paper  is  to 
examine  and  describe  the  prayer  of  the  believing  people  of  God 
in  their  assemblies  for  Christian  worship,  and  not  the  general 
subject  of  prayer,  or  its  particular  use  in  relation  to  the  individ- 
ual disciple.  It  is  not  the  question  of  how  ''thou  when  thou 
prayest' '  art  to  enter  thy  closet  and  shut  the  door  and  pray  to 
the  Father  in  secret,  but  the  question  answered  by  our  Lord  when 
He  said,  "whenj/<?  pray,  say.  Our  Father." 

The  distinctive  grounds  for  Christian  public  or  common 
prayer  are  to  be  found  in  the  giving  of  the  injunction  and  the 
form  for  such  prayer  by  our  Lord,  in  Matt,  vi,  and  Luke  xi,  and 
in  the  passages  Matt,  xviii,  19,  I  Tim.  ii,  1-4,  and  the  several 
instances  of  the  practice  of  united  praj^er  found  in  Acts  i,  13,  14; 
ii,  46,  etc. 

It  will  be  interesting  and  instructive  to  look  with  some  de- 
tail at  the  earliest  examples  of  the  use  and  place  of  prayer  in 
congregational  worship. 

THE   GENERAL   PRAYER. 

The  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians*  presents,  at  some 
length,  the  praj^er  of  the  Roman  congregation  at  Rome  about  the 
year  96  A.  D.  The  prayer  is  not  presented  as  a  mere  incident  of 
the  Epistle,  but  has  an  important  relation  to  the  whole,  which 
may  be  said  to  lead  up  to  it.  It  bears  all  the  marks  of  a  careful 
composition.  Balance  and  rhythm  are  carefully  studied,  and  al- 
most every  alternate  expression  is  selected  and  adapted  from  some 
part  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  distinctly  a  general  prayer. 
Beginning  with  an  elaborate  invocation  of  God,  arranged,  for  the 
most  part,  in  antithetical  sentences,  there  follow  special  interces- 
sions for  the  needy,  the  wanderers,  the  hungry,  the  prisoners,  etc. 


Appendix,  Lightfoot,  p.  269.  (xxxv) 


36  MEMOIRS. 

After  this  comes  a  general  confession  of  sins  and  prayer  for  for- 
giveness and  help.  It  closes  with  a  prayer  for  unity,  (especially 
appropriate  in  view  of  the  tone  of  the  whole  Epistle),  "Give  con- 
cord and  peace  to  us  and  to  all  that  dwell  on  the  earth,  as  Thou 
gavest  to  our  fathers  when  they  called  upon  Thee."  After  this 
comes  an  intercession  for  rulers.  The  whole  closes  with  a  dox- 
ology. 

The  prayer,  again,  may  be  analyzed  as  consisting  of  two 
parts,  each  beginning  with  a  hymn  to  God.  The  first  part  has 
ten  petitions,  for  the  needy  and  suffering  of  every  sort.  The 
second  part  has  nine  petitions,  essentially  related  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  moral  life,  through  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  and 
increase  of  spiritual  strength.* 

I^ightfoot  concludes  from  the  examination  of  the  prayer  that 
"there  was  at  this  time  no  authoritative  written  liturgy  in  use  in 
the  church  at  Rome,  but  the  prayers  were  modified  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  officiating  minister.  Under  the  dictation  of  habit  and 
experience,  however,  these  prayers  were  gradually  assuming  a 
fixed  form." 

As  the  pra^^er  is  found  in  an  Epistle,  and  not  in  connection 
with  any  account  of  the  regular  order  of  worship  in  the  Church, 
we  have  no  indication  of  its  place  in  the  liturgy. 

Justin  Martyr,  (b.  114,  d.  165  A.  D.),  living  at  Rome  when 
he  wrote,  gives  an  accormt  in  two  passages,  of  the  worship  of  the 
Church  at  his  time.  The  liturg>%  as  he  describes  it,  consisted  of 
I.  The  reading  of  '''the  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles  or  the  lVriti7igs 
of  the  Prophets:' 

2.  The  Sermon,  "the  president  verbally  instructs." 

3.  Prayer,  "then  we  all  rise  together  and  pray." 

4.  The  Oblation,  "bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought 
to  the  president." 

5.  Prayer  of  Thanksgiving,  "the  president,  in  like  manner 
offers  prayers  and  thanksgivings  according  to  his  ability,  and  the 
people  assent,  saying,  Amen."  f 

The  prayer  following  the  sermon,  of  whose  contents  nothing 
is  said  in  the  connection  above,  is  further  described  in  another 
place,  X  where  he  tells  of  the  welcome  given  to  the  newty  bap- 
tized, who  is  to  be  brought  to  the  place  "where  those  who  are 

*  Meusel's  Handlexikon,  sub.  v.  Kirchengebet. 

t  Atite-Nicene  Fathers,  Vol.  I.   p.  i86.  %  Ibid,  p.  185. 


THE    CHURCH    PRAYER.  37 

called  brethren  are  assembled,  in  order  that  we  ma}'  offer  hearty 
praj^ers  in  common  for  ourselves  and  for  the  baptized  person  and 
for  all  others,  in  every  place,  that  we  may  be  counted  worthy, 
now  that  we  have  learned  the  truth,  by  our  works  also  to  be  good 
citizens  and  keepers  of  the  commandments  so  that  we  may  be 
saved  with  an  everlasting  salvation."  After  the  praj^er  the  kiss 
of  peace  is  given,  and  then  the  order  of  the  service  is  identical 
with  that  just  given. 

In  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  ch.  lo,  a  work  as- 
cribed to  a  period  as  early  as  120  A.  D.,  the  order  of  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Eucharist  is  described  as  including  first,  a  prayer  of 
thanksgiving  concerning  the  cup,  then  concerning  the  broken 
bread.  Then,  "after  ye  are  filled,"  (an  expression  which  seems 
to  render  it  evident  that  the  Agape  is  understood  as  preceding) , 
another  giving  of  thanks  takes  place.  The  form  here  supplied 
includes  thanks  for  God's  name,  for  knowledge,  faith  and  immor- 
tality made  known  through  Jesus  His  servant,  for  the  creation 
of  all  things,  for  spiritual  food  and  drink,  and  concludes,  "Re- 
member Thy  Church,  deliver,  make  perfect,  gather  it  from  the 
four  winds,  sanctified,  into  Thj-  Kingdom." 

The  Apostolic  Constitutions,  (from  the  close  of  the  third 
centurj",  but  undoubtedly  representing  largely  the  usage  of  an 
earlier  date),  offer  us  the  "earliest  form  in  which  liturgical  ar- 
rangement, to  any  extent,  is  found."  In  the  second  book  of  the 
Constitutions ^^^  one  account  of  the  Eucharistic  liturgy   is  found. 

The  order  given  is,  first,  the  Scriptures  are  read.  Then  the 
presbyters  and  bishop  exhort,  and  after  this,  all  rise,  and  looking 
toward  the  East,  after  the  penitents  and  catechumens  have  gone 
out,  pra}'  to  God,  eastward.  The  oblations,  the  announcements, 
"Let  no  one  have  any  quarrel  against  another,"  "L,et  no  one 
come  in  hypocrisy"  and  the  kiss  of  peace  follow,  and  then  the 
deacon  prays  for  the  whole  Church,  for  the  whole  world  and  the 
several  parts  of  it,  and  for  the  fruits  of  it,  for  the  priests  and  the 
rulers,  for  the  high  priest  and  the  king,  and  for  the  peace  of  the 
universe.  After  this  the  "high  priest"  praj^s  for  peace  upon  the 
people,  and  blesses  them  with  the  O.  T.  benediction.  Then  the 
bishop  prays  for  the  people,  and  saj's:  "Save  Thy  people,  O  Lord, 
and  bless  Thine  inheritance  which  Thou  hast  obtained  with  the 
precious  blood  of  Thy  Christ,  and  hast  called  a  royal  priesthood 

*   Aiite-Nicene  Fathers,  pp.  421,  422. 


38  MEMOIRS. 

and  an  holy  nation."  "After  this  let  the  sacrifice  follow,  the  peo- 
ple standing  and  praying  silently.  And  when  the  oblation  has 
been  made  let  every  rank  by  itself  partake  of  the  L,ord's  body 
and  precious  blood  in  order,  and  approach  with  reverence  and 
holy  fear,  as  to  the  body  of  their  King." 

The  eighth  book  is  regarded  as  of  later  date  than  the  others, 
but  in  the  character  of  its  material  and  the  influence  it  had  upon 
later  forms  of  devotion,  it  is  of  great  significance.  It  presents  a 
much  fuller  form  of  worship,  in  which  the  exceedingly  large  place 
given  to  prayer,  and  the  great  length  of  many  of  the  prayers  is 
very  noticeable.     It  may  be  thus  summarized: 

1.  Scripture  Readmg,  from  the  "Law,  Prophets,  Epistles, 
Acts  and  Gospels. ' ' 

2.  Sanitation,  in  the  form  of  the  N.  T.  Benediction,  and 
Response,  "And  with  thy  spirit." 

3 .  Exhortation . 

4.  Dismissal  of  the  Unbelievers. 

5.  Biddi7ig  Prayer  for  the  Catechumens,  who  are  then  dis- 
missed. 

6.  Bidding  Prayer  for  Energum.ens.  Both  these  prayers  are 
to  be  said  by  the  deacon.  After  each  is  a  prayer  by  the  bishop, 
and  the  dismissal  of  those  prayed  for,  the  following  prayers  after 
the  same  manner. 

7.  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Baptized.  Prayer  by  the  bishop. 
Dismissal. 

8.  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Penitents.  Prayer  by  the  bishop. 
Dismissal. 

9.  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Faithful.  This  is  a  truly  General 
Prayer.  The  people  are  called  upon  to  pray  for  the  world,  all 
the  holy  churches,  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church,  the  parish 
in  this  place,  every  bishop  and  our  bishop,  other  bishops  and  par- 
ishes named,  for  presbyters,  deacons,  readers,  singers,  virgins, 
widows  and  orphans,  for  all  in  the  Church,  for  those  in  marriage 
and  child-bearing,  the  sick,  those  that  travel  by  water  or  by  land, 
those  in  the  mines,  in  banishments,  prisons  or  bonds,  in  bitter 
servitude,  for  enemies  and  persecutors,  for  wanderers,  for  infants 
of  the  Church,  and  for  one  another. 

10.  The  ''High  Priest''  Prays.  His  prayer,  however,  not 
being  nearly  so  long  as  the  bidding  prayer,  nor  taking  up  its  ob- 
jects in  detail. 


THE    CHURCH    PRAYER.  39 

11.  Salutation,  "the  peace  of  God  be  with  j'ou  all,"  and 
Respo7ise. 

12.  The  Kiss. 

13.  Salutation  and  Response  as  at  first. 

14.  The  Sursuni  Cor  da. 

15.  The  Preface,  continuing  without  interruption  into  the 
Thanksgiving .  Of  extreme  length,  containing  within  it,  and  as 
a  part  of  it,  the  Consecration  and  Oblation. 

16.  Another  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Faithful,  general  in  its 
character,  followed  by  prayer  by  the  bishop. 

1 7 .  Distribution . 

18.  Bidding  Prayer. 

It  is  noteworthy,  in  comparing  this  liturgy  with  later  ones, 
that  it  lacks  the  Lord's  Prayer.* 

The  liturgies  of  St.  James,  (Palestine),  of  St.  Mark,  (Alex- 
andria), of  St.  John,  (Gallican,  Mozarabic  and  Ephesian),  and  of 
St.  Peter,  (Roman),  all  begin  with  a  prefatory  prayer;  the  first 
two  provide  for  a  prayer  after  the  Lections,  and  the  first  three 
put  the  praj^er  variousl}^  referred  to  as  the  '  'prayer  for  all  condi- 
tions," the  "prayer  for  the  Church  Militant,"  or  the  "pra^-er  for 
the  Church,"  in  much  the  same  relative  position  in  reference  to 
the  whole  service. 

A  glance  at  the  material  cited  indicates  that  in  the  early  wor- 
ship of  the  Church  common  praj'er  had  a  recognized  and  promi- 
nent place.  Its  purpose  and  spirit  were  full}^  apprehended.  Cy- 
prian's statement,  '' Piiblica  est  nobis  ct  communis  oratio,  et  quando 
oramiis,  non  pro  uno,  sed pro  toto  popido  oramus  quia  totus  popnlus 
unum  sjinuis' '  is  exemplified  in  all  the  forms  which  have  remained 
to  us.  '  'The  Church  prayer  always  regards  the  need  of  the  whole 
congregation,  and  therefore  maintains  a  certain  spiritual  tone. 
According  to  their  content  and  form  the  oldest  congregational 
prayers  that  have  come  to  us  bear  this  character,  as  well  as  those 
in  the  agenda  of  the  century  of  the  Reformation.  Not  until  the 
time  of  Pietism  was  the  appreciation  of  the  distinction  between 
the  subjectively-Christian,  and  the  churchly  prayer  graduallj'  lost. 
The  Illumination,  however,  no  longer  had  any  idea  of  what  true 
prayer  is."  f 

The  distinction,  referred  to  hi   the  quotation,  between  the 

*  Apostol.  Const.     Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  book  VIII,   p.   483,    ff. 
t  Harnack,  in  Zoeckitr's  Ilandbuch,  Vol.  IV.  p.  432. 


40  MEMOIRS. 

subjective  prayer  of  the  Christian,  in  his  private  devotion,  and 
the  praj-er  of  the  collected  congregation  is  one  that  is  of  essential 
importance  if  this  part  of  the  public  servdce  is  to  be  rendered  in 
appropriate  form  and  spirit.  To  confuse  the  scope  and  object  of 
the  two  sorts  of  prayer  is  to  impair  seriously  the  beauty  and  fit- 
ness of  our  worship.  Nothing  can  be  more  necessary  than  pri- 
vate prayer.  Where  there  is  no  true,  spontaneous  reaching  out 
of  the  inner  life  toward  God,  telling  Him  of  the  burden  and  trial, 
beseeching  Him  for  the  relief  and  defence  needed,  imploring  His 
grace  and  goodness,  laying  before  Him  the  perplexities  and  ask- 
ing Him  to  give  the  promised  guidance,  there  is  no  true  life  of 
the  soul. 

But  there  is  a  life  of  the  Church  which  is  as  true  and  as 
much  to  be  recognized  as  the  life  of  the  individual.  The  Church 
is  an  organism  not  an  organization.  It  is  the  one  body  of  the 
One  Head.  It  has  its  own  needs,  its  own  duties,  its  own  neces- 
sity for  worship.  Hence  have  arisen  its  own  forms  of  worship, 
for  it  is  evident  that  the  Church  as  such  cannot  worship  accept- 
abl}^  and  unitedly  through  any  form  which  is  not  framed  to  suit 
its  needs,  but  which  is  merely  the  expression  of  the  subjective 
condition  of  the  one  who  leads  its  devotions.  Hence  the  value  of 
the  fixed  forms  which  have  been  subject  to  criticism  and  have 
been  proven  by  the  test  of  actual  use,  which  being  known  to  the 
congregation,  and  before  their  ej^es,  enable  them  to  follow  and  to 
participate,  as  the}^  could  not  do  in  any  form  of  words  arising  in 
the  mind  of  the  person  who  was  directing  their  worship.  An 
extemporaneous  phraseology  has  no  advantage,  because,  for  the 
most  part,  the  things  for  which  the  Church  is  bound  to  pray  are 
the  same  from  time  to  time.  The  need  of  confession,  of  thanks- 
giving, of  intercession,  of  supplication  for  the  welfare  of  God's 
people,  for  the  ingathering  of  the  wandering,  for  the  rulers,  for 
the  distressed  and  the  oppressed,  is  a  constant  need,  and  cannot 
be  voiced  in  more  beautiful  and  appropriate  language  than  that 
in  which  for  centuries  the  Church  has  given  it  expression.  The 
distinction  must  be  made  between  the  Christian  in  his  closet 
praying,  pouring  out  before  God,  in  spontaneous  speech,  all  his 
private  fears  and  hopes  and  needs,  on  the  one  hand;  and,  on  the 
other,  the  w^orshipping  congregation,  uttering  its  common  sup- 
plications, and  it  is  the  failure  to  make  this  distinction,  that  so 
often  results  in  the  entire  lack  of  a  true  General  Prayer,  and  in 


THE    CHURCH    PRAYER.  41 

the  painful  spectacle  of  a  pastor  ignoring  and  misinterpreting  his 
office  and  duty,  as  the  mouth-piece  of  the  congregation,  putting 
.some  desires  and  hopes  of  his  own.  or  even  some  moralings  over 
the  Sermon  he  has  just  preached,  in  the  place  that  belongs  to  the 
people  for  their  common  prayer.  And  it  is  the  ignorance  of  this 
distinction  on  the  part  of  the  people  that  is  the  ground  for  what- 
ever prejudice  may  yet  be  found  against  a  form  of  praj^er  for 
congregational  use.  In  the  closet  we  could  never  consent  to 
confine  our  prayers  to  forms.  There  the  heart  must  speak  out  in 
the  words  that  the  changing  circumstances  and  duties  and  sins  of 
every  day  suggest,  there  is  the  place  for  our  personal  entreaties 
and  for  the  utterance  in  His  sympathizing  ear  of  what  we  could 
say  in  no  human  ear,  and  of  what  none  else  could  say  for  us. 
God  forbid  that  we  should  underestimate  or  fail  to  use  that  pre- 
cious privilege.     But  when  we  assemble  as  the  Church, 

"Our  hopes,  our  fears,  our  aims  are  one, 
Our  comforts  and  our  cares," 

and  we  lose  much  if  we  do  not  understand  the  meaning  of  our 
common  worship,  or  if  we  throw  away  the  perfect  forms  in  which 
our  fathers  have  enshrined  the  common  aspirations  of  the  Church 
in  the  past,  and  the  present  and  the  future,  until  Jesus  comes 
again. 

The  ancient  authorities  also  indicate,  as  the  proper  place 
for  the  General  Prayer,  that  which  it  holds  in  the  Common  Ser- 
vice, between  the  Sermon  and  the  Communion.  The  posture 
was  that  of  standing. 

From  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  the  Church  Prayer  as 
an  especial  act  of  worship  disappears,  having  been  pushed  close  to 
the  Consecration  and  ofl'ering  of  the  Sacrament,  under  the  influ- 
"ence  of  the  development  of  the  sacrificial  idea  of  the  Mass  and  of 
the  thought  that  prayer  offered  in  the  offering  of  the  Mass  would 
be  sure  of  an  answer. ^^  The  Reformation  brings  back  the  Church 
Prayer  into  the  chief  service,  and,  with  few  exceptions  into  the 
proper  place,  providing  different  forms  when  the  Lord's  Supper 
was  celebrated  and  when  it  w  as  omitted.  The  Reformed  Church- 
es, in  their  Orders,  without  exception  prescribe  that  a  formulated 
Church  Prayer  be  read  from  the  pulpit  at  each  service.  In  the 
Deutsche  Messe  Luther  gave  a  paraphrase  of  the  Lord's  Pra^-er 
which  the  Pastor  was  to  read  at  the  altar,  after  the  Sermon  and 

*  Cf.   Horn,  Liturgies. 


42  MEMOIRS. 

before  the  Consecration.  Almost  all  the  Lutheran  Orders  give  a 
form  of  the  General  Prayer,  to  be  read  from  the  pulpit,  while  a 
few,  only,  leiave  it  to  the  pastor  to  extemporize.  This  is  in  case 
the  lyord's  Supper  is  to  follow.  When  there  are  no  communi- 
cants the  Prayer  is  to  be  read  at  the  altar  and  in  a  form  in  which 
the  congregation  actively  participates;  praying  with  the  pastor, 
the  lyitany,  (in  I/Uther's  improved  form),  or  the  Da  pacem,  or, 
in  special  cases,  singing  the  Te  Deum.* 

THE   LITANY. 

The  term  lyitany,  (from  Xtr^,  AtWo/xai),  used  by  the  pagans 
for  a  supplicatory  form  of  worship,  was  early  adopted  by  Chris- 
tian writers.  It  was  applied  to  earnest  prayer  arising  from  spe- 
cial necessities.  Early  litanies  are  connected  with  such  trials  as 
earthquakes,  droughts,  etc.  Fixed  litanies  are  first  found  in 
France  in  the  fifth  Century.  An  earthquake  in  450  A.  D.  gave 
occasion  to  Bishop  Mamercus  of  Vienna  to  appoint  the  three  days 
before  Ascension,  dies  rogationurn,  for  processions  through  the 
fields,  with  supplications  to  God.  Palmer  f  says  that  the  form  in 
which  the  prayers  of  the  Litany  are  conveyed,  is  plainly  derived 
from  oriental  models,  and  again  that  the  "litaneutical  form," 
common  in  the  East  was  sparingly  used  in  the  West.  But  it  is 
to  be  noticed  that  as  early  as  Justin  Martyr  the  general  prayer 
was  responded  to  by  the  people  with  Kyrie  Eleison^  and  that  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions  give  a  prayer  in  which  the  resemblance 
in  form  to  the  Litany  is  very  marked,  the  Deacon  announcing  the 
prayer,  Prosp/wncsis,  and  the  people  responding,  Kyrie  Eleison. 
The  Litanies  Minores,  supposed  by  Bingham  to  consist  only  of  a 
repetition  of  Kyrie  Eleisoji,  may  well  have  been  the  original  from 
which  the  Litania  Major,  developed,  and  if  form,  rather  than  the 
peculiar  processional  use,  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  mark  of  identi- 
fication, the  beginning  of  the  Litany  must  certainly  be  put  back 
much  earlier  than  the  fifth  or  even  the  fourth  century,  the  dates 
most  generally  accepted. 

As  has  been  suggested,  the  litanies  were  appointed  for  par- 
ticular times.  Rome  fixed  April  25,  for  the  regular  use  of  the 
Litany,  the  Litania  Septiformis  of  Gregory  the  Great.  The 
Council  of  Orleans,  511  A.  D.  appoints  them  permanently  for  the 
use  of  the  Gallic  Churches  preparatory  to  the  celebration  of  a 

•  Meusel,  Handlexikon,  sub.  v.  Kirchengehei.  t    Origines,  Vol.  I,  p.  267. 


THE  CHURCH    PRAYER.  43 

high  festival.  In  the  Spanish  Church  they  were  observed  in  the 
week  after  Pentecost,  Other  Councils  apjx)inted  them  for  various 
other  seasons,  till,  in  the  seventeenth  Council  of  Toledo,  in  694 
A.  D.  the  use  of  them  was  decreed  once  each  month.  By  de- 
grees, they  were  extended  to  two  da3'S  in  each  week,  and  Wed- 
nesday and  Friday,  being  the  ancient  dies  stationum,  were  set 
apart  for  that  purpose.  This  usage  was  characteristic  of  the 
Western  Church,  tlie  Eastern  Church  of  ancient  days  and  of  the 
present  not  appointing  stated  seasons  for  their  use,  but  confining 
such  services  to  extraordinary  occasions. 

The  text  of  the  lyitany  was  never  directed  to  the  special  oc- 
casion. Hymns,  the  seven  penitential  Psalms,  and  the  simple 
Kyrie  were  the  basis.  I^ater  their  use  was  so  extended  that  the 
clergy  intoned  the  single  petitions  and  the  people  responded  with, 
*'^eleiso7i,  7)iiscrere,  exaudi,  libera  nos,  parce  nobis. ''  So  the  Lita- 
ny received  more  and  more  the  form  of  a  general  prayer. 

A  Fuldensian  Codex  offers  the  oldest  form  of  the  text  of  the 
lyitany.  It  has  no  invocations  of  saints,  (these,  also,  are  not 
found  in  any  of  the  Eastern  litanies),  and  remembers  the  cate- 
chumens and  penitents,  as  well  as  the  Roman  Emperor  and  army. 
A  second  form,  from  the  ninth  centuiy,  directs  petitions  to  Mar>\ 
the  angels  and  saints,  and  concludes  with  the  Agnus  Dei. 

The  full  Roman  L,itany  has,  after  the  Kyrie,  the  invocation 
of  Mary  and  the  saints,  and  after  this  the  petitions,  deprecations, 
etc.,  concluding  with  the  .^/^;/;^.y  Z^(f/.  Then  follow  different  re- 
sponsories  and  prayers.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  response  of 
the  congregation  to  the  invocation  of  saints  is  ''ora pro  nobis.'" 
A  large  number  of  litanies  also  arose  in  the  Roman  Church  which 
were  directed  only  to  Mary,  or  even  to  the  heart  of  Mary,  or  to 
other  saints.  After  the  Reformation  the  Romanists  prayed  spe- 
cial litanies  adversus  Juvretieos. 

Euther  simply  took  out  what  was  un.sound  and  unscriptural 
in  the  Roman  Eitany,  changed  the  order  of  some  of  the  petitions 
and  added  others,  enriching  the  ancient  prayer.  He  prepared 
and  published  it  in  Eatin  and  German.  The  two  are  not  essen- 
tially different.  The  German  Eitany  was  taken  up  by  almost  all 
the  Eutheran  orders,  with  slight  changes. 

From  an  early  period  the  litanies  had  been  used  in  the  Mat- 
ins, Vespers  and  Hours.  After  Gregory  the  Great  they  had  a 
place  also  in  the  Chief  Service,  at  the  beginning,  after  the  Introit, 


44  MEMOIRS. 

on  the  Sundays  of  the  Passion  season,  when  the  Gloria  in  Excel- 
sis  was  omitted.     This  usage  still  exists  in  the  Milan  Church. 

After  the  Reformation  the  Litany  is  found  appointed  for 
stated  times,  Rogation  Sundays,  prayer-services  in  the  week,  dies 
stationuvi,  and  also  for  special  occasions,  e.  g.  Ordination.  But 
it  also  finds  a  place  now  in  the  Chief  Service,  as  a  general  Prayer. 
This,  according  to  I^utheran  conception  and  practice,  it  properly 
is,  and  ought  not  to  be  conceived  of  as  merely  a  prayer  of  re- 
pentance as  the  Church  of  Rome  considers  it. 

The  Reformed  Churches  entirely  rejected  the  lyitany.  In 
the  time  of  liturgical  destruction,  also,  the  use  of  the  Litany  as  a 
General  Prayer  was  almost  entirely  abandoned.  But  the  appre- 
ciation of  this  prayer  which  Luther  expressed,  and  the  correct 
conception  of  its  meaning  and  purpose,  with  the  peculiar  propri- 
ety of  the  active  participation  of  the  congregation  in  its  common 
prayer,  has  brought  this  historically  given  form  into  ever  increas- 
ing favor.  Up  to  the  i8th  century  the  Litany  was  highly  es- 
teemed, so  much  so  that  in  the  17th  century  several  commentaries 
on  the  Litan)^  appeared.  After  that  it  fell  into  disesteem.  Its 
length  was  criticised.  Its  objective  character  was  displeasing  to 
the  subjectivism  of  Pietism.  In  South  Germany  it  was  used 
without  responses  in  uno  tenore.  The  petitions  were  grouped  to- 
gether. It  disappeared  entirely  from  some  hymn-books.  Ra- 
tionalism put  it  aside.  The  method  is  aptly  described  by  Klie- 
foth,  and  has  its  counterpart  in  some  experiences  in  our  own  land. 
"First  they  would  not  have  the  congregations  sing  the  Litany 
with  the  necessary  result  that  it  became  unfamiliar.  Then  they 
used  the  ignorance  of  it  on  the  part  of  the  congregation  as  a  re- 
proach against  it."  To  the  liturgical  awakening  due  so  largely 
to  Kliefoth  and  Schoeberlein  we  owe  it  that  the  value  of  the  Lit- 
any has  again  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  Lutheran  congre- 
gations, and  that  it  has  regained  its  due  position. 

Luther's  Latin  Litany  was  used  in  Wittenberg,  and  was 
sung  by  two  choirs  of  school-boys.  The  German  Litany  was  al- 
so rendered  by  the  leadership  of  two  choirs  of  school-boys,  one 
choir  in  the  middle  of  the  church  intoning  the  single  petitions, 
and  the  congregation  led  by  the  other  choir,  singing  the  re- 
sponses. Another  method  was  to  have  the  pastor,  facing  the  al- 
tar, intone  the  petitions,  the  congregation  and  choir  responding.* 
*  For  the  whole  treatment  of  the  Litany  see  Meusel's  Handlcxikon. 


THS   CHURCH    PRAYISR.  45 


THE   COLLECTS. 


The  origin  of  the  Collects  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Dr. 
Horn  *  conjectures  that  their  model  may  have  been  given  by  Acts 
i.  24,  25  and  Acts  iv.  24-30.  Their  name  denotes  that  thej^  are 
prayers  in  which  the  wants  and  perils,  or  wishes  and  desires,  of 
the  whole  peoj^le  or  Church,  are  collectively  presented  to  God. 
They  are  comprehensive  prayers,  changing  with  the  seasons  and 
festivals  of  the  Church  Year,  many  of  which  our  Church  has 
adopted  from  the  ancient  liturgies,  and  some  which  she  has  formed 
for  herself.  They  are  either  penitential  or  supplicatory  Collects 
which  as  introductorj^  prayers,  (read  before  the  Epistle  and  Gos- 
pel), express  the  fact  of  the  day  or  the  thought  of  the  season  and 
connect  with  it  a  supplication  for  appropriate  grace;  or  thej^  are 
Collects  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  which  as  closing  praj-ers  be- 
gin with  thanks  for  the  gift  of  grace  received  and  end  with  a 
prayer  to  be  kept  in  the  same.  They  were  used  from  a  remote 
period  in  the  Western  churches,  and  are  found  in  the  earliest 
monuments  of  the  Roman  liturgy,  f  Most  of  those  which  we  use 
are  taken  from  Gregory  the  Great,  or  the  Sacramentaries  of 
Gelasius  or  Leo.  The  latter  vv'as  used  in  the  Roman  Church,  A. 
D.  483,  and,  according  to  Palmer,  its  Collects  are  much  more 
ancient  than  those  of  Gelasius,  (A.  D.  494)  and  may  be  referred 
to  the  end  of  the  fourth  centur}'. 

The  Gregorian  Mass  gave  a  special  Collect  to  every  principal 
Service.  Later  the  multiplication  of  Collects  caused  complaint. 
Lohe  says:  "the  Lutheran  Church  retained  in  her  most  ancient 
liturgies  the  custom  of  praj'ing  a  collect  de  tempore  before  the 
Epistle.  She  arranged  festival  collects  for  the  first  half  of  the 
Church  Year,  but  made  no  provision  for  the  second  half,  except 
to  leave  it  to  the  ministers  to  select  one  of  the  common  collects 
according  to  the  character  of  the  Sunday." 

Luther  restricted  the  use  of  collects  before  the  Lection  to  one, 
but  favored  the  change  of  collect  with  the  varying  season.  The 
Brandenburg- Niirnburg  Order  has  fifteen  common  collects  and 
one  each  for  the  festival  of  Christmas,  the  Passion  season,  and 
the  festivals  of  Easter,  Ascension,  Whitsiuiday  and  Trinity;  one 
for  the  coming  of  God's  Kingdom,  one  for  the  doing  of  God's  will 
and  two  Pro  Pace.     Nearly  all  the  other  Orders  followed  the  same 


Liiiiigics,   p.  72.  t   Palmer's  Of'i^ 


46  •  MEMOIRS. 

plan  of  giving  a  small  number  of  collects.  The  objection  to  a 
change  of  collect  for  each  Sunday  and  festival  was  that  the  peo- 
ple ought  to  be  able  to  follow  and  pray  them  with  the  pastor,  an 
objection  which  has  no  force  when  every  member  of  the  congre- 
gation has  a  book  containing  the  appointed  collect  which  is  easily 
to  be  found.  The  sources  of  the  collects  given  in  the  Common 
Service  may  be  found  in  "The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England."* 
The  Church  has  ever  used  and  provided  for  the  united  sup- 
plication of  her  worshipping  people,  and  our  forms  of  prayer  are 
scriptural,  historical  and  in  fullest  accord  with  the  best  traditions 
of  the  purest  days  of  the  Church's  life.  Hallowed  by  the  use  of 
the  centuries,  tested  and  approved  by  their  perfect  adaptedness 
to  bear  the  devotion  of  the  saintly  generations  to  the  throne  of 
grace,  fragrant  as  the  incense  of  the  Temple  with  the  odor  of 
sanctity  and  with  the  associations  that  cannot  be  separated  from 
them,  they  are  vital  to-day,  to  every  devout  spirit,  and  bear  us 
backward  in  sweet  communion  with  the  Church  of  all  ages,  while 
they  lift  us  Heavenward,  in  our  piu-est  aspirations. 

"O  where  are  Kings  and  empires  now, 

Of  old  that  went  and  came  ? 
But,  Lord,  Thy  Church  is  praying  yet, 

A  thousand  years  the  same." 

C.  Armand  Miller. 
New   York,  N.    Y. 

*  Jacobs,  p.  297. 


THE   VAI.UE  OF 
LITURGICAL  STUDY   FOR   ORGANISTS. 


The  church  organist,  by  virtue  of  his  position,  is  a  person 
of  more  than  passing  importance,  for  upon  him  is  largely  depend- 
ent the  proper  expression  of  public  worship,  and  in  him  is  vested 
an  educational  power,  which  is  wielded,  not  only  over  a  few  indi- 
viduals, but  over  the  entire  congregation.  It  is  true  in  case  of 
necessity,  we  may  be  forced  to  ignore  him,  j^et  we  all  feel,  under 
normal  conditions,  the  value  of  his  presence  and  services.  From 
the  organ-loft  he  rules,  for  weal  or  w^oe,  over  the  most  subtle  in- 
fluence temporally  speaking,  that  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
people.  While  in  all  else  listlessness  may  be  in  control,  yet  mu- 
sic may  permeate  quietly  and  unobtrusively  into  the  soul  with 
the  gentle  touch  of  revivifying  power.  Gladness  ought  to  be  ex- 
pressed and  from  the  organ  comes  the  jubilant  invitation  to  "Re- 
joice all  ye  believers."  Penitence  is  to  take  possession,  then  by 
the  plaintive  sighings  of  the  organ  our  emotions  are  led  in  the 
proper  way.  So,  to  all  inter\^ening  states  music  adapts  itself,  and 
readily  lends  its  power  and  influence  to  obtain  the  desired  results. 
Unless  deafness  be  our  portion  we  can  scared}^  escape  its  influ- 
ence, for  where  it  is  heard,  there  it  takes  quiet  possession.  How 
essential  is  it  then,  that  this  power  should  be  properly  and  judi- 
ciously exercised;  that  its  influence  should  be  understandingly 
utilized  and  made  most  effective.  In  the  church  such  under- 
standing is  of  vital  necessity  to  its  proper  use.  Hence  arises  the 
question  concerning  the  value  of  liturgical  study  for  organists. 

The  value  of  such  study  is  plainly  evident  to  all  who  are  in- 
terested in  any  way  in  the  proper  comprehension  of  the  subject 
under  consideration,  and  of  these  none  should  be  more  interested 
than  organists.  They,  by  their  very  position,  are  constrained  to 
follow  such  lines  of  study.     They  are  continually  confronted  by 

(xlvii) 


48  mi;moirs. 

liturgical  questions,  theoretical  and  practical,  and  should  be  in  a 
position  to  properly  deal  with  them.  This  necessitates  study, 
and  study  which  is  not  of  the  superficial  type,  for  here  as  in  oth- 
er relations 

"A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing; 

Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring." 

To  do  this  they  must  step  backward  into  past  ages,  yea  even 
beyond  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  cultus,  for  in  the  Jewish  ritual 
we  find  the  first  established  form  of  worship  to  the  only  true  God. 
And  as  the  prophecies  preceded  the  Son  of  Righteousness  and 
found  in  Him  their  fullest  expression,  so  has  the  ancient  Jewish 
ritual  yielded  to  the  spirit  of  Christian  worship.  This  ancient 
worship  of  the  Jews  however,  was  not  entirely  destroyed  but 
only  superseded,  and  we  find  it  in  many  waj'S  coloring  the  more 
enlightened  worship  of  the  new  era.  This  condition  we  note  in 
the  transfer  of  the  Psalter  bodily  to  the  new  form  of  worship, — 
in  the  merging  of  the  Passover  into  the  Festival  of  Easter, — of 
the  Festival  of  Harv^est  or  Pentecost  into  the  Christian  Pentecost 
or  Whitsunday.  Thus  is  seen  the  inception  of  the  new  cultus  of 
worship,  meagre  in  point  of  details,  yet  carrying  over  the  Holy 
songs  of  the  temple  worship  and  infusing  them  with  renewed  life. 
Man  realizes  with  pleasure  that  the  Master  Himself  sang  thus 
with  His  Disciples  at  their  last  Passover.  And  from  the  heathen 
Pliny  in  his  letter  to  the  Roman  Emperor,  we  learn  that  the  earl}- 
Christians  were  wont  to  come  together  to  sing  their  "psalms,  and 
hymns,  and  spiritual  songs."  Soon  certain  great  truths  came 
into  clearer  light  and  about  them  were  clustered  forms  of  expres- 
sion. These  integral  parts  readily  found  points  of  contact  and 
thus  the  liturgy  was  gradually  woven  into  one  harmonious  whole. 
The  attention  of  the  organist  will  then  find  an  abundant  field 
of  operations  in  tracing  the  growth  of  the  liturgy  until  it  became 
overweighted  and  was  returned  in  the  Reformation  among  the 
Swiss  Reformers  to  a  bald,  bare  type  of  worship,  and  among  the 
Germans  to  a  conserv^ative  mean.  In  tracing  the  growth  of  the 
liturgy  the  organist,  if  he  is  thorough,  will  be  led  into  a  consid- 
eration of  the  ramifications  of  that  growth  as  they  group  them- 
selves into  families,  e.  g.  the  Eastern  and  Western  Church;  and 
as  these  are  again  subdivided  in  the  East  into  the  Greek,  Arme- 
nian, Nestorian,  etc.;  and  in  the  West  into  Roman,  Galilean, 
Ambrosian,    Mozarabic   and   others.      By   thus    approaching   the 


THE  VALLTE   OF   LITURGICAL  STUDY   FOR   ORGANISTS.         49 

subject  in  its  broadest  and  most  general  aspects,  the  ground  plan 
is  laid  according  to  an  ample  measure  and  of  substantial  materi- 
al, so  that  the  superstructure  will  not  be  endangered  by  the 
weakness  of  the  foundation. 

In  this  way  is  gained  not  simpl}-  knowledge  but  a  glimpse  is 
also  obtained  of  the  animating  spirit  of  liturgies  generally,  and 
of  its  different  manifestations.  Liturgies  is  simply  engaged  with 
the  proper  setting  forth  of  the  worship  of  the  Eternal  God.  It 
aims  to  put  that  worship  in  the  most  chaste  form,  to  beautify  it, 
as  the  Psalmist  has  said  to  "worship  the  Lord  in  the  beauty  of 
holiness,"  to  invest  every  act  with  fullest  significance,  to  impress 
the  great  truths  of  Christianity,  to  declare  unto  man  in  many 
ways  that  he  worships,  that  he  is  in  the  presence  of  the  Most 
High.  The  spirit  of  liturgies  is  essentially  the  spirit  of  worship. 
With  organists,  in  a  greater  degree  than  with  most  men,  should 
this  spirit  be  present,  that  God  may  be  worshipped  in  spirit  and 
truth,  and  that  all  things  may  be  done  decently  and  in  order. 
This  spirit  goes  much  further  than  simpl>'  to  follow  rubrical  di- 
rections, but  is  a  spirit  moving  upon  the  face  of  the  waters  bring- 
ing order  out  of  chaos.  It  is  a  guardian  angel  protecting  us  from 
excrescences,  from  mutilations  and  extraneous  matters.  It  guides 
and  directs  where  there  are  no  written  laws  and  at  all  times  and 
under  all  conditions  it  exerts  its  powerful,  even  if  silent,  influence. 

It  will  not  be  long  before  the  student  organist  will  find  that 
the  liturgy  is  not  simply  a  form  of  worship  but  is  essentially  a 
confession  of  faith.  We  see  this  in  the  differences  between  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Church,  and  find  it  especially  marked  in  the 
Nestorian  liturgy  where  its  parts  are  adapted  to  meet  the  arch- 
error  of  Nestorianism,  namely,  its  Christological  doctrine.  The 
Reformers  found  abundant  error  in  the  Roman  liturgy  and  among 
their  early  tasks  was  the  necessity  of  purging  and  purifying  the 
liturgy  that  it  might  give  proper  expression  to  the  true  faith. 
This  confessional  characier  of  the  liturgy  must  be  ever  kept  in 
mind,  so  that  we  may  not  only  possess  the  spirit  of  worship  but 
al.so  the  spirit  of  true  worship. 

A  general  knowledge  of  liturgies,  however,  is  not  sufficient, 
for,  as  we  intimated  above,  there  are  many  digressions  and  many 
animating  spirits.  This  should  lead  organists  to  more  specific 
lines  of  study,  that  they  may  leani  to  know  the  animating  spirit 
of  each  church  body,  the  significance  of  their  forms  of  worship, 


50  MEMOIRS. 

and  the  general  trend  of  their  teachings  and  practice.  This  will 
be  especially  valuable  in  the  consideration  of  such  church  bodies 
as  are  immediately  about  the  organist  or  even  those  of  the 
same  country.  Each  body  will  have  distinctive  characteristics 
and  will  disseminate  its  particular  influences  in  a  narrow  sphere 
by  its  practices  and  in  a  broader  sphere  by  means  of  its  publica- 
tions. Organists  should  know  them  well  in  order  that  they  may 
avoid  their  extravagances,  profit  by  their  shortcomings,  escape 
their  weaknesses  and  not  be  led  astray  by  the  passingly  beautiful. 
Rather  be  strong  enough  to  influence  them  or  they  will  surely 
influence  you.  This  means  that  of  all  churches  you  must  be 
best  acquainted  with  your  own.  Information  that  is  general 
should  be  reinforced  by  that  which  is  specifically  to  your  pur- 
pose. Here  there  enters  that  study  of  the  church  of  the  Refor- 
mation with  her  conservative  tendencies,  3^et  strongly  contending 
for  the  truth;  the  central  position  she  gives  to  the  Word  and  at 
the  same  time  not  neglecting  the  place  and  power  of  the  Holy 
Sacraments;  the  retention  of  much  that  was  proper,  lawful,  beau- 
tiful and  not  contrar>^  to  Scripture — as  opposed  to  iconoclasm, — 
her  animating  spirit  should  be  thoroughly  imbibed  if  we  would 
comprehend  her  liturgy. 

If  we  stop  to  compare  the  different  church  bodies  we  will 
find  further  reason  for  thought  connected  with  our  subject.  In 
the  non-liturgical  church  bodies  we  find  the  controlling  power 
to  be  exercised  mainly  through  the  emotions.  This  naturally 
affects  whatever  form  of  worship  they  may  have  and  has  its 
influence  over  all  that  pertains  to  public  worship,  notably  over 
its  music.  Hence  we  must  not  be '  too  quick  to  adopt  music 
which  has  sprung  from  such  a  source.  The  liturgical  church 
bodies  ordinarily  adopt  the  educational  mode  of  indoctrination 
and  this  is  reflected  in  their  sober  forms  of  worship.  But  here 
again  distinctions  arise  according  to  doctrine  and  according  to 
the  dominating  spirit  in  worship,  whether  of  display  or  of  devo- 
tion. Thus  by  a  comparative  study  we  may  know  how  to  act 
judiciously.  And  here  permit  me  to  add  we  have  a  strong  argu- 
ment for  distinctively  Lutheran  organists,  i.  e.  organists  imbued 
with  the  lyUtheran  spirit  of  worship. 

The  spirit  of  liturgies  being  the  spirit  of  worship  we  can 
readily  imagine  that  the  best  results  will  only  be  obtained  by 
those   who   approach    the   subject    with   true   Christian   feeling. 


THE   VALUE   OF   LITURGICAL  STUDY   FOR   ORGANISTS.         51 

How  an  infidel  or  unbeliever  can  gain  the  best  results  is  incon- 
ceivable. At  the  best  it  would  be  simply  an  intellectual  process 
which  could  not  adequately  comprehend  the  hidden  beauties 
alone  revealed  to  believers.  The  mysteries  of  the  Christian  faith 
as  expressed  in  the  liturgy  should  be  received  into  sympathetic 
minds  and  hearts,  or  else  we  will  have  nothing  more  than  the 
senseless  verbiage  of  lip- worship.  This  condition  being  present, 
it  can  not  help  but  show  itself  practically. 

As  the  organist  proceeds  in  his  study,  he  will  learn  that  the 
liturgy  does  not  stand  alone,  an  isolated,  forsaken  creature,  but 
is  intimately  bound  up  with  many  avenues  of  church  activity, 
and  has  continually  exercised  its  influence  over  them.  Thus  the 
cruciform  style  in  church  architecture  arises  from  a  liturgical 
consideration.  The  position  of  the  altar,  the  painting  of  win- 
dows, and  the  other  symbolical  creations  have  sprung  largely 
from  this  same  consideration.  But,  what  is  more  to  the  point  of 
our  subject,  is  the  influence  exerted  by  the  liturgy  over  church 
music.  If  we  step  back  again  into  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  we 
will  find  that  the  music  is  principally  vocal,  sustained  and  accom- 
panied b}'  instruments  such  as  the  harp,  psaltery,  horn,  trumpet 
and  cornet.  Undoubtedly,  the  sweet  singer  of  Israel  in  providing 
for  the  courses  of  priests  to  take  charge  of  the  temple  worship, 
made  ample  provision  for  the  musical  portion  of  that  worship. 
Music  that  would  be  adapted  especially  for  the  services  of  the 
temple  to  set  forth  the  glory  and  honor  of  God.  In  the  number 
of  instruments,  in  the  multitude  of  singers  we  see  the  indications 
of  this  elaborate  musical  arrangement.  When  we  enter  the 
Christian  era  we  do  not  have  this  elaborate  ritual,  but  it  would 
be  most  natural  for  us  to  think  of  the  Christians  as  appropriating 
some  of  the  temple  music.  And,  in  that  age  of  purity  we  would 
expect  the  thoughts  of  their  hymns  and  spiritual  songs  to  influ- 
ence and  modify  their  musical  settings.  A  large  repertoire  of 
music  they  undoubtedly  did  not  have,  but  what  they  did  have  we 
would  expect  to  be  marked  by  chasteness  and  simplicity.  In  the 
quickly  succeeding  centuries  we  have  seen  the  growth  of  the  lit- 
urgy and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  its  musical  accompani- 
ment did  not  lag  far  behind.  When  we  come  to  clearer  historical 
light  we  learn  that  music  had  become  a  very  necessary  part  of 
worship  and  special  efforts  were  made  to  properly  render  it  by 
establishing  schools  for  singers  whose  spheres  of  activity  were 


52  MEMOIRS. 

within  the  church.  At  about  the  same  time,  and  perhaps  result- 
ing from  the  special  interest  awakened  in  the  subject,  the  ecclesi- 
astical modes  were  established.  These  modes,  ascribed  parti}'  to 
Gregory  the  Great  and  partly  to  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  are 
the  links  uniting  ancient  and  modem  music.  The  modes  were, 
without  doubt,  influenced  by  the  liturgy.  They  seem  to  have 
been  the  special  property  of  the  church  as  they  are  to  this  day. 
Their  use  was  to  render  vocal-  and  more  impressive  the  subject 
matter  of  the  liturgy.  From  this  we  readily  infer  that  music  was 
not  the  dominating  power  but  rather  the  liturgy,  and  that  music 
was  the  obedient  servant  of  a  most  worthy  mistress,  seeking  to 
serve  her  to  the  best  of  its  abilit3\  This  truth  we  see  again  ex- 
emplified in  the  productions  of  the  classic  period  of  figurated 
church  music.  When  music  had  sunk  so  low  as  to  give  cause  for 
serious  consideration  of  its  abandonment  in  connection  with  the 
liturgy,  Palestrina  arose,  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  liturgy, 
which  threw  its  influence  about  him  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
thoroughly  permeate  his  works  by  its  devotion.  "This  was 
the  commencement  of  a  revolution  in  sacred  music,  which  by 
his  influence  became  simple,  thoughtful,  aspiring,  sincere  and 
noble  but  destitute  of  passion  and  tenderness.  The  most  spiritual 
of  all  arts  it  raised  the  heart  into  immediate  communion  with  the 
Infinite  ...  it  found  opportunity  to  express  and  to  elevate  by 
its  various  combinations  of  sounds  every  kind  of  Christian  feel- 
ing." Hence  a  proper  understanding  of  the  liturgy  is  essential 
to  the  proper  and  full  understanding  of  church  music. 

Such  liturgical  knowledge  proves  its  value  when  organists 
seek  to  express  the  liturg}-  in  the  best  way  possible.  Music,  be 
it  remembered,  is  the  most  acceptable  and  effective  means  by 
which  to  obtain  this  end.  For  "a  fervent  spirit  of  devotion  in- 
stinctively seeks  to  express  itself  in  song.  On  the  strains  of 
poetry,"  or  prose,  "joined  with  music  it  finds  an  easy  and 
natural  utterance  of  its  elevated  emotions."  This  leads  us  to  the 
thought  of  the  purpose  of  music  in  the  church.  In  the  liturgy 
we  render  the  sacrifices  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving  and 
receive  the  ministrations  of  the  Word  and  Sacraments.  The  mu- 
sic of  the  liturgy  should  be  expressive  of  the  same  emotions  which 
are  expressed  in  the  liturgy  itself.  Such  music  should  be  able  to 
express  devotion,  a  devotion  which  reaches  the  heart  of  the  be- 
liever and  stirs  it  with   the  thought  of  God.     It  should  be  ex- 


THE  VALTDE  OP  LITUROlCAlv  STUDY   FOR   ORGANISTS.         53 

pressive  of  praise  which  arovises  the  soul  to  honor  God.  Its 
ministrations  should  deepen  the  impression  of  prayer.  And  in 
thanksgiving  it  should  find  no  difficulty  in  rendering  vocal  the 
outpourings  of  the  appreciative  heart.  Whatever  the  liturgy  de- 
mands that  is  the  province  of  church  music  to  express.  If  the 
piercing  sorrows  of  Good  Friday  encompass  us,  to  this  the  music 
IS  to  adapt  its  cry;  but  if  the  joys  of  Easter  strive  for  expression 
then  shall  the  music  break  forth  in  joyful  tones.  Thus  church 
music  must  first  of  all  express  the  var5dng  changes  of  the  liturgy 
and  in  such  a  way  that  the  thought  of  the  liturgy  is  exalted  and 
not  the  music  alone  as  such.  Such  music  must  as  well  fill  the 
requirements  of  devotion  for  its  verj-  purpose  is  to  enhance,  not 
to  detract  from  the  spirit  of  worship.  In  this  connection  we  are 
reminded  of  iVugustine's  definition  of  a  hymn,  "Know-  ye  w^hat 
a  hymn  is?  It  is  a  song  with  praise  of  God.  If  thou  praisest 
God  and  singest  not,  thou  utterest  no  hymn;  if  thou  singest  and 
praisest  not  God,  thou  utterest  no  hymn;  if  thou  praisest  aught 
else  wdiich  pertaineth  not  to  the  praise  of  God,  although  thou 
singest  and  praisest,  thou  utterest  no  hymn.  An  hymn,  then, 
containeth  these  three  things,  song,  and  praise,  and  that  of  God." 
And  thus  does  the  proper  expression  of  the  liturgy  contain  these 
three  things,  song,  and  praise,  and  that  of  God. 

The  rigid  requirements  of  devotional  propriety  wnll  not  re- 
lieve the  organist  from  liturgical  inquiry',  bvit  will  rather  enhance 
the  necessit)"  for  such  investigation.  For  only  thus  W'ill  he  be  in 
a  position  to  make  such  a  selection  of  music  as  will  meet  the  re- 
quirements. By  his  researches  he  w'ill  find  that  liturgy-  and  mu- 
sic have  long  been  wedded,  and  in  w-orship  one  is  scarcely  complete 
without  the  other.  He  will  find  what  he  may  deem  a  peculiar 
kind  of  music  but  which  has  been  in  the  sole  possession  and  use 
of  the  cliurch — music,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  has  responded  to 
the  strong  influence  of  the  liturgy  and  thus  is  eminently  fitted  to 
express  all  the  liturgy's  varying  moods.  To  this  source  he  will 
turn  for  his  choicest  settings  of  the  liturgy,  settings  marked  by 
simplicity,  3'et  capable  of  utmost  grandeur. 

The  worshipful  spirit  should  as  well  be  present  in  the  liymn 
tunes,  so  that  here  the  organist's  liturgical  animus  renders  valua- 
ble aid.  The  tunes  will  thus  be  adapted  to  the  thought  of  the 
h>'mn  and  will  be  selected  from  the  very  best  .sources  made  avail- 
able by  research.     The  major  mode  will  not  be  made  to  express 


54  MEMOIRS. 

that  for  which  it  is  not  intended,  but  will  be  ably  seconded  by  its 
sister,  the  minor  mode  whose  plaintive  strains  will  give  voice  to 
our  feelings. of  penitence  and  sorrow.  Neither  will  the  one  and 
same  tune  be  made  to  do  an  endless  multitude  of  tasks,  now  tripping 
along  gladl}',  again  suddenly  assuming  a  dignified,  sober  counte- 
nance, then  presumptuously  called  upon  to  wail  forth  in  a  funeral 
dirge,  and  in  the  next  attempt  rebounding  to  the  first  extreme  of 
jo3^  Nor  do  we  advocate  an  endless  number  of  tunes,  but  at 
least  one  for  the  distinctive  character  of  classes  of  hymns,  suited 
to  properly  express  that  distinctive  character.  In  the  selection 
of  responsories  and  anthems  the  same  judicious  care  will  be  exer- 
cised by  the  organist  who  is  liturgicalh^  instructed  and  he  will 
allow  nothing  to  find  place  which  does  not  add  to  the  devotional 
plan  of  that  particular  service. 

In  his  individual  work  upon  the  organ  in  prelude,  interlude 
or  postlude  the  same  rule  will  confine  him  within  the  bounds  of 
the  proprieties  of  the  worship  of  the  Eternal  One.  Where  there 
is  a  proper  liturgical  spirit  on  his  part  we  will  scarcel)'  be  called 
upon  to  listen  to  one  of  Rossini's  overtures  as  an  accompaniment 
to  worship,  a  selection  from  some  symphony,  an  adaptation 
from  Cavaleria,  Rusticana,  or,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  to  find 
Wagner  doing  service  through  the  medium  of  one  of  his  operas 
which  can  scarcely  be  said  to  revel  in  a  worshipful  spirit.  Quiet- 
ly the  music  transports  3'ou  from  your  pew  to  a  large  building 
filled  with  Grand  Opera  enthusiasts.  You  heai  their  comments 
on  the  singers,  the  orchestra,  the  managers,  the  unfortunate 
neighbor  who  has  excited  their  curiosity  or  ire.  A  prelude  is 
being  played,  you  enjoy  it,  yet  j'ou  are  waiting  patiently  for  the 
curtain  to  rise.  The  closing  cadences  fall  upon  your  ears.  Your 
eyes  seek  the  stage.  But — what  meaneth  that  dark-robed  figure, 
— Ah!  it  is  the  pastor  and  you  are  returned  rather  hurriedly,  un- 
decorously,  and  a  trifle  shamefacedly  to  3'our  pew,  to  find  the 
scattered  threads  of  worship  as  you  may. — Or  perchance  a  living 
scene  is  conjured  up  before  you,  and  you  behold  Lohengrin  and 
his  promised  bride  slowly  moving  along  to  the  entrancing  strains 
of  music.  You  are  ready  to  offer  your  congratulations. — But 
something  has  gone  wrong,  the  music  stops,  the  delusion  vanish- 
es.—The  deacons  have  with  becoming  dignity  collected  the  offer- 
ings of  the  congregation,  and  the  organist  has  steadily  marched 
them  along  to  the  strains  of  the  Bridal  chorus  from  Lohengrin. 


THE   VALUE   OF    LITURGICAL   STUDY    FOR    ORGANISTS.  55 

Enough  is  said  to  indicate  the  absurdity  of  such  situations,  which 
would  scarcely  be  brought  to  pass  by  an  organist  who  had  been 
liturgically  trained. 

We,  however,  of  this  age  are  not  alone  in  having  suffered 
from  the  perversion  of  church  music  for  even  in  the  early  cen- 
turies debasing  influences  were  soon  at  work.  We  quote  a  pas- 
sage dealing  with  that  period  as  being  not  inapplicable  to  our 
own  times.  "It  must  have  already  become  a  matter  of  complaint, 
however,  as  well  in  the  Western  as  in  the  Greek  Church,  that 
the  ecclesiastical  music  had  taken  too  artificial  and  theatrical  a 
direction,  and  departed  from  its  ancient  simplicity;  for  we  find 
the  Egyptian  abbot  Pambo,  in  the  fourth  century,  inveighing 
against  the  introduction  of  heathen  melodies  into  the  church 
psalmody.  'The  monks,'  says  he,  'have  not  retired  into  the  des- 
ert to  sing  beautiful  melodies,  and  move  hands  and  feet;'  and  the 
abbot  Isidore  of  Pelusium  complaining  of  the  theatrical  st3'le  of 
singing,  particularly  among  the  women,  which  instead  of  exciting 
emotions  of  penitence,  ser\^ed  rather  to  awaken  sinful  passions; 
and  Jerome  in  remarking  on  the  words  of  the  Apostle  Paul  in 
Eph.  5:  19,  says,  'Let  our  >-ouths  hear  this;  let  those  hear  it 
whose  office  it  is  to  sing  in  the  church.  Not  with  the  voice,  but 
with  the  heart  must  we  make  melody  to  the  Eord.  We  are  not 
like  comedians,  to  smooth  the  throat  with  sweet  drinks,  in  order 
that  we  may  hear  theatrical  songs  and  melodies  in  the  church; 
but  the  fear  of  God,  piety,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  Scripture 
should  inspire  our  .songs;  so  that  not  the  voice  of  the  singer,  but 
the  divine  matter  expressed,  may  be  the  point  of  attraction;  so 
that  the  evil  .spirit  which  entered  into  the  heart  of  a  Saul  may  be 
expelled  from  those  who  are  in  like  manner  possessed  by  him, 
rather  than  in\ited  by  those  who  would  turn  the  house  of  God 
into  a  heathen  theatre." 

Upon  the  proper  rendition  of  even  the  best  of  music  depends 
largely  its  effect.  We  recall  the  story  related  of  the  world  re- 
nowned Miserere  as  sung  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome.  A  copy 
of  this  famous  music  was  at  one  time  .sent  to  a  specially  favored 
church,  but  the  attempt  to  render  it  was  so  disastrous  that  ac- 
cusations were  made  that  the  copy  was  not  an  authentic  one. 
The  cau.se,  however,  of  its  failure  was  finally  located  in  the  man- 
ner of  rendition.  Thus  the  entire  musical  part  of  public  worship 
depends  very  much  on  the  maimer  of  rendition  for  its  proper  ef- 


56  MEMOIRS. 

feet  and  for  this  the  organist  is  held  responsible.  Here  agaiu 
appears  the  value  of  his  liturgical  study  coupled  with  his  musical 
knowledge  in  properly  adjusting  the  forces  of  the  organ  and  choir 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  situation.  And  if  he  is  wise,  he 
will  endeavor  to  inspire  his  choir  with  the  same  general  liturgical 
spirit  in  order  that  they  may  co-operate  with  and  not  unknow- 
ingly oppose  him. 

A  further  value  to  the  organist  of  consistent  and  constant 
liturgical  study,  is  that  it  gives  to  him  a  proper  appreciation  of 
the  dignity  and  power  vested  in  his  position.  Not  that  the  indi- 
vidual is  to  become  puifed  up  in  his  own  conceit,  rather  that  his 
attitude  should  be  one  of  humility.  He  is  the  leader  of  the  con- 
gregational musical  and  liturgical  life  and  may,  in  a  large  degree, 
form  a  proper  spirit  of  worship.  But  he  first  of  all  should  be  a 
devout  worshiper  or  how  can  he  properly  form  the  worship  of 
others.  "Can  the  blind  lead  the  blind?  Shall  they  not  both  fall 
into  the  ditch?" — Having  understood  the  responsibility  of  his 
position,  the  organist  should  earnestly  seek  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary to  the  proper  discharge  of  his  duties.  This  will  give  him 
a  correct  spirit  of  worship  and  will  give  him  the  power  to  proper- 
ly express  the  same.  A  spirit  of  worship,  however,  which  is  not 
that  of  the  individual  but  the  "geist"  of  the  church  tody,  whose 
animating  spirit  he  seeks  to  express.  His  ministration  will  not 
then  be  ruled  by  caprice  but  a  masterful  hand  will  rest  upon  the 
helm  to  guide  the  ship  into  the  peaceful  waters  of  devotion.  No 
longer  will  he  be  imbued  with  the  idea  simply  to  entertain,  even 
if  the  less  enlightened  would  thus  be  pleased.  He  will  rather 
elevate  them  than  pamper  to  a  taste  vitiated  by  unwholesome 
food.  His  study  will  give  him  the  necessary  commaiid  of  re- 
sources which  will  enable  him  the  better  to  meet  the  obligations 
of  his  position.  These  sources  are  not  all  at  hand  but  are  coming 
to  the  light.  The  progress  may  be  slow  on  account  of  the  less 
studious  and  more  effeminate  influences  which  are  all  about  us, 
but  we  bespeak  success  and  a  return  to  a  robust,  healthful  spirit 
of  worship. 

To  the  church  one  of  the  greatest  reasons  for  thankfulness 
will  be  the  homogeneity  of  the  service  as  a  result  of  liturgical 
study  among  organists.  No  longer  then  will  the  organist  be  go- 
ing in  one  direction,  the  pastor  in  another  and  the  congregation, 
perhaps,  in  still  another,  but  there  will  be  unity  of  aim  and  pur- 


THE  VALUE   OF    LITURGICAL  STUDY   FOR   ORGANISTS.         57 

pose.  The  opening  part  of  the  service  will  be  a  gradual  unfold- 
ing of  spiritual  worship  until  it  reaches  the  climax,  then  gradual- 
ly subsiding  receives  the  word  of  peace.  The  Sermon  will  thus 
reach  the  hearts  of  the  people  who  have  been  prepared  to  receive 
it,  and  its  effect  will  not  be  nullified  by  the  vagaries  of  an  organ- 
ist who  is  unable  to  rise  to  the  dignity  of  his  position.  The 
thematic  arrangement  of  the  changeable  portions  of  the  services 
will  not  remain  a  matter  of  theory  but  will  be  reduced  to  prac- 
tice. The  liturgical  beauty  and  consistency  we  have,  but  many 
musical  excrescences  and  outrages  are  with  us.  The  remedy  lies 
largel}^  with  organists  who  have  proper  liturgical  taste  and  feel- 
ing. Then  their  endeavor  will  be  to  give  proper  expression  to 
every  part  of  the  liturgy  and  the  much  desired  result  will  be  uni- 
ty and  homogeneity  of  the  ser\nces,  liturgically  and  musically. 

The  advantage  to  the  congregation  can  not  help  but  be 
marked  where  served  by  such  a  consistent  combination  of  forces. 
It  will  be  as  a  strong  lever  uplifting  the  devotions  of  the  people, 
while  where  this  is  not  the  case  the  lever  is  unable  to  sustain  the 
weight  and  when  it  breaks  returns  the  participants  to  their  ordi- 
nary level.  The  heart  of  man  seeks  to  be  elevated  to  the  proper 
plane  of  divine  worship,  and  the  higher  that  plane  is,  so  is  the 
greatness  of  his  spiritual  enjoyment.  All  matters,  not  leading  to 
that  end  or  distracting  the  attention,  are  out  of  place.  Man's 
sense  of  worship  should  be  increased  not  diminished,  and  that 
sense  should  not  be  simply  sentiment  but  a  true  relation  to  God, 
truly  expressed  in  a  true  spirit  of  worship.  The  result  will  be  a 
positive,  beautiful,  uplifting  sense  of  the  spirit  and  privilege  of 
worship,  which  is  to  commune  with  God  as  becometh  the  sons  of 
God.  Hence  the  value  of  liturgical  study  for  organists  that,  hav- 
ing obtained  a  proper  comprehension  of  the  subject,  they  may 
give  an  adequate  and  soulful  expression  to  the  spirit  of  true  wor- 
•ship  as  incorporated  in  our  liturgy, — that  God  may  be  honored  in 
the  hearts  of  men. 

GOMER    C.   Rees. 

Chestnut  Hill,   Pa. 


A   GENERAL  SURVEY 
OF   THE   BOOK   OF   COMMON   PRAYER. 


Liturgical  orders  are  as  truly  confessional  as  properly  desig- 
nated and  regularly  received  confessions  of  faith.  The  Liturgy'  is 
the  expression  of  the  faith.  It  is  the  creed  translated  into  terms 
of  worship.  The  relation  between  confession  and  Liturg}",  how- 
ever, is  far  closer  and  more  intimate  than  that  of  cause  and  effect. 
The  Service,  it  is  true,  grows  out  of  the  confession  but  the  long- 
ing of  the  heart  after  God  and  its  crying  out  in  prayer  and  praise 
and  thanksgiving  for  the  living  God,  resting  its  plea  on  His  sure 
promises,  certainly  precede  the  formal  expression  of  that  belief  in 
carefully-defined,  logically-distributed  terms  and  phrases  consti- 
tuting an  ecclesiastical  symbol.  The  heart's  worship  is  simulta- 
neous with  the  heart's  faith.  Just  as  the  child  lisps  its  pra^^ers 
long  before  it  realizes  their  meaning,  so  b}^  sacrament  and  prayer 
and  Christian  fellowship  did  the  Apostolic  Church  express  its  de- 
votion to  the  risen  Lord  many  j-ears  before  the  completion  of  its 
first  formal  confession. 

These  facts  of  Christian  experience  in  no  wise  depreciate  the 
value  of  ecclesiastical  sjmibols.  They  simply  bring  vividly  before 
our  minds  the  truth  that  the  heart' s  faith  expressed  in  worship  is 
its  earliest  confessional  act  and  that  in  the  growth  of  this  faith 
and  its  constantly-increasing  appropriation  of  revealed  truth  lies 
the  beginning  of  the  later  scientific  statement  in  the  confession  of 
faith.  The  symbol  is  the  product  of  a  historic  crisis,  laying  hold 
upon  the  strength  of  the  past  in  order  to  meet  the  dangers  of  the 
present,  and  in  its  determination  no  thoughtful  student  will  deny 
that  the  Service,  the  expression  of  the  common  creed,  has  a  recog- 
nized value.  Many  features  of  the  Liturgy,  especially  the  mys- 
tery surrounding  the  celebration  of  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar 
resulting  from  the  highly-developed  sacerdotal  doctrine,  prepared 

(lix) 


60  MKMOIRS. 

the  way  for  the  formulation  of  the  dogma  of  transubstantiation. 
Reverence  for  the  saints  and  the  Virgin  Mary;  the  constant  repe- 
tition of  their  names  in  the  hearing  of  the  people;  the  legends  of 
miracles  which  soon  grew  up  about  their  persons  and  appealed 
especially  to  the  credulous;  the  chivalry  of  mediaeval  knight- 
hood and  the  poetry  and  romance  gathered  about  the  crusades; 
the  hero-worship  natural  to  every  age  but  appealing  with  the 
greatest  power  to  the  childlike  imagination  of  pre-Reformation 
times;  and,  above  all,  the  almost  total  lack  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
in  their  entiret}^  in  available  popular  form — how  blessed  the  frag- 
ments in  the  pericopes,  the  very  saving  salt  in  the  body  of  cor- 
ruption ! — all  of  these  indicated  the  widespread  belief  in  the  invo- 
cation and  the  intercession  of  the  saints  and  the  clemency  and 
protection  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary  hundreds  of  jears  before 
the  ecclesiastical  promulgation  of  these  facts  as  dogmas.  A  num- 
ber of  the  Lutheran  Orders,  including  Luther's  own  liturgical  re- 
forms, preceded  the  Augsburg  Confession  just  as  later  the  First 
Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI.  anticipated  the  Thirty -nine  Articles. 

The  above  facts  not  only  emphasize  the  close  connection  be- 
tween Liturgj'  and  confession  but  also  illustrate  the  truth  that  the 
attitude  and  spirit  and  life  of  a  Church  as  expressed  in  its  Services 
may  differ  widely  from  the  statements  of  its  received  confession. 
The  Thirtj'-nine  Articles  are  far  less  the  symbol  of  the  Anglican 
commtmion  in  Great  Britain,  the  United  States  and  other  parts 
of  the  world  to-da^^  than  is  the  Book  of  Common  Prn3-er.  "The 
glory  of  the  English  Church,"  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  is 
still  loved,  quoted,  referred  to  and  used  both  in  public  and  in  pri- 
vate by  probably  a  larger  number  of  Protestant  Christians  than 
any  other  post-Reformation  work  of  devotion.  This  is  not  an 
extravagant  statement  when  we  remember  that  the  thirty  million 
adherents  claimed  by  the  Anglican  Church  throughout  the  world 
use  no  other  services  and  acknowledge  in  life  and  practice  no 
other  standard  differentiating  them  from  other  Christians  than 
this  book,  sanctified  by  the  love,  the  faith,  the  pra5^ers,  the  holy 
lives,  of  true  believers  during  the  past  three  centuries  and  a  half. 

Whence  does  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  derive  its  power  ? 
Wherein  lies  its  widespread  and  constantly-increasing  influence  ? 
Various  answers  may  be  given  these  questions,  but  passing  by  all 
other  points  of  view,  we  believe  that  its  power  lies  in  these  three 
facts;  its  large  infusion  of  Scriptural  material,  its  general  harmo- 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   61 

ny  with  the  ancient  liturgies  of  the  Catholic  Church  and  its  sin- 
gular adaptability  to  various  theological  teachings.  The  first  of 
these  facts  any  one  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  the  Book  will 
at  once  acknowledge,  for  the  pericopes,  the  Psalter  and  much  of 
the  other  liturgical  material  are  of  course  taken  directly  from  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  The  discussion  of  the  second  will  take  up  a 
large  part  of  the  present  paper,  but  the  third  is  the  unique  fact. 
In  regard  to  the  first  two  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  does  not 
stand  alone.  The  lyUtheran  orders  have  always  had  that  which 
is  of  the  very  essence  of  the  true  I^ittu-gy,  a  large  infusion  of  Holy 
Scripture,  and  our  Service,  we  are  abundantly  justified  in  believ- 
ing, expresses  the  pure  worship  of  the  Church  of  Christ  from  the 
very  earliest  ages.  As  to  the  marvelous  adaptability  of  the  Book, 
its  doctrinal  elasticity,  so  to  speak,  we  need  hardly  do  more  than 
observe  that  it  is  the  common  platform  of  Churchmen,  High  and 
Broad  and  Low,  so  little  stress  is  laid  on  doctrine  in  comparison 
with  the  imperative  requirement  of  liturgical  uniformity.  This 
has  always  been  the  most  marked  characteristic,  we  may  almost 
say  the  genius  of  the  English  Church. 

To  the  truth  and  fairness  of  this  characterization  the  West- 
minster Assembly,  with  its  logically-elaborated  Confession,  its 
Larger  and  Shorter  Catechism  and  greatly  simplified  Directory  of 
Worship,  eloquently  testifies.  Those  Presbyterian  divines,  gath- 
ered in  the  Jerusalem  Chamber,  realized  from  their  own  experi- 
ence the  doctrinal  indefiniteness  and  unsatisfactoriness  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  and  presented  to  the  Assembly  a  confes- 
sion so  positive  and  decided  as  hardly  to  be  capable  of  misunder- 
standing, still  worthy  of  respect  and  to-daj^  the  subject  of  much 
controversy  and  theological  debate.  Because  of  the  externalism 
of  eighteenth  century  religious  life  the  Wesleys  sought  to  enjoy 
a  deeper  spiritual  experience  and  the  work  inaugurated  by  the 
"Holy  Club"  at  Oxford  spread  with  amazing  rapidity  and  suc- 
cess throughout  England  and  America.  A  century  later  the 
Tractarian  Movement  started  from  Oxford  and  its  great  leaders, 
Pusey  and  Newman  and  Keble,  endeavored  to  attain  not  only 
greater  richness  and  fulness  in  the  Service  but  especially  a  surer 
doctrinal  position  in  closer  harmony  with  patristic  teachings  and 
as  far  as  possible,  removed  from  dependence  upon  the  Reforma- 
tion. Had  the  Reformation  in  England  been  less  involved  in 
political  meshes  and  more  surely  guided  by  the  Word  of  God  and 


62  MEMOIRS. 

its  power  upon  the  individual  heart  and  life,  the  whole  subsequent 
course  of  the  English  Church  would  probably  have  been  changed, 
and  there  might  have  been  no  need  for  these  goings- out  of  thous- 
ands of  her  noblest  children  from  her  sheltering  care. 

The  theology  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  whatever  it  is, 
and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  characterize  it,  is  the  theology  of 
the  English  Church.  A  product  of  the  Reformation  era  as  the 
Book  is,  showing  decided  Lutheran  as  well  as  Calvinistic  influ- 
ences, there  is  much  of  the  old  Romanism  still  clinging  to  it,  good 
in  so  far  as  it  harmonizes  with  the  Word  of  God  and  tends  to  pre- 
serve unbroken  the  historic  continuity  of  the  Church  but  danger- 
ous because  of  its  indefiniteness  and  capability  of  strange  and  al- 
most unlimited  contortion.  Thus  the  teaching  of  prayers  for  the 
dead,  of  an  intermediate  probationary  state  and  of  the  sacrifice  of 
the  Mass  are  based  upon  or  perhaps  rather  read  into  certain  brief 
and  somewhat  obscure  statements  of  the  Book  by  extreme  ritual- 
ists who,  in  extenuation  of  their  methods,  lay  great  stress  upon 
the  hypothetically  implicit  teachings  of  the  Book.  According  to 
such  a  method  of  interpretation  a  book  may  mean  anything  and 
everything  and  we  can  place  but  little  value  upon  the  doctrinal 
position  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Stretched  to  acccom- 
modate  ultra-Romanistic  teaching  as  well  as  the  preaching  of  a 
religion  sometimes  little  more  than  ethical  and  idealistic,  the  sig- 
nificance and  power  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  to-day  lie  in 
its  sterling  devotional  worth.  That  it  echoes  the  very  words  of 
Hol}^  Scripture  and  confesses  in  the  ancient  oecumenical  creeds 
the  incarnate,  atoning,  risen,  glorified  Jesus  as  the  Lord,  the 
Christ  of  God,  these  after  all  are  the  forces  that  have  made  it 
quick  and  powerful  and  salutary  to  loving,  trusting,  hopeful 
souls,  age  after  age  bearing  their  devotions  Heavenward  to  the 
throne  of  grace  and  bringing  them  help  from  the  mercy-seat. 

Just  as  varied  as  are  the  views  concerning  the  doctrinal  teach- 
ings of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  are  the  explanations  and  ap- 
plications of  its  liturgical  rubrics.  Congregations  of  the  Low 
Church  type,  which  usually  celebrate  the  Holy  Communion  at 
least  twice  a  month  and  on  festival  days,  generally  combine  three 
distinct  services  into  one  on  the  morning  of  the  Lord's  Day,  thus 
making  the  so-called  "long  Service  of  the  Episcopal  Church," 
against  which  we  hear  so  many  complaints.  Beginning  with 
Morning  Prayer,  often  with  an  elaborate  musical  setting  to  the 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   63 

Te  Deum  and  on  festival  daj'S  to  the  Venite,  the  Psalter  and  the 
Bcnedidus  also,  after  the  collects  de  tempore,  for  peace  and  for 
grace,  instead  of  concluding  Morning  Prayer,  the  Service  continues 
with  the  Ivitany — itself  a  distinct  order — and  then  effects  the 
transition  to  the  Communion  by  the  singing  of  a  hymn.  If  the 
Hoh"  Eucharist  be  celebrated,  all  except  those  who  desire  to  re- 
ceive the  sacrament  are  dismissed  after  the  prayer  "for  the  whole 
state  of  Christ's  Church  Mihtant." 

In  ritualistic  churches,  on  the  other  hand,  so  strange  a  litur- 
gical Service  is  not  met  with.  Morning  Prayer  is  always  kept 
distinct  from  the  numerous  celebrations  of  the  Holy  Communion 
and  the  I^itany  is  not  used  just  before  the  Divine  Office.  In 
churches  of  this  type  many  additions  are  made  to  the  Services 
and  the  rubrics  are  strangely  twisted  in  justiiication  of  the  inno- 
vations. By  this  process  candles,  vestments,  incense,  processions, 
the  stations  of  the  Cross,  private  Confession  and  Absolution, 
L,ady-chapel3  and  altars  to  the  Virgin,  the  teaching  of  the  seven 
sacraments,  pra3'^ers  for  the  dead,  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the 
reservation  of  the  sacrament  for  the  sick,  extreme  sacerdotalism 
and  various  other  features  abhorrent  to  the  perhaps  ultra- Prot- 
estant sense  of  Low  Churchmen  are  declared  right  and  proper. 
Many  of  them  are  covered  b}'  the  frequently-quoted  "vestments' 
rubric,"  not  found  in  the  American  Book  but  repeated  in  the  va- 
rious editions  of  the  English  Book  from  that  of  1559  to  the  last 
revision  of  the  Book  in  1661  and  printed  in  a  prominent  place  in 
the  Pra3-er  Book  of  to-day.  This  rubric  reads:  "And  here  is  to 
be  noted  that  such  ornaments  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Ministers 
thereof,  at  all  times  of  their  ministrations,  shall  be  retained  and 
be  in  use  as  were  in  this  Church  of  England  by  the  authority  of 
Parliament  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  VI." 
No  rubric,  probably,  has  ever  aroused  so  much  discussion  and 
certainly  no  litiurgical  system  so  elaborate  as  that  of  the  High 
Church  party  ever  rested  to  so  great  an  extent  on  the  basis  of  a 
more  slender  fabric. 

In  his  excellent  book,  "The  Lutheran  Movement  in  Eng- 
land," Dr.  Jacobs  refers  to  the  mistaken  conception  that  there 
was  a  general  uniformity  of  worship  in  the  Western  Church  prior 
to  the  Reformation.  The  uniformity  in  the  Roman  Church  to- 
day is  in  large  measure  due  to  the  work  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
In   England  just  as  in  Germany  before  the  Reformation  various 


64  MKMOIRS. 

dioceses  had  tlieir  own  orders,  the  most  prominent  of  which  and 
the  one  most  frequently  referred  to  was  the  Missal  according  to 
the  use  of  Salisbury  (the  "Sarum  Use").  Upon  the  ancient  sac- 
ramentaries,  the  lyconian,  the  Gelasian  and  the  Gregorian,  as  well 
as  upon  the  numerous  local  modifications  or  "uses"  of  those  old 
orders,  the  Church  of  the  Reformation  in  England  like  the  Church 
on  the  continent  had  to  base  its  revision  of  the  services.  Many 
liturgiologists  trace  the  orders  of  the  so-called  Gallican  group  to 
which  the  British  uses  belonged,  back  to  the  Eastern  Church,  es- 
pecially to  Ephesus,  and  English  writers  are  very  fond  of  attrib- 
uting as  much  as  possible  of  their  services  to  this  source  in  tlieir 
desire  constantly  to  affirm  the  greatest  possible  pre-Reformation 
independence  of  the  see  of  Rome  on  the  part  of  the  British 
Church. 

Very  little  was  done  b}-  way  of  purif3-ing  the  services  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  always  a  good  Romanist  in  many  re- 
spects. Only  the  Litanj^,  purged  of  Roman  errors,  was  transla- 
ted into  English  by  Archbishop  Cranmer  who  follov»red  Luther 
very  closely,  probabl}^,  through  the  Reformation  of  Cologne  in 
which  the  Litany  of  Luther  appeared.  But  from  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  efforts  were  making  for  liturgic- 
al reform  until  the  First  Prayer  Book,  which  bears  his  name,  ap- 
peared in  1549.  This  Book  to  which  so  many  of  the  High  Church 
party  both  in  England  and  in  our  own  country  long  to  return, 
is  of  great  interest  because  of  the  Lutheran  origin  of  many  of  its 
parts  and  its  close  adherence  to  the  ancient  liturgies.  It  retains 
the  Introits  in  the  form  of  the  entire  Psalm  and  directs  that  the 
Agnus  Dei  be  sung  during  the  distribution  of  the  Holy  Commun- 
ion. Its  other  chief  points  of  difference  from  the  present  Book 
are  the  retention  of  the  Glor-ia  in  Excelsis  in  its  old  place  before 
the  Epistle  and  the  position  of  the  Confession,  the  Absolution, 
the  Comfortable  Words  and  the  Prayer  of  Humble  Access  after 
the  Consecration  and  just  before  the  distribution.  In  the  Second 
Book  of  Edward  VI.  (1552),  the  book  to  which  the  gravest  devi^ 
ations  from  the  ancient  liturgical  standards  are  traceable,  the 
Decalogue  was  introduced  into  the  Communion,  probably  be- 
cause of  Calvinistic  influences,  the  Introits,  the  prayer  called  the 
Oblation  and  the  Agmis  Dei  were  wholl}'  omitted;  and  the  Con* 
fession,  the  Absolution  and  the  Comfortable  Words  were  placed 
before   the  Consecration.     One  of  the  strangest  and  most  unac- 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OP  COMMON  PRAYER.   65 

countable  changes  was  that  of  placing  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  after 
the  distribution,  a  change  wholly  without  liturgical  precedent  and 
robbing  the  early  part  of  the  Service  of  one  of  its  most  beautiful 
and  appropriate  features.  All  of  these  changes  were  followed  by 
the  Prayer  Book  of  Queen  Elizabeth  (1559),  and  by  the  final  re- 
vision of  the  Book  in  1662  and  are  incorporated  into  the  present 
Book  in  England.  With  regard  to  the  points  enumerated  the 
American  Book  differs  from  the  English  only  in  the  use  of  the  so- 
called  Oblation  in  the  Communion,  following  the  Scottish  Book 
which,  of  course,  is  based  on  the  First  Book  of  Edward  VI. 

The  orders  for  Matins  and  Vespers  in  the  First  Book  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  were  almost  identical  with  the  old  Lutheran  Matins  and 
Vespers  restored  in  the  Common  Service.  In  the  Second  Book 
(1552)  the  General  Confession  and  Absolution  were  prefixed  to 
Morning  Prayer  and  the  Sentences  at  the  beginning  were  ad- 
ded both  to  Matins  and  Vespers.  The  Prayer  Book  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  retained  these  forms  but  the  General  Confession  and 
Absolution  v/ere  not  prefixed  to  Evening  Prayer  until  1662.  The 
Scottish  Book  of  1661  gives  the  old  Invitatories.  Writers  on  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  always  speak  of  the  Sentences  as  sub- 
stituted for  them.  The  present  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer 
follow  all  these  changes. 

We  notice  then  that  the  Introits  are  entirely  lost  to  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer.  The  Invitatories,  Antiphons,  Responsories 
and  Graduals  which,  like  the  Introit,  the  Collect  and  the  Eessons, 
always  strike  the  keynote  of  the  church  festival,  never  found  any 
place  in  the  Book  nor  was  the  Agmcs  Dei  ever  restored  after  its 
omission  from  the  Second  Book  of  Edward  VI.  In  America  the 
Magnificat  and  the  Nunc  Dimittis,  which  the  English  Church  had 
never  lost,  were  not  restored  to  Evensong  until  1892  when  the 
Suffrages,  omitting  the  Miserere  and  a  number  of  the  Versicles, 
were  again  added  to  Evening  Prayer.  They  were  first  inserted 
in  the  daily  services  in  the  Second  Book  of  Edward  VI.  In  the 
li^riglish  Book  the  Athanasian  Creed  is  used  on  Christmas  Day, 
the  Epiphany,  Easter  Day,  the  Ascension,  Whitsun  Day,  Trinity' 
Sunday  and  other  festivals. 

Besides  showing  the  close  similarity  of  the  Holy  Communion 
and  Matins  and  Vespers  in  the  First  Book  of  Edward  VI.  to  cor- 
responding German  orders.  Dr.  Jacobs  traces  the  connection  be- 
tween the  forms  for  Confirmation,  Marriage,  the  Visitation  of  the 


QQ  MEMOIRS. 

Sick  and  the  Burial  of  the  Dead  and  previously-published  Luther- 
an orders.  It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  paper  to  take  up 
these  services  but  the  writer  desires  to  call  attention  to  the  indis- 
putable facts  which  Dr.  Jacobs  has  so  admirably  pi'esented,  be- 
cause they  are  usually  either  altogether  overlooked  or  else  very 
unfairly  stated  by  writers  of  repute  on  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  Dr.  Blunt,  for  example,  in  his  exhaustive  and  very  in- 
teresting Commentary,  never  seems  able  to  speak  kindly  or  even 
fairly  of  the  vast  German  liturgical  development  in  the  sixteenth 
century  and  whenever  at  a  loss  how  to  explain  either  what  is  of 
Lutheran  origin  or  what  is  practically  an  innovation  in  the  Book 
as  the  result  of  Calvinistic  influences,  always  finds  the  Sarum 
Use  very  convenient  as  a  last  resource.  In  that  spirit  and  with 
so  unscientific  a  method  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  suggestions  of 
almost  anything  almost  anywhere  and  to  imagine  adaptations 
wherever  such  suit  convenient  h3'potheses  and  pleasing  preju- 
dices. 

The  orders  for  the  Daily  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer  in  the 
English  Book  differ  slighth'  from  those  in  the  American  Book. 
In  structure  both  services  are  similar  save  that  the  Venitc  pre- 
cedes the  Psalter  in  Morning  Pra^^er.  The  General  Confession 
and  the  Absolution  here,  just  as  in  the  Holy  Communion,  are 
unliturgical  and  some  churches  are  going  back  to  the  old  usage 
of  beginning  Evensong  at  least  with  the  Lord's  Prayer.  This 
prayer  occurs  twice  in  the  services,  here  and  again  at  the  same 
place  as  in  the  Lutheran  orders,  before  the  collects  at  the  close. 
The  versicle  Deus  in  adjiitorium  follows  the  Domine  labia  mca. 
A  canticle  follows  each  of  the  lessons.  Only  the  Apostle's  Creed 
is  used  but  for  certain  festivals  the  Athanasian  Creed  is  pre- 
scribed. Besides  the  Lord's  Prayer  the  Kyrie  and  the  Suffrages 
precede  the  collects.  The  i\Iorning  Prayer  of  the  First  and  Sec- 
ond Books  of  Edward  VL,  of  the  present  English  Book  and  of 
the  American  Book  is  exhibited  by  the  side  of  our  own  Matins  in 
the  First  Table  at  the  close  of  this  article. 

The  Holy  Communion  in  the  present  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  begins  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  incomparable  Col- 
lect for  Purity,  the  one  the  divinest  of  prayers,  the  other  in  its 
form,  its  contents,  its  spirit,  as  nearly  perfect  as  any  prayer  of 
man  can  ever  be.  These  were  originally  the  private  prayers  of 
the  priest  in  the  sacristy  or  before  approaching  the  altar  to  offer 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   67 

incense  at  the  Introit.  Can  any  other  prayers  more  appropriate 
and  more  helpful  be  suggested  to  our  own  ministers  to-daj'  ? 

The  use  of  the  Decalogue  or  our  I^ord's  Summary  of  the 
Law,  of  which  only  the  former  is  found  in  the  English  Book,  and 
the  two  pra3-ers  for  the  sovereign  are  wholly  unliturgical.  The 
Kyrie  is  broken  up  into  ten  responses,  one  after  each  of  the  Com- 
mandments. In  the  American  Book  when  the  Sunimarj'  is  used, 
the  simple  threefold  Kyrie  follows. 

After  one  of  the  two  collects  for  I^ing  Edward  VII.,  the 
collect  dc  tempore,  the  Epistle,  the  Gospel  with  the  Gloria  Tibi 
after  its  announcement,  and  the  Nicene  Creed  follow  in  regular 
order.  The  distinction  between  the  Epistle  and  the  Gospel  side 
of  the  altar  is  observed  as  in  the  Roman  Church  and  the  people 
always  stand  at  the  reading  of  the  Gospel.  The  announcements, 
the  publication  of  the  Bans  of  Marriage  and  the  sermon  or  homi- 
ly here  find  their  proper  place. 

At  the  Offertory  the  minister  repeats  appropriate  sentences 
and  places  the  offerings  of  the  congregation  upon  the  altar.  If 
the  Holy  Communion  is  to  be  celebrated,  the  rubric  directs  the 
minister  then  to  place  upon  the  altar  "so  much  Bread  and  Wine 
as  he  shall  think  sufficient,"  after  which  he  offers  the  praj-er  "for 
the  whole  state  of  Christ's  Church  Militant."  Three  exhorta- 
tions in  regard  to  approaching  the  Holy  Commuirion  are  given, 
one  in  anticipation  of  the  Sacrament  with  notice  of  its  celebration, 
another  in  case  of  the  people's  neglect  thereof,  and  the  third  to 
be  used  at  the  time  of  the  celebration. 

At  this  point  of  the  service  when  Morning  Praj-er,  the  Lita- 
ny and  the  sermon  have  immediatel}'  preceded  and  the  congrega- 
tion has  grown  wearied — as  people  so  easily  become  in  God's 
house — many  leave  the  church  and  sometimes  only  a  few  wor- 
shippers remain  for  the  Communion.  This  annoying  distraction 
is  not  customar}'  in  ritualistic  churches  even  though  only  a  few 
persons  approach  the  altar. 

The  preparation  for  the  Communion  in  the  call  to  confession, 
the  General  Confession  and  the  Absolution  follow.  These  corre- 
spond to  the  Lutheran  orders  of  Private  and  Public  Confession 
and  Absolution  but,  like  the  Litany,  are  altogether  out  of  place 
from  a  liturgical  point  of  view,  at  the  joyous  Eucharist  of  our 
glorified  Lord.  With  the  exhortations  and  the  "Comfortable 
Words"  (St.  Matthew  xi.   28;  St.  John  iii.  16;  I  St.  Timothy  i. 


68  MEMOIRS. 

15;  I  St.  John  ii.  i)  these  forms  are  a  novelty  in  liturgical  usage 
and  were  adopted  from  the  Reformation  of  Cologne  in  the  First 
Praj^er  Book  of  Edward  VI.  Their  present  position  of  course 
is  preferable  to  their  earlier  place  after  the  Consecration  and  the 
Pax  Domini,  a  strange  liturgical  sequence. 

Then  begins  the  Canon  of  the  Mass.  Of  the  Preface  Dr. 
Blunt  says:  "It  is  found  almost  word  for  word  in  every  known 
liturgy  in  every  part  of  the  Catholic  Church  from  the  earliest 
times  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  a  correct  tradition  which 
assigns  it  to  the  Apostolic  Age."  There  are  five  Proper  Prefaces, 
for  Christmas,  Easter,  Ascension  Day,  Whitsun  Day  and  the 
Feast  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  Those  for  Christmas  and  Trinity 
Sunday  differ  from  the  lyUtheran  while  we  have  shortened  those 
for  the  Ascension  and  Pentecost.  The  Easter  Preface  is  identi- 
cal. The  Sa?ict2is  immediately  follows  the  Preface.  It  omits  the 
Benedidiis  qui  venit  in  Nomine  Domini  and  has  changed  the  Ho- 
sanna  in  Excelsis  to  the  words,  "Glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord  most 
High,"  just  as  the  place  of  the  Hallelujah  in  the  daily  services  is 
taken  by  the  words,  "Praise  ye  the  Eord,"  with  the  response, 
"The  Eord's  Name  be  praised." 

The  prayer  of  Plumble  Access  beginning,  "We  do  not  pre- 
sume to  come  to  this  Thy  Table,  O  merciful  Lord,  trusting  in  our 
own  righteousness,"  very  beautifully  placed  just  before  the  dis- 
tribution in  the  First  Book  of  Edward  VI.,  has  preceded  the  Con- 
secration since  the  Second  Book  of  1552.  In  the  present  English 
Book  the  Consecration  consists  of  a  prayer  and  the  use  of  the 
Words  of  Institution  together  with  the  customary  manual  acts, 
followed  immediately  by  the  distribution.  This  is  in  exact  cor- 
respondence with  the  Second  Book  of  Edward  VI.  In  the  First 
Book  the  Prayer  for  the  Church  occurred  here  and  was  followed 
by  a  commemoration  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary  and  the  saints,  a 
prayer  for  the  departed  and  the  Consecration  in  which  the  Obla- 
tion, the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Pax  Domini  as  well  as  the  Words 
of  Institution  were  used.  The  American  Book  contains  the  Ob- 
lation which  is  not  objectionable  and  the  Invocation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  before  the  distribution.  In  the  English  Book  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  the  Oblation  follow  the  distribution  and  the  service 
closes  with  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  and  the  Blessing.  The  Thanks- 
giving from  the  Brandenburg-Niirnberg  Agenda  of  1533  is  found 
in  both  books.     The  occasional  collects  to  be  used  after  the  Offer- 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   69 

tory  and  before  the  Blessing  when  there  is  no  Communion  are 
well-known  and  require  no  comment. 

The  Holy  Communion  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  not 
a  unity.  It  is  marked  by  unwarranted  additions,  unjustifiable 
omissions  and  unliturgical  changes.  Its  harmony  and  its  presen- 
tation of  the  great  central  truth  of  redemption,  the  one,  all-sufii- 
cient,  prevailing  sacrifice  of  the  Incarnate  God,  and  its  direct 
communication  of  redemptive  grace  in  the  mystery  of  the  Real 
Presence  are  seriously  impaired  by  the  introduction  of  the  Deca- 
logue, the  lengthy  Exhortation  and  the  Confession  just  before 
the  Communion.  The  omission  of  the  Introit,  the  Hallelujah, 
the  Sequence  and  Gradual,  the  Benedidus  and  the  Agnus  Dei  is  a 
loss  which  English  liturgical  scholars  keenly  regret  and  which 
ritualistic  rectors  do  not  hesitate  to  make  good  in  their  services. 
There  is  so  much  to  be  said  and  done  in  the  services  of  the  En- 
glish Church  that  in  order  to  finish  them  in  reasonable  time  their 
reverent  use  seems  almost  impossible  at  the  rapid  rate  usually  fol- 
lowed. Their  beauty  would  be  much  enhanced  were  their  ex- 
crescences lopped  off  and  their  omissions  made  good  and  in  so  far 
the  work  of  liturgical  reform  in  the  use  of  the  Book  since  the 
Puseyite  movement  and  directly  resulting  therefrom  is  only  com- 
mendable. 

The  Litany  whose  Lutheran  source  has  already  been  re- 
ferred to  is  considerably  fuller  than  the  Lutheran  but  does  not 
gain  thereby  because  of  its  redundancy  of  expression.  It  is  used 
regularly  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  and  frequently  on  the 
morning  of  the  Lord's  Day,  sometimes  at  a  special  service  on 
Sunday  afternoon,  at  the  Ordination  of  Deacons  and  Priests  and 
the  Consecration  of  Bishops. 

The  Gospels  and  Epistles  have  always  been  printed  as  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  The  entire  Psalter 
which  is  read  through  once  ever>'  month,  the  Commandments  and 
the  Comfortable  Words  are  still  used  in  the  words  of  the  Cover- 
dale  Vei'sion. 

The  chief  and  distinguishing  feature  in  the  Lutheran  Litur- 
gy is  its  clearly-drawn  distinction  between  the  sacramental  and 
the  sacrificial  acts  of  divine  worship.  That  which  God  offers  and 
really  gives  us  is  the  sacramental  element.  Acts  of  this  nature 
are  the  reading  and  preaching  of  the  Word,  the  Absolution,  the 
Salutation,  the  Pax  Domini,  the  Benedictions  and  the  administra- 


70  MEMOIRS. 

tion  of  the  sacraments.  That  which  we  offer  to  God  is  the  sacri- 
ficial element.  Prayers,  the  I^itany,  the  Suffrages,  confessions  of 
sin,  hymns,  canticles,  praises,  thanksgivings,  acts  of  adoration 
and  of  faith,  these  are  acceptable  offerings,  sacrifices  well-pleasing 
to  God,  our  reasonable  service.  Not  that  there  is  always  a  hard 
and  fast  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two,  as  certain  acts  such 
as  the  use  of  the  Psalter  and  the  preaching  of  the  Word  through 
the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  bear  our  praises  and  confessions 
Heavenward  simultaneously  with  our  reception  of  the  divine  gift 
of  grace.  Clearly  to  illustrate  this  principle  in  the  use  of  the 
services  at  sacramental  acts  the  minister  as  the  representative  of 
the  Lord,  turns  to  the  people  to  declare  to  them  the  Divine  will 
and  promises  while  in  performing  sacrificial  acts  as  the  represen- 
tative of  the  Church  and  the  leader  in  the  devotions  of  the  priest- 
hood of  all  believers,  he  turns  to  the  altar  to  offer  their  eucharistic 
sacrifices  to  God.  In  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  while  both  el- 
ements are  present  the  distinction  is  not  appreciated  and  Blunt 
speaks  even  of  the  reading  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  an  offering 
of  praise  to  God  in  the  words  of  inspiTation.  There  must  of 
coiu'se  always  be  a  holy  joy  and  reverent  thanksgiving  in  the  per- 
formance of  all  sacramental  acts  but  we  wish  to  emphasize  our 
belief  that  this  is  truly  the  means  whereby  God  brings  us  grace 
and  the  power  of  an  endless  life.  So  also  in  the  Holy  Commun- 
ion the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  lays  such  stress  upon  the  offer- 
ing of  the  consecrated  elements  to  God,  the  memorializing  of  the 
Passion,  the  presentation  of  ourselves,  our  bodies  and  souls,  as  a 
reasonable  service,  and  the  prayers  for  the  Church — all  of  which 
are  excellent  and  in  no  wise  to  be  depreciated — as  often  to  cause 
the  people  to  lose  sight  of  the  main  things  in  the  sacrament,  the 
Body  and  Blood  of  the  incarnate  Lord  and  the  precious  words  of 
forgiveness  and  peace. 

The  whole  consideration  of  any  religious  service  depends  up- 
on our  point  of  view  and  this  again  rests  upon  a  clear  apprehen- 
sion of  this  distinction  or  the  failure  to  recognize  it.  It  is  to  be 
feared  that  the  Romish  error  of  the  justifying  power  of  good 
works  may  be  latent  in  the  tenacious  adherence  to  set  forms  and 
the  scrupulous  observance  of  rubrical  prescriptions  characteristic 
of  the  devotees  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  even  to  the  under- 
estimation of  the  Word  of  Truth  itself.  The  sacrificial  element 
pervades  not  so  much  the  letter  as  the  spirit,  the  real  genius  of 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   71 

the  system  of  Christian  doctrine  contained  in  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Praj^er. 

As  English  Lutherans  we  should  always  be  willing  to  ac- 
knowledge our  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
for  the  beautiful  rhythmical  English  into  which  the  old  Latin 
ser\4ces  were  translated  more  than  three  centuries  and  a  half  ago. 
It  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  translations  in  the  main  more  admira- 
ble— the  collects  are  a  notable  example — so  perfectly  do  they  re- 
produce the  innermost  spirit  of  the  originals.  If  the  influence  of 
the  Lutheran  movement  in  England  is  clearly  evident  in  the  orig- 
inal formation  and  the  present  contents  of  the  Book,  the  whole 
English-speaking  Protestant  world  is  indebted  to  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  for  its  choice  diction,  its  thoroughly  devotional 
spirit  and  its  glorious  "form  of  sound  words." 

Ours  is  a  rich  liturgical  inheritance,  a  very  treasure  trove  of 
inestimable  worth,  long  unappreciated  and  neglected,  it  is  true, 
but  providentially  preserved  to  us  that  in  these  latter  days  we 
may  worship  the  one  Lord  not  only  in  the  beauty  of  holiness 
whose  elements  are  truth  and  love,  but  in  the  holiness  of  a  beau- 
tiful spiritual  worship,  expressing  the  loftiest  truth  of  our  faith. 
Let  us  then  study  our  own  Services  so  as  to  know  them  better; 
let  us  endeavor  to  bring  our  people  to  a  clearer  conception  of 
their  liturgical  inheritance,  and  let  us  realize  our  personal  ac- 
countability to  God  for  our  approach  to  the  throne  of  grace  in 
the  services  of  His  house,  whether  it  be  cold  and  careless  and  ill- 
informed  or  intelligent  and  reverent  and  all  aglow  with  love  di- 
vine. We  need  more  daih*  services,  the  more  frequent  celebra- 
tion of  the  Holy  Communion,  the  more  general  use  of  the  Litany 
and  the  Suffrages.  We  learn  from  the  loving,  intelligent  use  of 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  by  its  faithful  adherents  many  les- 
sons as  to  the  use  of  our  own  Services.  May  God  use  the  Book, 
purified  and  clarified  if  need  be,  in  the  generations  to  come  as 
He  has  so  signally  honored  it  in  the  ages  past,  to  His  glor\-  and 
honor  and  the  continued  spread  of  His  Kingdom  among  men. 


Samuel  A.  Bridges  Stopp. 


Lutheran    Theological  Seviinary, 
Mt.    Airy,   Philadelphia,   Pa. 


72 


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MEANS   OF   I.ITURGICAI.   REFORM. 


As  Christians  we  all  believe  in  the  service  and  worship  of  God. 
We  believe  in  public  worship  and  in  the  "communion  of  saints." 
From  the  earliest  days  there  has  ever  been  such  public  worship 
among  the  people  of  God.  This  worship  has  always  assumed 
some  form.  All  substance  is  at  present  manifested  to  us,  to  our 
senses  and  perceptions  in  some  form.  Even  the  very  substance 
of  God  was  revealed  in  the  form  of  words,  or  of  the  Word  of 
God,  in  conjunction  with  certain  experiences  which  could  impress 
the  senses.  The  Divine  substance  is  especially  revealed  to  us 
in  the  form  of  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  Who  was  "God  manifest 
in  the  flesh."  We  must  have  form:  and  our  worship  mu.st 
assume  some  form.  This  constitutes  a  Eiturgy  or  a  Eiturgical 
Service,  more  or  less  developed  or  elaborated. 

Even  so  we  believe  in  reform.  The  Church  of  the  Refor- 
mation, in  fact,  the  Church  of  Protestantism  believes  in  reform. 
We  believe  in  liturgical  reform — if  that  is  necessar5\  Perfection 
is  our  goal  in  ever>^  respect;  so  also  in  the  liturgical  serv-ice  ren- 
dered unto  God.  In  the  Reformation  of  the  i6th  century  this 
reform  manifested  a  two- fold  tendency;  the  one  was  destructive 
and  radical,  which  could  hardly  laj-  claim  to  the  title  of  reform; 
the  other  was  eliminating  and  constructive — exhibiting  the  char- 
acter of  true  reform.  There  is  no  particular  reason  why  this 
work  should  cease.  But  there  is  every  reason  why  it  .should  be 
encouraged.  Now  the  question  ari.ses,  how  shall  this  reform  be 
effected  ? 

I.)  Some  might  reply — in  whatever  way  possible,  that  is 
right  and  proper.  But  what  is  right  and  proper?  The  particular 
reform  might  be  very  much  needed.  Through  an  adherence  to 
old  forms  the  worshippers  might  be  experiencing  a  serious  loss. 
But  the  sudden  introduction  of  a  new  and  improved  form  might 

(Ixxv) 


76  MEMOIRS. 

cause  such  a  shock  to  sensitive  natures  as  to  produce  more  harm 
than  good.  Here  of  course  we  must  make  a  distinction  between 
matters  that  are  essential  and  unessential.  In  essential  matters 
of  reform  the  truth  must  be  proclaimed  at  once,  and  proper  means 
must  be  employed  to  effect  the  reform  as  speedily  as  possible. 
But  in  matters  which  have  not  the  same  essential  significance  it 
is  proper  to  pursue  another  course.  And  the  course  that  is  rec- 
ommended by  the  writer  of  this  paper  in  what  follows  is  strictly 
educational,  because  he  believes  that  the  forms  for  which  conten- 
tion is  made  in  our  day,  and  especially  in  our  own  I^utheran 
Church,  are  largely  of  the  latter  class. 

II.)     Education  is  needed  among  our  people  and  congrega- 
tions and  pastors. 

1 )  With  the  Church  at  large.  Here  there  are  two  impor- 
tant channels  of  reform.  The  Church  Press  should  be  employed 
to  set  forth  the  principles  of  true  reform  and  the  elements  in 
which  the  worship  might  be  improved.  And  in  this  particular 
as  well  as  in  those  efforts  yet  to  be  mentioned  great  care  should 
be  exercised  by  all  concerned  that  what  is  proposed  be  done  in 
the  spirit  of  patience  and  love.  Great  care  should  be  exercised 
to  avoid  bigotry,  censorious  criticism,  narrowness  of  view,  and 
downright  error  through  the  undue  emphasis  of  what  is  unessen- 
tial. General  services,  held  under  the  auspices  of  a  Synod,  Con- 
ference, lycague  or  some  other  general  body  of  the  Church,  as 
well  as  the  services  of  worship  conducted  in  our  Theological 
Seminaries,  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  models  in  their  arrange- 
ment of  propriet}^  and  in  their  spirit  of  edification. 

2)  With  the  individual  congregations.  In  the  Lutheran 
Chiurch,  even  as  in  the  Church  of  Apostolic  days,  the  local  con- 
gregation representing  the  Church  of  that  particular  place — the 
assembly  in  the  name  of  Christ  with  the  promise  of  His  presence, 
cannot  surrender  its  responsibility,  nor  can  it  be  deprived  of  its 
spiritual  privileges  or  authority.  The  Pastor  is  the  Bishop  of  his 
people.  Reform  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  to  a  large 
extent  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  proceeds  from  above  downward; 
in  the  Lutheran  Church,  though  some  reforms  might  take  that 
course,  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  they  must  proceed  in 
the  reverse  direction.  We  are  here  speaking  of  liturgical  reform 
in  matters  that  are  not  regarded  as  absolutely  essential.  And 
though  the  Pastor  be  first  on  the  field  of  reform  in  his  congrega- 


MEANS    OP    LITURGICAL    REFORM.  77 

tion,  it  will  be  the  evidence  of  wisdom  on  his  part  to  make  that 
reform  proceed  in  the  way  indicated.  The  view  here  presented 
is  not  a  theory,  but  one  that  will  make  the  Pastor  practically 
more  efficient.  Whether  the  reform  come  through  the  minis- 
ter or  through  intelligent,  educated  laymen  in  the  congregation, 
the  greatest  tact  and  care  must  be  employed,  because  though 
a  large  and  important  part  of  the  work  must  be  done  from  the 
pulpit,  and  in  special  services,  and  with  lectures  and  addresses 
both  by  the  pastor  and  by  those  who  can  speak  with  special  au- 
thority, 5'et  individuals  must  be  dealt  with.  Here  a  leaflet,  there 
a  Church  paper,  a  personal  friendly  interview  and  an  exhibition 
of  Christian  self-submission  in  precept  and  example — all  may  be 
needed.      "A  bruised  reed  shall  he  not  break." 

3)  With  the  Ministry.  Effective  reform  certainl}^  must 
reach  the  minister  himself,  if  it  would  affect  his  congregation. 
And  he,  with  his  superior  education  and  training  in  such  matters, 
should  be  more  susceptible  of  reform.  He  has  more  opportunity 
to  become  acquainted  with  the  significance  of  these  things  through 
his  reading,  by  frequent  intercourse  with  other  pastors,  attend- 
ance upon  the  general  services  of  a  typical  character,  and  through 
interest  in  the  proceedings  and  results  of  such  a  L,iturgical 
Association.  But  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  before  he  has 
entered  upon  his  public  ministry,  he  shall  have  received  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  principles  underlying  all  reform,  and  the 
spirit  that  must  perv^ade  all  reformatory  movements,  and  the  ele- 
ments in  which,  in  any  particular  day,  there  is  need  of  reform. 
This  work  is  to  be  accomplished  in  his  course  in  the  Theological 
Seminary.  Somewhere  and  somehow  in  the  Seminary  this  ele- 
mentary work  should  be  done  in  the  nahie  of  the  Church  so  that 
the  Church's  adherents  shall  not  be  left  to  the  whims  and  notions 
of  ever}'  new  minister  who  may  not  have  any  fixed  principles  of 
the  proprieties  of  public  worship.  Of  course  where  it  is  possible 
and  where  the  institution  is  of  such  development  as  to  warrant  it, 
a  liturgical  chair  might  be  established  with  great  profit.  The 
Seminar}'  in  furnishing  a  satisfactory  equipment  of  the  young 
pastor  cannot  send  him  forth  into  that  important  part  of  his  min- 
istry, namely,  the  conduct  of  public  worship,  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  sound  liturgical  principles.  But  there  is  the  practical 
difficulty  of  adjusting  in  the  Seminary  all  these  various  sub-de- 
partments, so  that  each  shall  have  its  due  share  of  attention,  and 


78  MEMOIRS. 

that  no  department  shall  be  slighted.  There  are  some  depart- 
ments which  should  receive  the  special  attention  of  every  theo- 
logical student;  and  there  may  be  others  which  should  receive  the 
general  attention  of  all  and  the  special  attention  of  some.  The 
greater  institutions  of  learning  recognize  this  principle,  so  that 
with  the  general  cultiure  of  all,  there  is  specialization  of  each  ac- 
cording to  his  special  aptitude  and  desire.  Such  work  in  a  Theo- 
logical Seminary  might  cost  much  labor  and  require  much  discre- 
tion, but  it  would  be  of  inestimable  benefit  to  the  individual 
student  and  to  the  Church.  It  is  impossible  that  all  shall  be 
specialists.  There  is  not  the  time,  nor  sufl&cient  aptitude  to  jus- 
tify the  expenditure  of  so  much  time.  But  we  believe  the  time 
will  come  when  the  Theological  Seminary  will  provide  for  the 
selection  of  specialties,  Homiletics,  Liturgies,  Old  Testament 
Hebrew,  New  Testament  Greek,  Missions  (with  special  prepara- 
tion for  work  in  home  and  foreign  fields),  and  special  subjects  in 
other  departments. 

We  can  never  forget  that  the  prime  purpose  of  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  is  to  train  pastors  and  not  to  turn  out  specialists. 
Such  specialization  of  a  scientific  character  must  be  reserved  for 
a  post-graduate  course.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  why  in 
some  part  of  the  regular  theological  course  there  should  not  be 
given  to  everj^  student  the  opportunity  of  doing  some  special  work 
in  some  selected  department  under  the  direction  and  instruction 
of  his  theological  professors,  whose  object  shall  not  be  necessarily 
scientific  specialization,  and  certainly  not  the  development  of  a 
ministerial  hobby  (which  may  seriously  affect  the  effectiveness  of 
his  ministerial  labors) .  The  fact  is  that  almost  every  student  in 
his  own  mind  and  work  selects  his  specialty.  And  the  contention 
of  the  writer  is  that  the  student  should  not  be  left  to  himself  in 
the  formation  of  the  principles  to  govern  him  in  his  subsequent 
work,  but  he  should  have  the  special  guidance  of  the  Theological 
Seminary  in  his  chosen  specialty. 

With  such  guidance  in  liturgical  reform,  the  Church  may  be 
protected  against  excess  and  extremes  in  reformatory  efforts.  It 
is  not  suppression  of  individual  effort  for  which  we  contend,  but 
the  guidance  thereof  by  those  who,  by  individual  labors  and  by 
the  call  of  the  Church,  are  fitted  for  such  work. 

In  conclusion  let  us  not  forget  that  God  desires  the  spiritual 
worship  of  the  heart,  which  may  be  encouraged  by  the  use  of  ap- 


MEANS    OF     LITURGICAL     REFORM.  79 

propriate  forms.  And  if  such  forms  hamper  the  soul's  fellowship 
with  God,  (for  all  souls  are  not  of  the  same  disposition  and  in- 
clination) we  dare  not,  in  a  spirit  of  Pharisaic  holiness  of  formal- 
ism, condemn  such  souls  to  a  life  of  hard  ecclesiastical  and  litur- 
gical bondage.  Let  us  educate  and  lead  the  people  and  show  by 
our  spirit  of  liberality  and  concession  in  regard  to  the  less  essen- 
tial, the  appreciation  of  the  need  of  spiritual  fellowship  with  God. 
Rather  the  simplest  service  of  devout  praise  from  the  heart,  than 
the  most  sublime  service  of  formal  worship  with  or  without  the 
understanding  but  not  from  the  heart ! 

T.  W.  Kretschmann. 
Buffalo,  N.    Y. 


Mote. — The  writer  of  this  paper  is  exceedingly  grateful  to  the  Litur- 
gical Association  for  the  privilege  of  expressing  his  views  on  the  above  sub- 
ject. He  desires  each  one  to  supply  for  himself  the  material  of  history  and 
of  experience  for  further  illustration.  It  was  his  purpose  to  state  as  con- 
cisely as  possible  facts  and  principles  which  might  be  easily  recognized,  and 
which  he  regards  to  be  at  the  very  foundation  of  all  liturgical  reform.  They 
deserve  to  stand  out  in  bold  relief  :  and  they  should  not  be  hidden  by  a 
wealth  of  other  material,  interesting  as  it  might  be. 

T.  W.   K. 


I^lTURGICAIv  EDUCATION  OF  THE  CHURCH'S  YOUTH. 


To  comprehend  the  nature  of  Christian  worship  as  a  whole,  and 
the  elements  constituting  the  same,  and  by  which  modified  in 
particular,  and  directed  in  general,  is  the  task  of  those  who  min- 
ister to  the  youth  of  the  Church.  Upon  the  manner,  method  and 
line  of  procedure  in  which  the  worship  by  the  youth  is  performed, 
conducted  and  taught  will  depend  a  correct,  stimulating  and  edi- 
fying form  of  worship  in  the  congregation  that  develops  from  the 
youth  in  the  schools  of  the  Church. 

The  non-liturgical  Sunday  School  grows  the  non -liturgical 
congregation.  This  is  under  the  law  '  'that  which  ye  sow  ye  shall 
also  reap."  It  is  a  well  established  fact  that  "men  do  not  gather 
figs  from  thistles."  Recognizing  this  law  how  can  a  liturgical 
congregation,  one  in  full  sympathy  and  spirit  with  every  script- 
ural element  in  the  liturgy,  help  being  the  outgrowth  of  a  cor- 
rectly taught  liturgical  youth? 

There  are  several  sides  to  every  child  that  may  be  recog- 
nized: the  subjective,  the  objective  and  the  physio-psychological 
basis.  These  several  sides  enter  into  the  growth  of  every  child. 
In  the  subjective  aspect  it  draws  in,  absorbs  and  appropriates 
ideas,  notions,  customs  and  practices  which  it  applies  objectively 
as  the  mode  of  expression ;  as  the  thought  in  action ;  as  the  feel- 
ing performed;  as  the  deeper  experiences  developing  his  con- 
sciousness of  God. 

The  average  pupil  in  the  Sunday  School  has  not  arrived  at 
the  mature  age  of  reasoning,  but  accepts  in  pure  faith  that  which 
is  placed  before  it.  The  memory  holds  whatever  may  be  taught, 
and  the  necessary  action  required  in  the  mode  of  worship  will  be 
most  readily  acquired  and  utilized  with  utmost  ease  until  it  is 
part  of  the  pupil's  life  to  "rise"  in  repeating  those  parts  of  the 

(Ixxxi) 


82  MEMOIRS. 

Sunday  School  Service  that  demand  "rising,"  and  to  participate 
in  the  parts  that  are  "said"  or  "sung."  This  "saying,"  "sing- 
ing" and  "rising"  have  become  parts  of  the  child's  life  when 
engaged  in  worship  in  either  the  Sunday  School  or  that  of  the 
congregation. 

The  child  has  a  sense  of  things  orderly.  The  Sunday  School 
being  conducted  along  lines  of  good  order  and  decorum  soon  im- 
presses this  sense  of  order  upon  the  psychical  side  of  the  child 
and  it  learns  orderly  methods  and  with  growing  years  becomes 
impressed  with  the  deeper  meaning  of  song,  prayer  and  Scripture 
teachings. 

Through  its  objective  sense  it  may  quite  unconsciously  learn 
to  approve  and  accept  the  purest  form  of  worship  and  could  give 
no  intelligent  reason  why  it  would  feel  spiritually  wronged  to  be 
asked  to  use  any  form  with  which  it  was  not  familiar. 

It  is  well  known  that  where  there  is  physical  order  there  will 
the  more  readily  follow  mental  order.  The  mentality  is  affected. 
When  this  is  done  the  lower  basis  for  order  is  left,  to  enter  a 
higher,  the  realm  of  mind,  soul.  From  the  sphere  of  mind  it  is 
but  a  step  to  the  metaphysical,  realm  of  pure  spirit,  the  spiritual 
domain.  Here  again  enters  the  law  of  good  order  which  directs 
the  spiritual  man  to  the  presence  of  Him  Whose  demand  is  that 
He  shall  be  worshipped  in  the  beauty  of  holiness. 

There  is  a  tendencj'  to  repeat  the  acts  which  have  often  been 
done.  Herein  lies  the  power  of  a  fixed  service  in  the  schools  of 
the  Church.  Services  wrought  out  of  the  Scriptures,  tried  by 
centuries  of  usage  and  found  helpful  and  edifying  when  once 
woven  into  the  inmost  nature  of  religious  life  by  constant  prac- 
tice during  the  appropriating  age  of  youth  in  the  Sunday  School 
will  give  zest  and  spiritual  power  not  otherwise  obtained  in  the 
congregation. 

Habit  gives  facility  in  doing  acts  which  have  been  often  per- 
formed. At  first  it  is  quite  a  difficult  task  to  repeat  the  multi- 
plication table  rapidly,  but  the  habit  of  repetition  produces  the 
momentum  that  gives  the  velocity  or  rapidity.  In  the  Sunday 
School  the  constant  repetition  gives  the  momentum  required  to 
render  an  acceptable  service.  Then  back  of  it  all  lies  the  fact 
that  the  nature  and  character  of  the  Service  has  become  ingrained 
into  the  life,  conscience  and  individuality  of  the  pupil  until  the 
spiritual  essence  pervades  his  very  being  when  he  engages  in  the 


LITURGICAI,   EDUCATION    OF   THE    CHURCH'S    YOUTH.  83 

solemn  acts  of  worship  in  either  school,  home  or  congregation. 
This  law  of  habit  was  appointed  for  good  by  Him  Who  made  all 
things  and  pervadeth  all  things. 

Those  ideas  which  are  attended  with  deep  feeling  are  called 
up  more  readily.  The  child  that  has  learned  its  lessons  at  home, 
in  the  Church's  school,  will,  when  at  mature  age,  learn  the  mean- 
ing of  the  "Confession  of  sins,"  sorrow  and  contrition,  with  par- 
don through  the  tender  mercies  of  Christ  the  Redeemer. 

It  is  another  well  established  fact  that  the  easily  recited  les- 
son is  as  easily  forgotten  and  those  retained  longest  required  the 
greatest  amount  of  intellectual  energ}-.  The  song  ditty,  sung  to 
"quick-step"  time,  vanishes  with  the  martial  music  which  is 
played  to  be  forgotten.  But  the  hymn,  psalm  and  canticle  that 
required  time  and  energy  to  master  will  endure  while  life  endures. 
When  the  principle  of  right  worship  and  scriptural  practice  is 
carried  through  the  very  life  of  the  Church's  school,  it  will  grow 
into  one  of  higher  ideals,  loftier  conceptions  of  the  dignity  and 
spirit  of  holy  worship. 

It  is  important  that  the  directors  of  thought  in  the  Sunday 
School  teach  their  pupils  word  for  word  the  significance  of  every 
act  in  the  performance  of  the  different  parts  of  the  Service  and 
the  source  and  meaning  of  all  the  words  in  the  Service  in  both 
Church  and  Sunday  School  Services. 

As  the  Sunday  School  age  of  children  is  the  recognized 
"memory-age,"  it  would  be  well  to  constantly  keep  in  mind  the 
fact  that  this  is  the  golden  age  to  teach  all  the  truths  of  our  holy 
religion.  When  once  the  form  has  been  learned  it  leaves  no 
room  for  those  of  an  unchurchly  and  unscriptural  character. 

It  is  the  duty  of  all  parents  to  educate  their  children.  Spe- 
cially so  with  Christian  parents  is  it  to  train  them  in  "the  fear 
and  admonition  of  the  I,ord."  How,  when  and  why  to  worship 
is  a  part  of  the  training  children  should  receive  at  home  and  in 
the  Sunday  School,  and  the  catechetical  class.  Make  the  lyUther- 
an  Service  an  intellectual  endowment  and  a  spiritual  possession 
more  to  be  desired  than  "fine  gold." 

We  plant  and  water,  but  it  is  God  that  giveth  the  increase 
(i  Cor.  3:  7),  and  this  saying  is  applicable  to  the  teachings  of 
the  pupils  in  the  Sunday  School  and  class,  and  of  their  growth  in 
a  knowledge  and  practice  of  pure  liturgical  principles. 

The  psychic  side  of  the  child  must  not  be  forgotten.     It  is 


84  MEMOIRS. 

from  this  side  the  spiritual  growth  comes.  Through  this  side 
the  child  is  approached  with  a  proper  conception  of  liturgical  de- 
velopment and  orderly  life  in  its  acts  of  devotion  both  public  and 
private. 

There  is  a  psychic  power  that  lies  in  wonder,  reverence  and 
awe.  It  begets  reverential  attitudes  of  the  mind  toward  the 
house  of  God,  its  altar,  its  lectern,  its  pulpit  and  its  religious  acts 
and  sacred  associations  that  appeal  to  its  sub-conscious  feelings, 
sentiments  and  emotions  which  are  motor  forces  that  grow  into 
the  acts  of  worship  by  the  child,  the  man. 

Christianity  being  life,  its  acts  are  exhibited  in  the  moving 
springs  of  that  life;  its  feelings.  These,  again,  are  seen  in  the 
orderly  manner,  the  liturgical  concept  of  religious  devotion.  The 
attitude  toward  the  holy  place  of  worship  differs  from  that  toward 
the  public  hall,  as  its  use  and  purpose  is  different.  In  the  approach 
to  God's  house  the  modes  of  procedure  are  deferential,  reveren- 
tial. The  advance  to  it  is  from  the  human  side  toward  God.  It 
begins  in  earliest  sacred  impressions  and  ends  when  life  here  ends. 

The  laws  of  repetition,  of  attention,  and  of  reproduction  fix 
the  form  and  content  of  the  Service  in  the  Sunday  School,  also 
the  Church  Service,  and  exhibit  themselves  in  religious  action. 
These  Services  have  become  parts  of  the  life  that  is  full  of  faith 
and  reverence. 

By  observing  these  laws  and  principles  the  Pastor  will  be 
able  to  develop  the  youth  in  a  knowledge  not  only  of  Christian 
doctrine,  as  set  forth  in  the  teachings  of  the  Church,  but  also  in 
the  meaning  and  significance  of  the  great  Festivals  of  the  Church 
Year:  Advent,  Christmas,  Epiphany,  Kaster  and  Pentecost,  and 
to  impress  the  nature,  character  and  peculiar  feeling  attached  to, 
and  connected  with,  each  of  these  festival  seasons,  with  the  dis- 
tinctive type  of  worship  most  suitably  adapted  to  each  period  and 
best  calculated  to  make  a  lasting  impression  and  bring  out  the 
deepest  and  most  heartfelt  praise  and  devotion. 

He  will  thus  be  able  to  teach  those  whom  he  is  preparing  for 
active  membership  in  the  Church,  the  hymns  designated  for  each 
season  of  the  Church  Year;  the  use  of  the  Psalter;  the  design  of 
the  Chief  Service  and  the  Minor  Services;  the  purpose  of  the  Con- 
fessional or  Preparatory  Service;  the  object  of  the  Communion 
Service  and  the  significance  of  each  act  in  the  Service,  with  its 
distinct  meaning,  scriptural  authority  and  evident  spiritual  neces- 


LITURGICAL   EDUCATION   OF  THE   CHURCH'S   YOUTH,  85 

sity.  Also  the  distinguishing  marks  between  the  Church  prayer 
and  free,  or  private  prayer;  the  object  and  place  for  art  in  devel- 
oping and  applying  the  different  acts  in  worship;  the  arrangement 
of  the  church  furniture  within  the  chancel — of  the  pulpit,  for 
proclaiming  and  teaching  the  Gospel;  the  lectern,  for  reading  the 
Scriptures;  and  the  altar,  with  its  coverings,  their  colors  and  im- 
port, from  which  is  the  dispensing  of  the  holy  sacrament  of  the 
Body  and  Blood  of  our  Lord;  the  setting  forth  of  the  marks  of 
difference  that  distinguishes  the  sacred  edifice  dedicated  to  God's 
service  from  one  of  secular  use, — that  "from  its  foundation-stone 
to  the  cross  upon  its  spire,  a  church  ought  to  produce  the  im- 
pression of  a  grand  symphony  proclaiming  the  great  central  truths 
connected  with  the  redemption  of  man." 

Thought  and  language  are  mysteriously  connected.  Right 
use  of  liturgical  language  helps  to  develop  correct  liturgical  con- 
cepts. It  is  the  office  of  the  teacher  to  conve}-  and  impress  such 
forms  of  right  use  of  liturgical  language  that  correct  liturgical 
ideas,  concepts  and  essence  of  biblical  truth  shall  be  stamped  in- 
delibly upon  the  memory  of  youth  that  they  remain  as  an  endur- 
ing and  blessed  heritage. 

The  teacher  should  urge  a  search  of  the  inner  consciousness, 
that  in  worship  may  be  found  God's  highest  expression  of  truth; 
that  as  beauty  is  seen  in  the  flower,  glory  may  be  seen  in  the 
heavens;  that  as  they  sing  of  Divine  love,  they  may  possess 
Divine  aspirations. 

The  mighty  engine  may  have  within  it  the  potency  of  great 
work,  yet  it  may  remain  idle  unless  the  right  means  are  employed 
to  utilize  it.  Likewise  the  agency  through  which  God  is  wor- 
shipped in  spirit  and  in  truth  may  lie  dormant  until  it  is  awak- 
ened and  directed  into  the  best  ways  of  making  it  tell  for  the 
highest  usefulness  to  the  soul. 

"Progress  is  the  condition  of  life."  Education  and  training, 
acquisition  and  utilization  fill  out  the  condition.  "Childhood 
and  youth  is  the  period  when  tendencies  are  most  easily  estab- 
lished." The  mind  is  teachable  and  receives  impressions  readily; 
around  those  cluster  kindred  impressions,  which  if  Christian, 
form  Christian  character  and  life. 

It  is  said  "To  prepare  for  the  highest  moral  life  and  a  perse- 
vering religious  life,  early  habits  of  the  right  kind  are  the  only 
secure   foundations."     Then   to  prepare  for  highest  devotional 


86  MEMOIRS. 

life,  and  a  constant  religious  life,  should  demand  of  the  youth 
early  training  of  his  soul  in  all  the  elements  of  worship  and  the 
teachings  of  the  Word  connected  with  religious  action. 

Let  the  youth  be  taught  that  "if  nature  is  a  congeries  of 
metaphors  arrayed  in  a  system  of  relations  and  constituting  a 
sublime  allegory,  and  we  being  the  offspring  of  God,  may  inter- 
pret this  allegory  and  thereby  come  to  a  consciousness  of  its  ver- 
ities, if  there  is  a  spiritual  sense  that  may  feel  the  presence  of 
great  truths  and  of  a  personal  God" — then  man  pursuing  his 
search,  through  the  laws  of  his  spiritual  nature,  for  the  pure  and 
true  expressions  of  holy  worship  through  the  words  of  Scripture 
and  the  beauty  of  its  forms  which  have  come  down  through  the 
world's  history  and  the  Church's  literature,  finds  the  goal  in  an 
exalted  and  spiritual  Service. 

The  love  of  art  is  necessary  to  the  complete  man.  He  sees 
a  higher  meaning  than  mere  color  in  the  rainbow.  It  speaks  of 
God's  promise  and  love.  The  tints  of  faded  leaf  reminds  him  of 
God's  order  in  the  universe.  The  sparkle  of  the  limpid  rill  tells 
him  of  the  river  of  life  and  God's  eternal  fountains  of  love.  He 
is  taught  to  see  the  real  spirit  shining  through  material  forms, 
and  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  music  and  poetry  follow 
with  their  interpretations  and  portrayals  of  the  deeper  and  spirit- 
ual insight.  Noble  thought  and  action,  right  and  truth  of  Divine 
things  enables  the  soul  to  partake  of  holy  draughts  of  pure  wor- 
ship from  the  stream  of  spiritual  life. 

The  liturgical  education  is  the  development  of  a  liturgical 
ideal,  purpose  and  marshalling  of  the  devotional  forces  for  active 
service  in  the  Church's  inner  life.  The  liturgical  ideal  is  needed. 
"The  Gothic  cathedral,  with  its  mullioned  window,  tapering 
spire,  and  upward-running  lines,  indicating  the  hope  and  aspira- 
tion of  the  middle  ages,  with  its  cruciform  shape,  typical  of  the 
faith  of  the  Christian,  is  more  than  the  stone  and  mortar  of  which 
it  is  constructed.  The  truly  educated  man  in  art  perceives  the 
adaptation,  polish  and  perfection  in  literature;  discovers  the  grace, 
the  just  proportions,  the  ideal  form  and  typical  idea  in  sculpture; 
views  the  expression,  grouping  sentiment,  coloring,  and  human 
passion  in  painting;  enjoys  the  harmonies,  movements,  and  ideas 
in  music,  that  combination  of  effects  that  makes  subtile  and  eva- 
sive metaphors;  discovers  the  conventionalized  forms  and  mute 
symbols,  the  'frozen  music'  of  architecture;  finds  grandeur  in  the 


LITURGICAL   EDUCATION   OF  THE   CHURCH'S   YOUTH.  87 

mountains,  glory  in  the  sunset,  laughs  with  the  morning  breeze, 
finds  strength  in  the  giant  oak,  and  sorrow  in  the  drooping 
willow." 

The  foresight  of  the  Heavenly  beauty  is  caught  and  trans- 
mitted to  this  earthly  sphere,  and  taken  up  to  be  given  back  in 
highest  forms  of  praise. 

The  spirit  of  this  holy  worship  must  be  first  caught  by  the 
teacher.  This  deeper  nature,  aye,  spiritual  feeling  must  be  in 
the  heart  of  the  instructor.  When  he  reaches  beyond  himself 
and  sees  in  the  Gothic  building  with  its  pinnacles,  arches  and 
cur\^es  of  beauty  an  attempt,  at  least,  to  imitate  the  lines  of  beau- 
ty, grandeur  and  deeper  feeling  of  adoration  and  sublimity  in  the 
heavens — creative  handiwork  of  Him  Whom  men  are  taught  to 
adore  and  worship  in  the  most  appropriate  and  soul-elevating 
manner  possible. 

The  teacher  possessing  this  spirit  and  mind  will  be  able  to 
lead  his  pupils  out  through  the  merely  formal  down  into  the  very 
depths  of  heart  to  heart  praise  in  the  ver}'  essence  of  Scripture 
words,  embodying  the  life  of  the  Church  doctrines  of  the  Word 
of  God.  The  very  saving  truths  of  Christianity  will  appear  in 
every  liturgical  act  of  the  youth,  and  thus  will  be  founded  upon 
the  faith  of  the  Word,  but  they  will  also  be  grounded  in  the  ve- 
hicle and  agency  of  that  Word,  that  life  in  Christ,  and  their  ev- 
ery thought  will  be  developed  from  I10I3'  and  established  usage, 
consecrated  by  centuries  of  use  in  the  Church's  growth  and  life. 
He  will  possess  a  concensus  of  the  very  best  that  has  come  down 
as  a  heritage.  He  early  learns  that  the  formularies  of  worship 
are  but  the  expression,  by  the  soul,  of  the  faith,  teachings  and 
life  of  the  Church.  By  connecting  this  fact  with  that  other  of 
the  golden  memory  age  will  he  prepare  himself  to  make  the  most 
of  his  opportunities  in  fixing  the  truths  of  holy  religion  firm  and 
deep  in  the  minds  of  his  class;  knowing  it  is  the  seed,  which  is 
the  Word,  he  is  sowing  into  a  soil  that  will  be  productive  of  a 
rich  fruitage  in  days  to  come. 

Primarily  it  rests  upon  the  Pastor  to  lead,  direct  and  instruct 
all  who  teach  in  the  schools  of  the  Church,  and  upon  these  teach- 
ers, secondarily,  is  the  duty  to  study  the  nature  and  deeper  spir- 
itual meaning  of  the  Church's  worship,  and  to  invest  themselves 
with  the  heartfelt  devotional  attitude  toward  true  worship  and 
be  filled  with  its  deeper  spiritual  feeling  so  they  maj-  "out  of  the 


OO  MEMOIRS. 

abundance  of  the  heart"  speak  sound  words  of  life,  and  by  pre- 
cept and  example  show  their  pupils  the  "more  excellent  way." 

The  instructor  of  youth  being  full  of  his  subject,  and  feeling 
its  importance,  will  the  more  readily  teach  the  sacred  song  which 
soothes  the  sorrows,  assuages  pain,  encourages  the  disheartened 
and  lifts  the  soul  God- ward.  He  will  have  his  class  commit  to 
memory  those  standard  hymns  with  which  the  battles  of  the 
Church  have  been  fought  and  through  which  souls  have  been 
drawn  to  Christ,  as  also  the  psalmody  of  the  inspired  wnriter  of 
Israel  for  soul  strengthening  and  prayer.  He  will  analyze  and 
explain  the  hymns  for  the  several  seasons  of  the  Church  Year. 
Bach  part  of  the  Catechism  or  statement  of  Christian  doctrine, 
will  be  set  forth  and  its  relation  to  each  part  as  an  act  of  worship 
be  fully  defined. 

In  fact  he  will  teach  that  every  doctrine  and  every  liturgical 
act  have  an  inner  harmony  and  unity,  creating  one  beautiful  and 
complete  whole  as  the  offering  of  the  heart  to  God  in  solemn 
worship  and  praise. 

"Here  Thy  praise  is  gladly  chanted, 
Here  Thy  seed  is  duly  sown : 
Let  my  soul,  where  it  is  planted, 
Bring  forth  precious  sheaves  alone." 

R.  E.  McDaniel. 
Springdale,  Pa. 


THE  SACRIFICIAL  IDEA  IN  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP. 


Over  against  all  other  forms  of  worship,  Christian  worship  has 
a  character  of  its  own,  the  true  realization  of  the  communion 
between  God  and  man.  This  character,  although  formally  re- 
lated to  the  worship  of  the  temple  and  the  synagogue,  is  distinct 
from  them  both  as  to  its  principle  and  its  contents.  Christian 
worship  has  all  its  springs  in  the  person  and  work  of  Jesus  Christ. 
The  atoning  sacrifice  of  our  Lord  is  so  clearly  the  centre  of  His 
person  and  work  as  to  constitute  the  vital  source  of  the  two  great 
elements  of  Christian  worship,  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial. 
Christian  worship  is  a  communion  between  God  and  man,  based 
upon  Divine  communication  of  grace,  followed  by  responsive  ac- 
ceptance of  the  Divine  gifts.  In  the  order  of  actual  worship,  the 
sacramental  element  of  communicating  grace  has  the  precedence, 
and  the  responsi-^^e  sacrificial  human  element  follows.  But  both 
as  constituent  parts  of  the  Service  flow  from  the  fountain  of 
Christ's  sacrifice.  In  this  Divine-human  sacrifice,  the  two  parts 
of  the  Christian  worship  have  their  original  and  originating  point 
of  union.  The  two  essential  factors  of  worship  are  to  find  their 
formal  external  manifestation  in  harmony  with  the  rule  laid  down 
in  Scripture:  "Let  all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order." 
I  Cor.  14:  40.  How  this  principle  has  been  applied,  as  regards 
the  sacrificial  element,  will  become  apparent  as  we  proceed.  In 
this  connection,  it  maj'  be  remarked,  that  this  principle  requiies 
an  ofiicial  leadership  of  the  congregation,  which  the  Lord  has 
provided  for  by  instituting  the  oSice  of  the  Holy  Ministry. 

THE  PERIOD  OF  NORMAL  APPLICATION  OF  THE  SACRIFICIAL  IDEA. 

The  New  Testament  requires  the  whole  man  as  a  sacrifice, — 
all  that  he  is  and  has  by  God's  grace.     As  a  priesthood  of  believ- 

(Ixxxix) 


90  MKMOIRS. 

ers,  enabled  by  grace  to  serve  God  acceptably,  we  are  by  Jesus  to 
offer  the  sacrifice  of  praise  to  God  continually,  that  is,  the  fruit 
of  our  lips,  giving  thanks  to  His  name.  But  to  do  good  and  to 
communicate  forget  not:  for  with  such  sacrifices  God  is  well 
pleased.  Heb.  12:  28;  13:  15,  16.  The  Apostle  Paul,  writing  to 
the  Philippians,  rejoices  at  the  prospect  that  he  may  perhaps  be 
offered  upon  the  sacrifice  and  service  of  their  faith — Phil.  2:  17, 
and  he  beseeches  the  Romans  by  the  mercies  of  God  to  present 
their  bodies  a  living  sacrifice.  Rom.  12:  i.  St.  Peter  also  saj^s 
that  this  holy  priesthood  is  to  offer  up  spiritual  sacrifices,  accept- 
able to  God  by  Jesus  Christ,  i  Pet.  2:5.  As  the  entire  man  is 
to  present  himself  as  a  sacrifice,  so  the  whole  of  his  life  is  to  be 
the  sphere  of  his  offerings.  But  the  individual  is  not  to  isolate 
himself  in  this  regard.  There  is  a  communion  of  saints,  a  fel- 
lowship of  believers,  a  spiritual  house,  a  holy  priesthood,  enjoy- 
ing sacramental  blessings  in  common,  and  uniting  in  the  sacrifi- 
cial expression  of  gratitude  as  a  congregation.  All  the  spiritual 
sacrifices  of  Christians,  specified  in  the  New  Testament  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes:  on  the  one  hand,  the  fruit  of  the  lips, 
prayer,  confession,  praise,  thanksgiving,  and  on  the  other,  the 
fruit  of  activity — a  holy  walk,  good  works,  the  consecration  of 
all  one  is  and  has  to  the  servdce  of  the  brethren. 

The  worship  of  the  Pentecostal  Church  is  described  in  Acts 
2:  42 — "And  thej^  continued  steadfastly  in  the  Apostles'  doctrine 
and  fellowship,  and  in  breaking  of  bread,  and  in  prayers."  In- 
terpreting the  word  Kotvwna,  fellowship,  in  accordance  with  its  use 
in  2  Cor.  9:13  and  Heb.  13:  16,  we  have  one  of  the  elements  of 
New  Testament  sacrificial  worship,  communication,  liberal  dis- 
tribution, giving  to  those  in  need,  an  expression,  a  result  of  fel- 
lowship, of  communion.  This  act  includes  the  offering  of  the 
general  prayer,  in  addition  to  which  we  have  the  prayers,  -n-poa- 
ivxal,  which  accompanied  the  other  parts  of  the  Service  of  the 
Pentecostal  congregation.  The  Services  which  were  held  in  the 
temple,  were  public  Services  apparently  coincident  with  the  usual 
hours  of  prayer,  while  the  meetings  held  "from  house  to  house," 
were  private  gatherings.  There  is  no  reason  to  think,  that  the 
meetings  in  the  temple,  apart  from  the  mere  association  with  the 
place  and  the  hours  of  prayer,  indicate  a  distinction  between 
Jewish  and  Gentile  Christian  forms  of  worship.  All  the  elements 
of  Christian  worship  named  in  Acts  2:  42,  were  observed  in  the 


THE   SACRIFICIAL   IDEA    IN    CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  91 

congregational  gatherings  in  private  houses.  In  all  probability 
sacred  song,  at  least  the  psalmody,  and  that  in  all  likelihood  an- 
tiphonal,  formed  a  part  of  the  Service,  Eph.  5:  19;  Col.  3:  16; 
James  5:13.  There  is  here  no  confusion  or  perversion  of  the  re- 
lation between  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial  elements  of  the 
Service.  The  first  hint  in  this  direction  occurs  in  the  "Shepherd 
of  Hernias"  where  gifts  to  widows,  orphans  and  the  poor  are 
spoken  of  as  propitiatory,  meritorious:  ''Tua  hostia  erit  accepta 
Domino. ' '  Justin  restricts  the  sacrificial  phase  of  the  Eucharist 
to  the  offering  of  bread  and  wine  for  the  Sacrament  and  before 
the  consecration  of  the  elements,  but  he  does  lay  exceptional 
stress  on  these  offerings  over  against  prayer  and  gifts  for  the 
poor.  There  is  no  departure  from  the  lines  laid  down  by  the 
Apostolic  Church  until  we  reach  the  Old  Catholic  Period. 

THE   DETERIORATION   OF  THE  SACRIFICIAL   IDEA. 

The  pioneer  of  the  tendency  toward  confusion  by  perversion 
is  the  man  who  stamped  the  impress  of  his  powerful  personality 
on  the  language  of  the  Western  Church:  Tertullian.  At  the 
close  of  the  second  century,  however,  we  meet  with  a  Church 
Father,  who  belongs  to  the  East  and  the  West,  and  who  serves 
to  a  slight  extent  as  a  connecting  link  between  Justin  and  Ter- 
tullian, namely  Irenseus. 

His  position  is  essentially,  one  might  say,  dogmatically 
speaking,  equivalent  to  that  of  Justin.  Irenseus  knows  nothing 
of  a  sacrifice  of  the  body  of  Christ  or  of  a  priesthood  on  which 
that  sacrifice  depends.  He  distinguishes  three  forms  of  sacrifice: 
first,  the  fruit  of  the  lips;  secondly,  gifts  of  charity  to  the  needy; 
thirdly,  bread  and  wine  in  the  Eord's  Supper,  as  the  first-fruits 
of  God's  creatures,  to  be  consecrated  by  the  eucharistic  prayer. 
They  are  consecrated  by  the  prayer  to  their  sacramental  use,  af- 
ter which  they  are  eucharistic,  i.  e.,  the  communion  of  the  earth- 
ly and  the  Heavenly.  But,  at  the  same  time,  the  confusion  of 
the  sacrificial  and  the  sacramental  elements  is  noticeable  in  Ire- 
naeus,  and  it  is  even  more  pronounced  than  in  Justin.  Irenaeus 
terms  the  entire  Service  of  the  Eucharist,  from  the  prayer  ad- 
dressed to  the  Fabricator  miindi,  to  the  consecration  inclusive, 
the  Novi  Testamcnti  nova  oblafio^  vea  irpo(r4>opa  ev  rrj  Kaivrj  SiaOijKrj. 
He  does  not  confine  himself  to  such  expressions  as  "we  offer  to 
God  bread  and  the  cup  of  benediction."     He  goes  a  step  farther. 


92  MEMOIRS. 

and  views  the  act  of  consecration  as  a  sacrificial  act,  the  prayer  of 
consecration  as  a  sacrificial  prayer,  thus  drawing  the  sacramental 
act  in  the  narrower  sense,  into  the  sacrificial  sphere.  Further, 
he  states  that  the  Lord  taught  Christians  to  sacrifice,  when  He 
said:  "This  is  My  body.  My  blood." 

Finally,  in  his  desire  to  prove  that  Christian  sacrifice  is  not 
carnal  but  spiritual,  he  points  out  how  Christians,  after  they 
returned  thanks  over  the  bread  and  wine  for  the  gifts  of  God  in 
creation,  call  upon  the  Holy  Spirit  to  make  this  sacrifice  as  the 
body  and  blood  of  the  I^ord  prove  a  spiritual  blessing  to  those 
who  partake  of  it.  The  consecration  becomes  a  part  of  the  sacri- 
ficial action.  Yet  all  this  must  not  lead  one  to  infer  that  Irenseus 
has  in  mind  a  sacrifice  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  Not  in 
the  least.  The  Eucharist  is  only  a  sacrifice,  because  it  is  accom- 
panied by  prayer,  and  all  prayer  is  sacrificial.  But  in  emphasiz- 
ing the  subjective  side  of  the  Eucharist,  human  action  and  prayer 
in  such  a  way  as  to  place  the  Sacrament  on  the  same  line  with  our 
thank-offerings,  he  goes  beyond  Justin.  There  is  an  advance  in 
the  general  direction  of  confusing  the  sacrificial  and  the  sacra- 
mental. In  this  particular  instance,  the  Sacrament,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  it  is  known  and  appreciated,  is  put  into  the 
background  compared  with  man's  function  in  connection  with  it, 
and  human  thanksgiving  and  prayer  is  the  leading  object  of  con- 
sideration. We  notice  that  the  sacrificial  idea  is  being  warped. 
Such  expressions  as:  "/y,  q^d  offert,  glorificatur  ipse  in  co,  quod 
offert,  si  acceptetiir  miinus  ejus,'"  and,  "Deus  in  se  assumit  bonas 
operationes  nostras  ad  hoc,  ut  pfcestet  nobis  retributioncm  bonoruin 
suorwn,"  indicate  that  the  pure,  unselfish  spirit  of  responsive 
gratitude  is  being  alloyed  by  the  introduction  of  human  merit. 
Before  leaving  Irenaeus  our  attention  may  be  directed  for  a  mo- 
ment to  the  antiquity  of  the  expression,  "world  without  end," 
€is  Tovs  aiaJvas  rwv  aiwvov,  which  was  then  already  used  as  a  conclud- 
ing formula  of  prayer  in  the  administration  of  the  Holy  Com- 
munion. 

In  Tertullian  the  Eucharist  from  the  sacrificial  point  of  view, 
controls  the  whole  situation,  the  entire  vService.  The  sacrifices, 
indeed,  are  prayers,  thanksgiving,  alms,  good  works,  and  bread 
and  wine.  He  knows  nothing  of  a  sacrifice  of  the  body  of  Christ. 
But  he  looks  upon  the  entire  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  as  a 
sacrifice,  and  the  idea  of  the  Service,  and  that  of  this  eucharistic 


THE   SACRIFICIAL   IDEA    IN    CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  93 

sacrifice  are  practically  identical.  We  must  not  forget  that  the 
disciplina  arcani  originated  at  this  time,  and  that  the  line  was 
drawn  between  the  homiletic-didactic  Service  to  which  non-Chris- 
tians were  admitted,  and  the  eucharistic  sacramental  Service 
which  was  private,  and  restricted  to  those  who  were  baptized. 
Tertullian  is  very  guarded  in  his  allusions  to  the  I^ord's  Supper. 
The  comprehensive  view  taken  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  sacri- 
fice is  best  illustrated  by  the  advice  he  gives  to  those  who  are 
fasting.  He  advises  them  to  be  present  during  the  celebration  of 
the  Communion,  but  not  to  partake  of  the  bread  at  that  time, 
but  later  in  their  homes,  that  in  this  way  the  participation  in  the 
sacrifice  would  be  assured,  participatio  sacrificii  salva.  Thus  the 
whole  act  belongs  to  the  sphere  of  sacrifice.  Besides  the  sacrifi- 
cial idea  is  applied  to  matters  outside  the  Service,  such  as  fasting 
and  penitential  observances.  The  notion  of  merit  has  infected 
the  entire  Church  in  the  time  of  Tertullian.  Prayer,  fasting, 
alms,  as  works  of  penitence,  possess  a  meritorious  power  and  sig- 
nificance. They  are  works  of  satisfaction.  According  to  Ter- 
tullian: ''Non  enim  oranucs  tanhini,  sed  et  deprecamiir,  et  satisfaci- 
vius  Deo  Domino  nostra y  No  Roman  mass  as  yet,  no  sacrifice 
of  the  body  of  Christ  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins, — but  prayers 
and  oblations  are  offered  to  obtain  the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  ev- 
ery needed  grace.  Whj^  not  apply  the  meritorious  power  thus 
connected  with  the  Eucharist  to  the  martyrs  and  others  who  had 
departed  this  life?  The  step  which  leads  to  this  goal  is  not  a  long 
one.  Ignore  the  sacramental,  regard  the  Service  chiefly  as  wor- 
ship, overemphasize  the  sacrificial,  and  the  way  to  Rome  is  open. 
Up  to  this  time  we  have  heard  nothing  of  sacerdotalism  in 
its  relation  to  the  sacrificial  element.  Hovv^  does  Tertullian  view 
this  relation? — In  the  first  place  he  laj's  great  stress  on  the  uni- 
versal priesthood  of  all  Christians.  Clearer  and  stronger  lan- 
guage than  his  is  not  found.  ''Nonne  et  laid  sacerdotes  siunusf 
Script2im  est:  regmim  qiioquc  nos  ct  sacerdotes  dco  et  patri  suo  fe- 
cit,'" and,  ''Sed  ubi  tres,  ecclesia  est,  licet  laid.''  All  Christians 
are  priests,  and  as  such  originally  authorized  to  exercise  the 
functions  of  the  priesthood,  and  in  case  of  necessity  may  do  so, 
but  for  the  sake  of  order  in  the  Church,  one  takes  the  place  of 
all,  and  does  that  which  all  are  entitled  to  do.  If  the  office  of 
the  ministry  is  an  outflow  of  the  universal  priesthood,  if  his  func- 
tions are  sacerdotal,  if  the  minister  of  the  Word,  only  officiates 


94  MEMOIRS. 

as  the  organ  of  the  priestly  congregation,  then  the  office  of  the 
ministry  is  a  priesthood,  a  saccrdoHum.  The  idea  of  a  minister 
of  the  Word  and  Sacraments,  a  dispenser  of  the  means  of  grace, 
is  foreign  to  his  conception;  but  the  one  who  presides  is  a  sacerdos, 
a  priest,  and  offerre,  to  bring  sacrifice,  is  his  office  and  his  service. 
Here,  again,  in  the  office  of  the  ministry,  we  have  the  sacrificial 
point  of  view  made  prominent  over  the  sacramental. 

The  sacerdotal  character  of  the  ministerial  office  retains  its 
paramount  position  in  the  view  taken  by  Cyprian,  but  the  bearers 
of  the  office  are  not  regarded  as  priests  because  they  bring  the 
praj^ers  of  the  congregation  before  God  in  its  name;  they  are  not 
the  priests  of  the  congregation;  they  do  not  officiate  before  God 
in  the  name  of  the  congregation;  on  the  contrary  they  are  the 
priests  of  God,  who  act  in  the  name  of  God  for  the  good  of  the 
congregation.  The  prayers  they  offer  are  not  the  prayers  of  the 
congregation,  but  rather  acts  enjoined  by  God,  for  the  spiritual 
welfare  of  the  congregation,  for  the  forgiveness  of  their  sins,  and 
their  reception  into  the  good  will  of  God.  Cyprian  voices  a  false 
realism  in  his  estimate  of  prayer,  which  in  itself  is  too  spiritual, 
lacks  contents,  and  must  be  supplemented  in  order  to  be  a  true 
offering.  Gifts,  alms,  fasting  must  be  added,  and  fill  up  the 
void.  Moreover  Cyprian  extends  the  sacrificial  view  of  the  Eu- 
chari-st  so  as  to  include  the  passion  of  our  lyord.  The  old  view 
that  bread  and  wine  are  offered  by  thanksgiving  before  the  con- 
secration as  \h&  primiticE  creaturarum  disappears  entirely.  '" Pas- 
sio  est  Domini  sacrificiiun^  quod  offerinuis.'"  Again  in  the  institu- 
tion of  the  Holy  Supper  the  I^ord  as  the  High-Priest  offers  up 
His  body  and  blood  to  the  Father,  under  the  bread  and  wine 
which  is  an  imago  dominic(Z  passionis.  The  institution  of  the 
Sacrament  is  a  part  of  the  passion,  and  is  termed  "^arr//?«V^;/'/ 
quod  Christus  obtulerit,'"  and  the  Lord  Himself  is  ''Sacrificii  Juijits 
audor  et  doctor.'"  The  passion  of  our  Lord  was  accomplished 
once  for  all  on  the  cross,  but  the  celebration  of  the  Sacrament  is 
a  constant  repetition  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  a  commemoration, 
in  which  the  Lord's  passion  is  offered,  presented,  brought  before 
the  Lord.  This  view  is  not  identical  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Cyprian  places  a  part  of  that  which  belongs 
to  the  death  of  Christ  into  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  death  of  Christ  includes  both  the  presentation  of  Himself  by 
Christ,  and  the  sufferings  of  the  Lord  in  His  sacrifice.     Cyprian 


THE   SACRIFICIAL    IDKA    IN    CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP.  95 

separates  the  former  from  the  death  of  the  Lord,  and  includes  it 
in  the  Sacrament,  hence  our  Communion  is  only  a  repetition  of 
the  first,  and  of  the  High-Priestly  self -presentation  which  took 
place  on  that  occasion,  but  not  yet  a  repetition  of  the  sacrificial 
death  of  Christ. 

A  detailed  discussion  of  the  development  within  the  Greek 
Church  is  unnecessary.  Our  object  is  to  trace  the  perversion  of 
the  sacrificial  sphere,  and  its  reformation.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
the  Greek  Church  has,  in  this  regard,  taken  essentially  the  same 
course  as  the  L,atin,  which  has  surpassed  it  in  logical  thorough- 
ness, dogmatic  precision,  liturgical  fulness,  and  formal  develop- 
ment. The  difference  in  the  liturgical  evolution  of  the  Greek 
Church  begins  to  show  itself  already  after  Cyprian  and  the  Eighth 
Book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitution.  The  language  of  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,  and  especially  of  Chrysostom  are  indicative  of  the  in- 
creasing confusion  respecting  the  character  of  the  Sacrament. 

The  line  of  Latin  continuity  lies  in  the  North  African  Church, 
and  Augustine  is  the  next  to  take  up  the  thread.  How  does 
Augustine  differ  from  Cyprian?  In  theory,  or  rather  by  his  deep 
knowledge  of  sin  arid  grace,  Augustine  stands  in  opposition  to 
Cyprian,  as  the  representative  of  the  prevailing  ideas  of  merit 
and  satisfaction.  In  practice,  however,  he  was  not  always  con- 
sistent. Not  infrequently  we  find  him  yielding  to  the  popular 
practice,  upholding,  extenuating,  defending  it.  This  accounts 
for  the  limitation  of  his  salutary  influence  on  the  development  al- 
ready in  progress.  Hence  his  deep  and  often  correct  views, 
compared  with  those  of  his  time,  have  no  immediate  future. 
Cyprian  and  Augustine  start  from  dift'erent  points  of  view.  Cy- 
prian's view  of  the  Service  begins  with  the  sacerdotal  office, 
whose  essential  function  it  is  to  offer  sacrifices  for  the  congrega- 
tion. Augustine  here  interposes  the  idea  of  the  Sacrament.  He 
holds  that  every  Service  is  carried  out  by  means  of  sacrifices, 
which  we  offer  to  God;  but  every  sacrifice,  in  so  far  as  it  does  not 
stop  with  the  inner  offering  of  the  heart,  but  expresses  itself  in 
external  acts,  is  a  sacrament;  in  other  words,  every  Service,  in  so 
far  as  it  is  not  purely  internal,  is  rendered  b}^  means  of  sacra- 
ments, which  are  sacrifices.  Thus  Augustine  views  the  idea  of 
the  Service  from  the  subjective  point  of  view,  a  human  function 
before  God,  service  and  reverence  shown  to  God.  The  other 
side,  the  dealing  of  God  with  man  by  means  of  the  Word,  Bap- 


96  MEMOIRS. 

tism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  is  not  ignored,  but  is  simpl}^  regarded 
as  the  prerequisite  of  worship,  in  which  the  Service  consists.  The 
means  of  grace  are  virtually  outside  the  conception  of  the  Service 
as  such.  Divine  Service  is  not  God's  doing  in  relation  to  man, 
but  man's  doing  before  God.  This  is  his  argument:  God  is  the 
highest  good;  onl}^  by  a  vital  connection  with  this  highest  good 
can  man  find  the  salvation  he  craves;  and  the  worship  of  God 
consists  in  all  that  man  does  in  order  to  put  and  maintain  himself 
in  vital  communion  with  God. 

And  this  constitutes  his  conception  of  sacrifice:  All  that 
man  does  in  order  to  bring  about  and  preserve  his  living  com- 
munion with  God  is  sacrificial.  Deum  colere  and  Deo  sacrificare 
are  synonymous.  The  Divine  side  is  almost  lost  from  sight. 
One  might  think  that  Augustine's  subjective  conception  of  the 
sacrificial  would  find  a  corrective  in  the  fact  that  he  terms  every 
sacrifice  a  sacrament.  But  Augustine's  definition  of  a  sacrament 
includes  every  visible  and  real  manifestation  of  spiritual  and  Di- 
vine things.  Of  course  the  sacrifice,  in  order  to  be  called  and  to 
be  a  sacrament,  even  though  it  be  only  an  offering  brought  by 
man,  must  have  and  present  something  Divine  and  spiritual. 
' '' Etsi  enirn  ab  homme  fit  vel  offertur,  taf?ien  sacrificium  res  divina 
est. ' '  But  this  need  not  be  a  Divine  act  affecting  man ;  it  need 
only  be  an  act  of  man  directed  toward  God;  it  is  sufiicient  if 
man's  sacrifice  is  offered  for  God's  sake, — to  make  the  sacrifice  a 
sacrament.  For  example,  a  work  of  mercy  done  from  a  mere 
philanthropic  motive,  would  not  be  a  sacrifice,  because  it  is  not  a 
res  divina,  but  a  work  of  mercy  done  for  God's  sake,  is  a  sacri- 
fice. Accordingly  a  sacrament  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  Di- 
vine act,  but  even  a  mere  human  act  becomes  a  sacrament  when 
it  is  done  with  reference  to  God.  In  this  sense  Augustine  is  to 
be  understood  when  he  says:  '' Sacrificiuvi  ergo  visibilis  invisibilis 
sacrifiiii  sacramentum,  id  est  sacrum  signum  esty  The  result  is 
that  by  this  peculiar  combination  Augustine  preserves  a  sacra- 
mental idea  in  the  Service,  and  in  a  new  w'ay  lets  the  sacramental 
be  absorbed  by  the  sacrificial,  the  act  of  God  by  the  act  of  man. 
If  we  now  enter  into  the  extent  of  the  sacrificial  sphere  as  viewed 
by  Augustine,  we  find  that  fasting,  ascetic  acts,  martyrdom,  are 
sacrifices  as  well  as  the  works  of  mercy  and  love,  as  they  are  all 
done  for  the  good  of  one's  own  soul.  All  must  be  done  for  God's 
sake,  for  His  glorj',  if  they  are  to  have  anj-  sacrificial  value.     All 


THE   SACRIFICIAL    IDEA    IN    CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP.  97 

these  works  are  sacrifices  because  they  proceed  from  within,  are 
external  signs  of  our  internal  consecration  to  God.  The  real 
sacrifice  consists  in  the  complete  consecration  of  ourselves  with 
all  that  we  have  and  are  to  God  Who  has  redeemed  us  through 
the  one  Mediator  and  High-Priest,  and  all  those  external  acts, 
alms  as  well  as  prayers,  the  fruit  of  the  lips  as  well  as  the  fruit 
of  works,  are  only  the  individual  signs  and  activities  of  this  real 
and  true  sacrifice.  Herein  Augustine  reaches  back  with  depth 
and  decision  to  the  older  views  of  Christian  sacrifice,  which  in 
Cyprian,  had  already  fallen  into  the  background.  But  Augus- 
tine does  not  continue  in  this  right  path,  but  departs  from  it  in 
two  directions.  First,  he  makes  all  that  transpires  in  the  Chris- 
tian Service  to  belong  to  his  conception  of  sacrifice.  Everj^  act 
of  the  Service  is  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  self-consecra- 
tion. Even  the  celebration  of  the  Christian  festivals.  His  view 
of  the  character  of  such  a  festival  is  not  that  God,  on  those  days 
by  His  Word,  renews  the  memorj^  of  His  great  deeds  and  faith  in 
them,  but  that  we  celebrate  those  great  deeds  of  God,  and  offer 
thanks  to  God  for  them.  And  this  applies  to  the  Lessons,  and 
the  Sermon,  and  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  Here  believers  of- 
fer themselves  up  to  God  by  offering  up  the  body  of  Christ.  The 
sacramental  yields  to  the  sacrificial.  {De  Civ.  Dei,  X.  6.)  In 
the  second  place,  we  find  that  all  the  offerings  of  prayers,  good 
works  and  the  like  are  instances  of  devotion,  but  not  a  responsive 
yielding  up  of  ourself  to  God,  but  when  man  has  been  born  again 
by  baptism,  are  of  an  atoning  character,  man  offering  up  him- 
self in  Christ  to  God,  as  Christ  has  offered  Himself  to  God  by  the 
complete  sacrifice  of  our  nature  as  the  atonement  and  propitia- 
tion.    In  the  Eucharist  the  Church  offers  itself  up  to  God. 

In  the  Church  of  Rome  at  the  time  of  Innocent  I,  according 
to  a  letter  written  by  him  in  415  to  a  bishop  named  Decentius, 
we  find  in  the  Roman  liturgy  a  conscious,  logically  consistent 
formal  application  of  the  sacrificial  theory  as  applied  to  the  Lord's 
Supper,  at  a  period  when  the  liturgies  of  all  other  churches  were 
still  oscillating  between  the  old  forms  and  those  which  corre- 
sponded to  the  sacrificial  theor}-.  Half  a  century  later  Leo  I. 
holds  that  consecration  effects,  brings  about  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ:  ''Sacrame7itum  corporis  et  sanguinis  Christi  conjicerc/' 
What  took  place  in  the  death  of  Christ,  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  is 
repeated  in  the  Lord's  Supper.     Gregory  the  Great,  (590-604), 


yb  MEMOIRS. 

concludes  the  theory  as  such  even  in  its  practical  bearings.  He 
applies  the  efficacy  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  to  his  doctrine  of 
purgatory.  The  conclusion  is  evident:  If  the  Holy  Supper 
availed  for  the  dead,  the  presence  of  those  who  were  to  be  bene- 
fited by  it  was  unnecessary,  and  the  Sacrament  was  simply  a 
sacerdotal,  atoning  act,  performed  by  the  priest  for  man,  howev- 
er distant,  reaching  even  into  the  depths  of  purgatory,  if  it  were 
only  done  in  behalf  of  the  person  whom  it  was  intended  to  aid. 
The  sacrificial  idea  had  reached  the  climax  of  its  distortion,  and 
the  misdirected  current  flowed  on  in  unchecked  force  throughout 
the  entire  mediaeval  period. 

The;  restoration  of  the  sacrificiai,  idea. 

The  lyUtheran  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  paid 
due  regard  to  the  historical  continuity  of  the  Christian  Church. 
Where  the  correcting  touch  of  revision  was  needed  the  work  of 
restoration  was  conducted  deliberately  and  carefully  until  the 
result  was  reached.  As  early  as  the  year  1518  lyUther  begins  to 
develop  the  principles  on  which  the  restoration  of  the  Service 
depended.  In  discussing  the  existing  arrangements  he  uses  the 
Word  of  God  as  the  guide  and  touch-stone.  His  tractate  on 
"The  Ten  Commandments  preached  to  the  people  at  Wittenberg," 
gave  him  the  opportunity  to  refer  to  the  Service  in  treating  of 
the  third  Commandment.  With  increasing  clearness  he  contin- 
ues along  this  line  ^-ear  after  year,  until  he  could  embody  the 
results  in  his  '  'Deutsche  Messe  u?id  Ordmuig  Gottesdicnstes'' '  in  the 
year  1526.  Most  of  the  I^utheran  orders  of  Service  in  the  first 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century  are  based  on  lyUther's  "German 
Mass."  The  principle  which  dominates  the  entire  lyUtheran 
cultus  is  this:  Every  Service  must  contain  a  sacramental  ele- 
ment; no  Service  dare  consist  of  the  purely  sacrificial  element; 
the  sacramental  is  the  fundamental;  the  sacrificial  is  the  accident- 
al element.  The  sacramental  leads  the  way;  the  sacrificial  fol- 
lows. IvUther  expresses  this  very  clearly:  "If  man  desires  to  be 
in  touch  with  God,  and  to  receive  aught  at  His  hands,  this  is  the 
proper  course:  Man  dare  not  begin  and  lay  the  first  stone,  but 
God  alone  must  first  come,  without  any  quest  or  desire  on  the 
part  of  man  He  must  first  come,  and  give  man  a  promise.  This 
same  Word  of  God  is  the  first  thing:  the  foundation,  the  rock, 
on  which  the  works,  words  and  thoughts  of  man  are  built;  this 


THE  SACRIFICIAL   IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP.  99 

Word  man  is  to  receive  with  thanks  and  to  believe  the  Divine 
assurance  with  a  true  heart,  and  in  no  wise  doubt  that  it  is  and 
comes  to  pass,  in  accordance  with  the  Divine  assurance."  The 
two  elements  of  public  worship  are  here  recognized  together  with 
their  relation.  The  Service  is  a  responsive  one.  In  some  acts 
the  two  elements  are  f omid  together :  hymns  are  not  always  pure- 
ly sacrificial,  nor  are  sermons  always  exclusively  sacramental. 
The  reading  of  the  Word,  on  the  other  hand,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Sacrament  are  entirely  sacramental,  while  the  of- 
fering of  pra^-er  is  solely  sacrificial.  Bearing  this  qualification 
in  mind  it  will  be  easy  to  distinguish  those  parts  of  the  Service, 
whose  distinguishing  character  is  the  expressive  attitude  of  the 
recipient  worshiper  to  the  Divine  Giver  of  grace.  The  distinc- 
tion is  as  obvious  as  the  difference  is  real  and  one  might  say  nec- 
essary in  the  nature  of  the  case.  The  false  sacerdotalism  of  the 
deterioration  disappears,  and  the  congregation  resumes  its  proper 
functions  in  the  entire  order  of  worship. 

A  glance  at  the  constituents  of  the  sacrificial  sphere  impress- 
es one  with  the  fulness  of  the  responsive  opportunity.  All  muti- 
lation is  at  an  end.  The  Sacrament  is  administered  in  its  com- 
pleteness, and  the  Sacrament  itself  marks  the  completeness  of 
the  full  Service.  Reverently  we  enter  the  vestibule  of  sacrificial 
worship.  The  Introit  has  its  devotional  culmination  in  the  Gloria 
Patri,  and  prepares  the  way  for  that  cry  out  of  the  depths,  the 
supplication  for  mercy  addressed  to  the  L,ord  in  the  Kyrie  filled 
with  the  same  burden  as  the  Agnus  Dei.  And  now  arises  the 
great  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  an  angelic  outburst  of  adoration  and 
prayer  to  the  Triune  Source  of  grace.  The  brief  prayer  for  the 
presence  of  the  Lord  with  the  minister  is  followed  by  the  collect- 
ive presentation  of  all  the  wants  of  the  Church  in  the  Collect  for 
the  Day.  The  note  of  joyous  praise  is  continued  after  the  Epistle 
and  the  Gospel,  the  hallelujah  of  the  Old,  akin  to  the  victorious 
shout  hosanna,  and  the  New  Testament  ascription  of  praise  to 
Christ.  Faith,  the  centre  of  the  human  movement  throughout 
the  Service,  finds  special  utterance  in  one  of  the  Creeds,  and  then 
the  hymn,  representative  of  that  wealth  of  responsiveness  in 
which  the  Reformation  Church  abounds  and  rejoices.  After  the 
offertory,  the  General  Prayer,  so  comprehensive,  so  majestic  in 
its  simplicity,  so  beautiful  in  its  dignity.  The  model  prayer  giv- 
en by  the  Lord  is  the  fitting  conclusion  of  this  sacrifice.     Nor 


100  MEMOIRS. 

dare  the  Litany  be  forgotten,  that  gem  which  Luther  says  is  the 
best  after  the  Lord's  Prayer,  that  has  come  upon  earth,  or  that 
may  be  thought  out  by  man.  Before  the  closing  hymn  the  ma- 
terial offerings  are  placed  upon  the  altar,  denoting  the  consecra- 
tion of  the  least  as  well  as  the  greatest.  All  thought  of  merit,  of 
atoning  efficacy  is  absent  from  the  sacrifices  thus  offered,  and  the 
Service  has  been  restored  to  its  original  pm"ity.  All  in  all,  the 
Service  shines  out  in  the  beauty  of  holiness,  radiant  in  all  its 
many  jewels  of  praise,  whether  of  intonation  or  responsory,  from 
the  Adjutorium  to  the  Nujic  Dimittis,  so  suggestive  of  the  sacri- 
fices of  the  Church  on  high. 


Principal  Source: — Ki^iefoth,  Liturgische  Abhandlungen. 

G.  F.  Spieker. 
Mt.  Airy,   Philadelphia,  Pa. 


THE  PI.ACE   OF  LITURGY 
IN  THE   CHURCH'S   THOUGHT,    LIFE   AND   ART. 


It  is  of  no  small  importance  to  attempt  an  outline  of  the  place  of 
liturgy  in  the  whole  sphere  of  the  thought,  life  and  art  of  the 
Church.  Such  an  attempt  will  indicate  the  wide  relationship, 
the  far-reaching  dependence,  and  the  deep  and  necessary  influ- 
ence of  liturgy.  Perhaps  it  may  serve  to  impress  some,  to  whom 
liturgies  appears  as  one  of  the  appendices  of  practical  theology 
appealing  to  certain  aesthetic  souls  but  of  very  minor  value  to  the 
whole  Church,  with  the  error  of  their  position.  Others,  in  be- 
coming more  fully  conscious  of  the  dependence  of  liturgies  and 
seeing  it  in  the  whole  organism  of  Christian  theology  and  life, 
may  be  prevented  from  an  enthusiastic  overestimation  and  an 
excessive  emphasis  of  liturgy  in  practise. 

If  liturgy  is  considered  in  its  place  in  the  Church,  it  is  with 
no  necessary  theory  of  the  Church  as  a  presupposition,  but  sim- 
ply for  the  reason  that  in  the  Church  liturgy  has  its  place.  This 
is  to  be  marked  in  the  thought  of  the  Church,  i.  e.,  its  theology; 
in  the  life  of  the  Church,  which  theology  comprehends  in  its  in- 
tellectual unfolding  and  which  it  influences  through  its  divine 
content;  and  in  the  art  of  the  Church,  which,  in  the  beautiful, 
gives  expression  of  the  truth  of  thought  and  life. 

The  thought  of  the  Church  arises  from  the  inicrpretatioti  and 
understanding  of  the  message  given  her  b}'  her  Founder  and  Cor- 
ner-stone, and  His  Apostles,  guided  and  led  by  His  Spirit. 
Whatever  preparatory  and  prophetic  message  the  whole  and  the 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament  contain,  is  normative  only  in  the 
light  of  the  fulfillment  of  the  New  Testament.  The  shadows  of 
the  old  covenant  are  determined  by  the  substance  of  the  new,  but 
the  new  covenant  is  not  to  be  interpreted  by  the  forms  of  the  old. 
But  the  New  Testament  contains  the  germs  of  new  fixed  forms. 

(ci) 


102  MEMOIRS. 

Christ,  Who  fulfilled  the  law  and  the  prophets,  not  only  reveres 
the  Old  Testament  forms  and  the  Old  Testament  Temple-service, 
but  He  also  indicates  that  the  new  wine  of  the  Kingdom  is  not 
to  be  without  vessels,  but  is  to  be  found  in  new  skins.  (Matt. 
9:  17;  Mark  2:21;  Luke  5:  37).  The  new  spirit  of  the  Kingdom 
is  not  to  be  formless,  but  to  have  new,  adequate  forms.  Jesus 
looks  forward  to  the  worship  in  spirit  and  truth  (John  4:  23), 
and  yet  He  teaches  His  disciples  upon  their  request,  not  simply 
a  model  but  also  a  form  of  prayer.  (lyuke  11:  i  ff.  cf.  Matt.  6: 
9  ff.).  And  the  very  "Abba"  of  the  Spirit  in  the  heart  of  be- 
lievers (Rom.  8:15;  Gal.  4:  6)  is  the  echo  not  only  of  the  L,ord's 
own  prayer  (Mark  14:  36),  but  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  given  the 
disciples.  The  Spirit  takes  Christ's  form  of  "Our  Father"  and 
uses  it  to  move  the  heart  to  cry  out  in  childlike  confidence.  And 
is  it  not  an  indisputable  fact,  that  the  most  anti-liturgic  churches 
have  kept  the  very  words  of  this  form  of  prayer,  and  contend  for 
the  words  "debts"  and  "debtors"  as  against  "trespasses"  used 
by  liturgic  churches.  This  simply  proves  that  the  Lord's  Prayer 
is  universally  accepted  as  a  form.  In  baptism  the  command  "in 
the  Name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost" 
(Matt.  28:  19)  has  been  and  is  generally  received  as  a  formula. 
The  free  homiletic  utterance  of  Peter,  "in  the  name  of  Christ" 
(Acts  2:  38)  is  neither  the  starting  point  of  Matt.  28:  19,  which 
is  textually  so  well  established,  nor  its  abrogation.  The  other 
institution  of  Christ,  His  Supper,  to  be  held  in  remembrance  of 
Him  (Luke  22:  19;  i  Cor.  11:  24),  is  the  nucleus  for  a  form,  and 
the  prayers  and  celebration  which  grew  out  of  it  are  indicated  in 
the  word  "testament"  and  furthered  by  the  command  "this  do." 
If  we  enter  the  assemblies  of  the  early  Apostolic  Church,  we 
find  the  disciples  met  for  "the  prayers"  (Greek  text,  Acts  2:  42), 
which  seem  to  be  not  Jewish  prayers,  though  these  and  their 
hours  were  still  observed  (Acts  3:  i),  but  the  new  Christian 
prayers,  connected  with  "the  fellowship"  and  "the  breaking  of 
bread,"  i.  e.,  the  Communion.  The  more  certain  are  we  of  this 
as  the  congregation  at  Jerusalem  "with  one  accord  lifted  up  their 
voice' '  to  what  is  the  earliest  known  psalm  of  Christian  thanks- 
giving, kindling  the  new  praise  by  the  old  promise  as  they  said: 
"Lord,  Thou  art  God,  Which  hast  made  Heaven,  and  earth,  and 
the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them  is;  Who  by  the  mouth  of  Thy  servant 
David   hast   said,    Why  did   the  heathen  rage,  and  the  people 


THE   PLACE   OF   LITURGY.  103 

imagine  vain  things?  The  kings  of  the  earth  stood  up,  and  the 
rulers  were  gathered  together  against  the  Irord,  and  against  His 
Christ.  For  of  a  truth  against  Thy  holy  child  Jesus,  Whom 
Thou  hast  anointed,  both  Herod,  and  Pontius  Pilate,  with  the 
Gentiles,  and  the  people  of  Israel,  were  gathered  together,  for  to 
do  whatsoever  Thy  hand  and  Thy  counsel  determined  before  to 
be  done.  And  now,  lyord,  behold  their  threatenings :  and  grant 
unto  Thy  servants,  that  with  all  boldness  they  may  speak  Thy 
Word,  by  stretching  forth  Thine  hand  to  heal;  and  that  signs  and 
wonders  may  be  done  by  the  Name  of  Thy  holy  child  Jesus." 
(Acts  4:  24-30.)  Could  this  beautiful  psalm  have  been  prayed 
in  common,  unless  it  had  been  a  form  commonly  known  and 
prayed  by  the  body  of  believers  ?  Did  the  Holy  Spirit  ever  pro- 
duce psalms  and  hymns  and  prayers  through  the  voice  of  a  mul- 
titude, or  not  always  through  the  individual  ?  The  further  de- 
velopment of  the  liturgy  of  the  Apostolic  Church  is  not  merely 
indicated  by  "psalms,  hymns,  spiritual  songs"  (Eph.  5:  19;  Col. 
3:  16),  pointing  to  the  retention  of  Jewish  psalmody  and  the 
beginning  of  Christian  h}-mnody,  but  there  is  evidently  in  the 
announcement  of  the  mj-stery  of  godliness  (i  Tim.  3:  16)  the 
rhythm  of  an  early  hymn  to  Christ,  (cf.  Pliny's  letter:  a  hymn 
to  Christ  as  God).  There  is  in  this  hymn  the  ring  of  confession. 
The  confession  at  baptism  is  beginning  to  grow  into  a  creed. 
And  it  is  highly  probable,  as  Theodore  Zahn  contends,  that  in 
the  light  of  subsequent  history  we  may  conclude  from  the  com- 
parison of  I  Tim.  6:  12,  13;  2  Tim.  2:  8;  Rom.  i:  3;  2  Tim.  4:  i; 
Acts  10:  42;  I  Pet.  4:  5;  2  Tim.  2:  2;  3:  10;  i:  13,  14,  that  Tim- 
othy confessed  Christ  is  a  creed,  which  contained  according  to 
clear  evidence  "of  the  seed  of  David,"  standing  "before  Pontius 
Pilate,"  and  to  come  "to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead,"  and 
probably  it  contained  more,  if  we  give  due  consideration  to  the 
researches  of  Kunze.  x\t  this  same  time  of  Paul's  late  labor  we 
can  also  note  the  growth  of  the  general  prayer  as  seen  in  i  Tim. 
2:  I. 

All  these  exegetic  facts  placed  in  the  light  of  New  Testament 
freedom  furnish  the  foundation  as  well  as  the  norm  for  liturgy. 

But  not  only  does  the  whole  liturgy  rest  on  such  proofs,  but 
individual  parts  are  exegetically  defensible.  If  we  take  "The 
Kyrie' '  of  the  Morning  Service  and  the  common  objection  to  its 
place,  we  shall  find  upon  examination,  that  the  liturgy  has  kept 


104  MEMOIRS. 

the  primary  meaning  of  "Kyrie  eleison,"  as  a  cry  for  mercy  in 
bodily  misery.  (Matt,  g:  27;  15:  22;  17:  15;  20:  30;  Mark  10:  47; 
Luke  17:  13;  18:  38).  Though  other  individual  features  may 
not  show  such  literal  usage,  yet  in  the  freest  sacrificial  echo  of 
the  Word  there  is  an  aptness  and  correctness,  which  often  has 
not  at  all,  or  at  least  very  slightly,  been  touched  by  exegetic  ab- 
errations. The  truth  is  kept  much  more  correctly  than  in  the 
freedom  of  homiletical  employment.  There  is  a  large  opportuni- 
ty for  minute  investigation  and  proof  of  this  fact  in  showing  the 
correct  transmission  of  much  Bible  truth  embedded  in  the  liturgy, 
which  was  kept  during  the  darkest  period  of  the  Church's  de- 
formation. Therefore  the  Reformers,  despite  their  fundamental 
change  of  attitude,  could  use  so  much  of  the  liturgic  material  of 
the  Roman  Church. 

It  has  become  evident,  that  the  interpretative  thought  of  the 
Church,  showing  the  inception  of  development,  leads  into  Ms fory . 
The  Church's  thought  was  unfolded  in  time.  Liturgies  cannot 
be  understood  unless  we  trace  its  growth;  how  it  developed  to  the 
third  century  as  a  Service  of  the  congregation,  prayers  and  hymns 
first  clustering  about  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  how,  soon  after,  the 
degeneration  begins  with  the  growth  of  the  hierarchic  idea,  the 
change  of  the  sacrament  into  a  sacrifice,  the  introduction  of  hea- 
then ideas  of  mysteries,  and  how,  later,  the  written  fixation  takes 
place  in  the  fourth  centur}^,  and  the  priestly  cultus  is  gradually 
developed  into  the  rich  symbolism  of  the  Eastern  and  the  present 
Russian  Church,  for  which  liturgy  is  a  constituent  exponent  of 
its  elemental  ceremonialism,  or  how  it  degenerated  in  the  West 
where  the  idea  of  sacrifice  gains  even  larger  practical  import,  and 
where  the  Service  must  also  lend  itself  to  express  the  Latin  rule 
of  the  Latin  priest.  In  this  history  it  is  of  interest  to  note  the 
influence  of  Gregory  I.  in  wedding  most  closely  the  growing  lit- 
urgy to  the  growing  Church  Year.  Both  belong  together,  both 
CO- work.  The  truth  and  justification  of  one  implies  that  of  the 
other.  Gregory  with  all  his  errors  has  in  this  helped  to  shape  a 
true  union  and  given  a  proper  impulse.  But  the  Church  Year 
and  the  liturgy  in  their  interrelation  of  development  and  charac- 
ter have  not  yet  been  adequately  described .  The  coming  back  of 
the  old  Gospel  necessitated  the  removal  of  many  unevangelical 
barnacles  in  liturgy,  but  it  as  such  was  not  repudiated  at  Wit- 
tenberg or  Geneva.     Later,  radicalism  from  Zwinglian  impulses, 


THK   PI.ACE   OF   I^ITURGY.  105 

one-sicled  spiritualism,  leveling  rationalism  have  given  many  a 
wrong  conception  of  the  attitude  of  the  Reformers  and  the  neces- 
sity of  evangelical  truth,  and  these  and  cognate  influences  still 
enable  uninform.ed  and  prejudiced  men  to  interpret  the  evangel- 
ical freedom  of  the  Reformers  as  rejection  of  the  historic  Service 
of  the  Church,  while  here  as  everywhere  the  programme  was: 
reformation,  not  revolution;  purification,  not  rejection. 

Liturgy  was  conserved  by  the  Reformers  as  a  legacy  of  his- 
tory, as  a  gift  of  the  Spirit  leading  into  truth  despite  error.  All 
those  rites  were  to  be  kept,  which  could  be  kept  without  sin. 
Evangelical  truth  cleansed,  it  did  not  destro}'  the  historic  liturgy. 
It  has  been,  it  appears  to  me,  one  of  the  errors  of  later  systema- 
tization  to  place  the  historical  study  of  liturgies  into  the  practical 
department.  On  the  basis  of  its  direct  practical  application  and 
its  use  in  the  congregation  it  has  been  subjected  to  much  disfig- 
urement. The  present  demand  is  made  regulative  of  liturgy. 
Some  late  writers  on  liturgies,  influenced  by  the  conception  that 
the  liturgy  is  predominatingly  a  practical  science,  are  beginning 
to  suggest  changes  in  the  essential  elements  and  thoughts  of  the 
Service,  because  their  conception  of  evangelical  does  not  measure 
up  to  that  of  the  Reformers.  This  is  a  part  of  that  individual- 
ism which  still  claims  large  rights  in  determining  liturgic  ques- 
tions and  usages  on  the  plea  of  the  present  condition  and  state  of 
the  churches.  Individual  choice  adds,  removes,  transposes  with 
the  claim  of  the  right  of  individuality  in  practical  theolog3^  All 
this  flows  from  the  erroneous  position  of  liturgies.  If  it  were 
assigned  to  the  historic  department,  it  were  not  onl}'  removed 
from  these  dangers,  but  it  would  be  where  it  belongs  by  its  ge- 
netic, determinative,  and  characteristic  principles.  These  princi- 
ples and  not  the  application  determine  the  place  of  a  science.  In 
our  land  the  Lutheran  Churches,  who  have  adopted  the  Common 
Service,  have  virtually  been  moved  thereto  by  historic  reasons. 
The  fundamental  rule  for  the  formation  of  this  Service,  the  com- 
mon consensus  of  the  pure  liturgies  of  the  i6th  century,  is  a  his- 
torical rule.  Why  do  we  hesitate  to  emphasize  in  thought  what 
we  have  affirmed  in  practise  ?  Historical  character  does  not 
mean  archaeological  exactness.  The  truly  historical  in  Christian- 
ity ever  influences  the  living  present  and  has  never  been  imprac- 
ticable. The  conservation  of  the  great,  fundamental,  historical 
principles  means  no  slaverj''  to  antiquated  forms,  but  it  guarantees 


106  MEMOIRS, 

for  the  present  the  objective  majesty  and  power  of  the  grand  old 
forms  and  prayers,  which  still  appeal  to  the  human  heart  and  by 
their  very  dignity  and  simplicity  stand  for  the  unchangeable  ver- 
ities of  Christianity.  Whatever  minor  changes  may  be  contem- 
plated can  only  be  made  by  those,  who,  understanding  fully  the 
historical  character  of  liturgy,  are  also  competent  to  judge  of  the 
practicability  not  by  the  standard  of  defective  conditions  but  of 
educative  possibilities. 

The  historical  character  of  liturgies  is  irenic.  It  voices  the 
harmony  of  the  great  common  centre  of  faith.  In  it  saints  of 
every  age  have  prayed,  and  it  expresses  a  wonderful  communion 
of  saints.  Polemics  may  have  their  place  in  the  sermon,  but  the 
language  of  the  liturgy,  the  language  of  devotion,  does  not  at- 
tack. It  cannot,  when  true  to  its  principles,  permit  the  sanctity 
of  the  Communion  to  be  marred  by  any  formula  like  "this  is  the 
irue  body  of  the  Lord,"  which  savors  of  discussion  and  contro- 
versy. Nevertheless  it  is  not  undecided.  It  is  a  clear  expression 
of  the  symbolic  position  of  a  Church.  In  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene 
Creeds  the  old  common  rules  of  faith  voice  the  faith  once  (aira^) 
delivered  to  the  saints.  In  the  very  Holy  of  Holies,  the  sac- 
rament of  the  altar,  definite  formulas  give  forth  a  clear  sound  of 
a  definite  faith.  It  is  this  confessional  import,  this  living  impress 
of  faith  and  creed,  which  the  liturgy  bears,  that  explains  how  it 
can  be  attacked  by  those,  whose  difficulty  finally  is  not  with  the 
liturgy  but  with  the  creed  upon  which  it  rests. 

This  symbolic  value  of  liturgy,  especially  when  seen  in  the 
historic  development,  at  once  shows  how  the  full  understanding 
of  liturgies  necessitates  a  knowledge  of  the  History  of  Dogma 
and  Doctrine.  In  this  its  own  history  is  fully  bound  up.  The 
doctrine  of  the  Church  and  the  ministry  have  ever  influenced 
worship.  The  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  invocation  of  saints,  the 
purgatory  and  other  wrong  doctrines,  beside  the  true,  have  al- 
ways acted  and  reacted  upon  the  liturgy. 

The  whole  historic  character  of  liturgies  forms  its  theoretical 
apologetic.  This  derives  its  force  when  compared  with  the  forms 
of  other  religions.  The  most  corrupt  form  of  Christian  liturgy 
will  be  found  immeasurably  above  the  ceremonies  of  all  other 
faiths.  Apologetics  has  not  5^et  begun  to  use  this  argument  to- 
gether with  other  lines  of  reasoning,  as  cumulative  in  the  defence 
of  Christian  faith. 


THE   PLACE   OF   LITURGY.  107 

The  truest  apologetic  within  Christianity  was  given  by  the 
dodrbial  impress  of  the  Reformation.  Its  reconnection  with  the 
original  faith  made  the  liturgy  correct  and  put  it  on  the  proper 
doctrinal  foundation.  Three  great  evangelical  doctrines  serve  to 
explain  it.  The  doctrine  of  the  Word  of  God,  the  Word  as  it 
lives  in  the  Gospel  and  as  the  sacraments  individuate  it,  while 
resting  on  its  power,  is  the  truth  and  strength  of  the  sacramental 
side  of  liturgy.  God's  gifts  come  through  His  Word.  Whatev- 
er is  imparted  of  grace,  forgiveness,  faith,  is  through  the  Word, 
in  which  the  Spirit  dwells  and  through  which  He  works.  There 
can  be  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  sacramental,  the  God- 
giving,  side  of  liturgy,  where  the  doctrine  of  the  Word  is  really 
believed.  The  second  great  doctrine  is  that  of  the  priesthood  of 
believers.  The  evangelical  Service  is  that  of  the  congregation. 
The  royal  priesthood  prays,  responds,  sings.  This  thought  of 
the  right  of  the  believer,  as  a  priest,  in  the  Service  was  very  fun- 
damental with  the  Reformers.  Because  of  it  the  Service  was 
rendered  into  the  vernacular,  and  the  people  were  given  back 
their  ancient  privilege.  Wherever  this  truth  is  really  alive,  there 
can  be  no  misunderstanding  of  the  sacrificial,  the  man-giving,  side 
of  the  Servnce.  It  is  only  where  it  is  perverted  in  a  Romish  man- 
ner, or  where  the  Reformed  minister  usurps  the  right  of  the  peo- 
ple in  worship,  that  it  is  objected  to.  The  priesthood  of  believers 
is  the  safeguard  against  liturg}^  being  imposed  as  a  3'oke.  But  it 
must  be  clearly  determined,  that  royal  priesthood  does  not  mean 
the  right  of  majority,  the  Messrs.  Omnes,  as  lyUther  called  the 
indiscriminate  and  indiscriminating  mass.  The  true  priest  is  on- 
ly the  believer.  Not  the  whole,  actual  congregation,  but  the 
spiritual  core  of  the  congregation  is  the  priesthood.  Even  this 
may  be  weak  and  its  weakness  must  be  respected.  Yet  the  more 
a  believer  out  of  faith  grows  in  love  he  will  be  ready  upon  infor- 
mation to  surrender  individual  preferences  and  to  receive  a  com- 
mon Service  even  when  he  does  not  at  once  fully  see  its  bearing, 
as  long  as  he  is  assured  that  the  falili  is  pure.  Intermediate  and 
connecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Word  and  the  priesthood  of  be- 
lie\'ers  is  the  doctrine  of  the  ministry.  It  was  given  to  the 
Church  with  the  Word  and  for  its  preaching,  with  the  sacraments 
and  for  their  administration.  But  it  is  filled  from  the  spiritual 
priests,  who  elect  to  the  ministry  those  whom  Christ  marks  by 
His  gifts  of  grace.     When  the  minister  announces  the  Word, 


108  MEMOIRS. 

whether  in  preaching  or  sacramental  administration,  he  is  carry- 
ing out  the  sacramental  part  of  the  Service.  Christ  speaks 
through  His  servant.  Whoso  heareth  the  minister  heareth 
Christ,  provided  that  the  minister  announce  only  Christ's  mes- 
sage. When  the  minister  confesses  sins,  praj^s,  he  is  carrj'ing 
out  the  sacrificial  side  of  the  Service,  bringing  the  spiritual  sac- 
rifices of  the  people  as  one  of  the  spiritual  priests,  at  times  speak- 
ing for  them,  at  times  only  with  them.  This  conception  changes 
much,  which  in  Roman  and  Anglican  liturgy  has  a  different 
meaning.  In  such  an  incidental  matter  as  the  attitude  of  turning 
to  and  from  the  people  the  evangelical  doctrine  gives  the  true  ex- 
planation. When  the  minister  turns  to  the  people,  he  speaks  as 
the  messenger  of  God.  How  the  meaning  of  this  attitude  is 
misconceived;  for  while  it  elevates  the  minister  it  is  commonly 
regarded  as  Protestant  co-ordination.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  minister  as  one  of  the  spiritual  priests  turns  to  the  altar, 
bringing  at  this  symbolic  place  the  sacrifice  of  prayer,  the  dignity 
of  his  office  is  not  at  all  emphasized.  This  turning  to  the  altar  is 
in  evangelical  liturgy  a  sign  of  the  very  freedom,  which  some  fear 
to  lose  in  this  symbolic  act.  Thus  in  a  very  minor  point  we  can 
note  the  influence  of  doctrine  upon  evangelical  liturgy. 

Nor  does  the  dogmatic  alone  influence  liturgy.  It  is  finally 
in  its  totality  prayer.  But  the  whole  subject  of  prayer  is  an 
ethical  question.  Ethics  determines  the  source  of  prayer,  it 
shows  its  freedom,  it  unfolds  the  necessity  of  the  use  of  forms, 
and  portrays  by  psychological  analj^sis  the  growth  of  a  form  out 
of  the  ethical  life,  which  in  praj^er  but  specializes  the  formative 
character  of  virtue  in  the  whole  of  ethical  life.  Ethics  develops 
in  its  communal  part  the  relation  of  the  Chtuch  in  its  prayers  as 
well  toward  God,  as  toward  itself.  The  edification  which  liturgy 
offers,  in  the  whole  edification  of  the  body  of  Christ,  is  an  ethical 
question.  Errors  in  understanding  liturgj^  very  often  arise  from 
a  lack  of  thorough  and  balanced  study  of  the  subject  of  prayer 
and  its  place  in  Christian  life  of  the  individual  and  the  Church. 

^he  practical  part  oi  theology  also  stands  in  closest  relation 
with  the  liturgy.  Homiletics  is  determined  by  the  fact  that  the 
sermon  follows  the  creed,  and  that  it  must  express  the  faith  con- 
fessed. Yet  at  the  same  time  the  sermon  adds  the  element  of  in- 
dividuality and  freedom.  The  pulpit  is  the  place  for  much  which 
is  erroneously  done  at  the  altar.     The  work  of  \^\^  pastor  \s  aided 


THE   PLACE   OF   LITURGY.  109 

b}"  the  liturg)^  his  care  of  souls  is  easier,  when  he  has  seen  the 
reflection  of  the  soul-life  of  centuries  at  its  height  in  the  out- 
breathings  of  prayers  and  collects.  His  strength  is  rekindled  at 
the  fire  of  many  a  saintly  intercession.  He  finds  in  the  Service 
points  of  contact,  through  which  he  may  pass  from  that  which  is 
familiar  to  a  soul  to  that  which  is  less  familiar.  The  very  dig- 
nity of  the  liturg}^  gives  the  pastor  in  the  freedom  of  pastoral 
work  a  power,  which  is  not  possessed  by  those  not  thus  inspired. 
Liturgy  truly  used  makes  good  praying  ministers  and  people. 
The  form  does  not  kill,  but  as  the  form  of  sound  words  adds 
power  and  comfort.  This  influence  of  liturgy  is  its  practical 
apologetic  known  to  those  who  empio}'-  it,  and  never  imagined  by 
the  prejudiced  who  have  not  fairly  attempted  to  find  its  true 
spirit. 

Liturgy,  though  it  cannot  be  used  in  the  beginning  of  mis- 
sionary effort,  among  the  heathen  or  at  home,  yet  may  be  a  pow- 
erful educator,  if  it  be  wisely  and  judiciously  introduced.  It  can 
lead  to  order  and  by  its  stately  power  impress,  incite,  inspire 
men . 

The  indication  of  these  relations  in  theology  have  everywhere 
touched  on  questions  of  life.  But  the  life  of  the  Church  is  pecul- 
iarly seen  in  liturgy  as  devotion.  Liturgj^  is  the  common  expres- 
sion of  the  experience,  that  God  has  come  to  men,  and  that  men 
may  come  to  God.  This  approach  in  evangelical  worship  is  a 
free  one.  It  rests  on  grace  experienced,  to  which  God  ever  testi- 
fies anew.  Everv'  Service  helps  and  furthers  devotion.  It  is 
true  that  devotion  is  not  circumscribed  by  the  fixed  acts  of  wor- 
ship, but  through  them,  if  thej'-  are  true,  it  receives  its  deepest 
impulse.  Devotion  has  created  the  liturgy,  which  is  the  outcome 
of  soul-life  in  petition  and  praise  on  the  basis  of  God's  promise 
and  gift.  Devotion  can  alone  understand  the  Service.  It  is  on- 
\y  where  there  is  no  Christian  life,  no  reality  corresponding  to 
profession,  or  where  this  life  is  unsound,  that  liturgy  becomes  a 
dead  letter  and  an  idle  form.  It  oaly  kills  where  men  do  not 
live  in  the  Word.  It  is  a  savor  of  death  to  the  dead.  But  the 
living  Christian,  whatever  his  intellectual  attitude,  the  prejudices 
of  his  education,  or  the  warp  of  his  ecclesiastical  position,  must, 
if  he  honestly  looks  into  liturgy,  find  in  it  gem  upon  gem  of  the 
purest  water  of  spiritual  life  and  true  devotion. 

The  truth  of  this  life  can  and  ought  to  come  to  beautiful  ex- 


110  MEMOIRS. 

pression.     This  is  art.     Christian  art  must  begin  with  the  Word. 
It  must  grow  out  of  its  beauty  of  spirit  and  form.     How  fully 
does  this  beauty  appear  in   the  depth  of  devotion,   which  the 
Psalms  breathe.     The  reflection  of  this  beauty,   augmented  by 
the  sublime  art  of  the  structure  of  the  lyord's  Prayer,  has  fallen 
upon  the  Church's  Service.     The  knowledge  and  understanding 
of  its  beauty  can  impress  the  sermon  with  the  beauty  of  truth, 
and   make   it   a  very  poem  in  prose.     Translations,   sometimes 
made  by  men  without  artistic  perception,  have  taken  away  from 
the  beauty  of  the  ancient  forms  of  the  liturgy.     But  it  ought  to 
be  our  endeavor,  in  whatever  language  we  worship,  to  carry  with 
us  something  of  this  wonderful  beauty  of  the  Service.     Nearest 
to  the  art  of  the  Word,  and  seeking  it  in  its  highest  triumphs  is 
the  art  of  music.     In  the  Church  it  can  never  be  pure  tone,  but 
always  word-tone   and  tone  of  the  Word.     The  character  of  the 
Service  must  determine  the  character  of  the  music.     It  must  be 
objective,  simple,  grand,  churchly,  majestically  monotone  in  its 
sacramental  part,  and  can  be  freer,  richer  in  the  sacrificial  part, 
but  never  with  the  involved  harmony   of  worldly  music,  express- 
ing the  wild  and  passionate  throb  of  the  natural  man.     The  har- 
mony of  sound,  which  must  appropriately  clothe  the  word,  ought 
to  be  accompanied  by  the  harmony  of  structure,  the  harmony  of 
architechire .     Stones  can  and  ought  to  be  words.     The}-  ought  to 
tell  what  the  Service  says.     Liturgy  should  determine  architect- 
ure.    Whatever  form  is  best  adapted  to  our  liturg}-  cannot  be  so 
easily  decided,  though  the  preference  seems  to  be  for  the  Gothic 
style.     The  great  objectivity  despite  all  freedom,  the  great  ma- 
jestic lines  and  arches  must  somehow  speak  of  the  heavenward 
sweep  of  prayer,  while  the  minor  arrangements  must  tell  of  bap- 
tism, communion,  preaching  in  accord  with   the  great  historic 
principles  of  worship.     When  art  becomes  plastic  or  pictorial  it 
ought  to  avoid  the  modern  realism,  which  is  too  often  critical  in- 
dividualism or  photographic  historicity,  and  adhere  to  the  histor- 
ical idealism  of  ecclesiastical  forms.     Art  ought  to  speak  of  the 
great  eternal  truths  in  no  whims  of  the  individual  artist.     It  may 
have  its  sacrificial  place,  where  freer  motives  are  expressed,  but 
these  dare  not  usurp  historic  objectivity  in  sculpture,  painting, 
and  stained  glass,  as  little  as  in  music.     But  the  historic  in  art 
must  be  used  in  no  spirit  of  servile  imitation  nor  of  uncritical 
importation.     It  must  agree   with   the   Evangelical   Service   in 


THE    PLACE    OF    LITURGY.  Ill 

character  and  spirit.  Roman  and  Anglican  models  are  not  ade- 
quate to  the  full  and  true  expression  of  the  Lutheran  liturgy. 
Therefore  this  must  finally  create  its  own  art,  equally  distant 
from  unchurchly  individualism  and  ecclesiastical  slavery  of  sacer- 
dotalism. The  great  fundamental  principles  of  the  sacramental 
and  sacrificial  must  be  worked  out  in  their  proper  unity  and  sep- 
arateness.  Only  with  these  guiding  principles  clearl)^  in  mind, 
can  the  Church  rightly  use  art  to  speak  in  every  form  of  beaut}- 
of  Him,  Who  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  sons  of  men,  b}'  spirit- 
ualizing all  material  into  the  pure  and  \oity  echo  of  its  prayer 
and  praise. 

JoHx  A.  W.  Haas. 

Nc2i'   York,  N.    V. 


THE   IvlTURGICAI.   HISTORY   OF   BAPTISM. 


When  our  blessed  Lord  said  to  His  Church,  "Go  ye  therefore, 
and  make  disciples  of  all  nations,  baptizing  them  into  the  name 
of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  He  as 
positively  gave  the  essential  part  of  the  form  to  be  used  in  the 
administration  of  this  sacrament  as  His  command  was  positive  for 
the  institution  of  Baptism.  Widely  different  doctrines  have  been 
developed,  untold  volumes  have  been  written,  bitter  discussions 
have  constantly  been  raging,  and  the  Church  has  been  divided 
by  schism  and  sect  all  because  men  have  been  determined  to 
prove  that  Christ  made  full  provision  for  every  part  of  the 
liturgy  to  be  used,  including  the  mode  of  applying  the  water,  and 
the  particular  class  of  Christians  who  are  to  be  baptized.  All  the 
bad  fruitage  that  comes  from  such  planting  would  not  have  had 
to  be  gathered,  if  the  professed  followers  of  Christ  could  only 
have  taken  Him  at  His  Word  and  realized  that  the  Savior  posi- 
tively commands  all  to  be  baptized,  that  He  positively  promises 
grace  through  this  sacrament,  fully  declaring  the  benefits  that 
come  to  all  who  truly  receive  it;  but  that  Christ  has  left  it  to  the 
choice  of  men — to  the  taste  and  development  of  the  Church — to 
determine  how  the  water  is  to  be  applied  as  well  as  the  form  that 
is  to  be  used  in  addition  to  the  words  of  Christ  by  which  He  in- 
stituted this  blessed  sacrament  of  regeneration.  But  the  doc- 
trines that  underlie  the  great  subject  of  Holy  Baptism  have  no 
direct  place  in  this  discussion;  and  yet,  since  the  Liturgy  is  always 
founded  on  positive  doctrines,  and  is  expressive  of  those  doc- 
trines, it  is  impossible  to  ignore  the  doctrines  in  discussing  the 
liturgical  history  of  Christian  Baptism. 

The  very  nature  of  existing  conditions  determined  that  with 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Church,  the  vast  majority  of  those 
who  were  baptized  must  have  been  adults;  but  this  is  no  argu- 
ment that  children  are  not  to  be  baptized.     Jesus  plainly  ascribes 

(cxiii) 


114  MEMOIRS. 

saving  faith  *  to  infants.  He  declares  the  child  to  be  the  model 
Christian.!  And  the  Apostles  often  baptized  entire  households. | 
This  makes  it  very  probable  that  children  were  baptized  by  the 
Apostles;  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  teaching  of  Christ,  or  in  the 
practice  of  the  Apostles,  by  which  any  one  has  a  right  to  draw 
the  conclusion  that  the  children  are  not  to  be  baptized.  There- 
fore the  burden  of  proof  rests  with  those  who  teach  that  children 
are  excluded  from  this  sacrament  (and  hence  from  the  Church), 
which  is  a  doctrine  that  cannot  be  established  from  the  Word  of 
God,  even  though  it  had  been  the  practice  of  the  early  Church, 
and  is  well  supported  by  the  teachings  of  the  Church  fathers. 
But  it  cannot  be  proven  that  there  ever  was  a  time  when  infants 
were  not  baptized. 

The  mode  of  applying  the  water  in  baptism  has  also  been  a 
great  bone  of  contention.  And  it  is  very  plain  that  the  practice 
of  immersion  was  due  to  custom  and  taste,  since  there  is  nothing 
in  the  history  of  the  early  Church  that  denies  the  validity  of 
sprinkling  and  pouring;  and  the  earliest  writing  of  the  fathers 
plainly  shows  this:  namely,  "And  concerning  baptism,  thus  bap- 
tize ye:  Having  first  said  all  these  things,  baptize  into  the  name 
of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  living 
water.  But  if  thou  have  not  living  water  baptize  into  other  wa- 
ter; and  if  thou  canst  not  in  cold,  in  warm.  But  if  thou  have 
not  either,  pour  out  water  thrice  upon  the  head  in  the  name  of 
the  Father  and  Son  and  Holy  Spirit."  This  statement  of  the 
Didache  is  acknowledged  by  all  as  having  been  written  at  least 
between  loo  and  150  A.  D.  This  shows  that  the  early  Church 
never  looked  upon  immersion  as  essential,  but  that  it  was  a  mat- 
ter of  taste  only.  And  it  is  also  evident  that  Christians  were  al- 
ways conscious  of  this  fact;  and  hence  the  practice  of  immersion 
gradually  went  into  disfavor,  and  sprinkling  and  pouring  began 
to  be  more  popular  with  the  Church.     But  still  for  about  thir- 

♦  Matt,  xviii.  6:  "Whoso  shall  cause  one  of  these  little  ones  which  beHeve  in 
Me  to  stumble,  it  is  profitable  for  him  that  a  great  millstone  should  be  hanged  about 
his  neck,  and  that  he  should  be  sunk  in  the  depth  of  the  sea.  The  woid  fiiKpwv 
certainly  means  very  little  children.  And  the  word  TricrTevw  is  the  general  word  for 
faith  used  all  through  the  New  Testament.     It  means  ^0  adhere  as  well  as  to  trust. 

t  Mark  x.  14:  Suffer  the  little  children  to  come  unto  Me;  forbid  them  not: 
for  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  God. 

X  Acts  X.  48;   Acts  xvi.  15,  33. 


THE   LITURGICAI,    HISTORY    OF    BAPTISM.  115 

teen  hundred  years,  immersion  was  all  but  the  universal  practice. 
The  common  people,  however,  became  the  champions  of  pouring 
and  sprinkling;  and  hence  this  became  at  last  the  general  usage. 
And  after  this  reasonable  change  had  been  made,  and  had  be- 
come the  mode  by  which  baptism  was  generally  administered, 
and  since  the  practice  had  become  permanentl}^  fixed,  then  the 
Council  of  Ravenna  (1311)  decreed  that  the  mode  of  baptism 
should  be  left  to  the  choice  of  the  officiating  minister.  Immer- 
sion still  lingers  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  case  of  the 
cathedral  of  Milan;  among  Protestants,  it  is  feebly  and  vainly  de- 
fended by  the  numerous  Baptist  sects;  the  Oriental  and  the  Rus- 
sian orthodox  Greek  Churches  require  even  a  threefold  immer- 
sion to  this  very  day,  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  and  they  look 
down  upon  all  others  as  being  unbaptized  heretics.  The  Church 
of  England  also  still  observes  immersion  in  theory.  The  rubric 
in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  sa5's  that  the  minister  shall  in- 
quire if  this  child  is  too  delicate  to  be  immersed,  and  upon  the 
statement  of  the  parents  he  is  to  sprinkle  water  upon  its  head. 

The  practice  of  immersion  had  evidently  come  into  use  at  a 
very  early  date.  For,  by  the  opening  of  the  fourth  century,  spe- 
cial baptistries  were  built  in  all  the  leading  cities.  The  baptistry 
consisted  of  an  outer  and  an  inner  chamber,  having  separate 
apartments  for  the  males  and  for  the  females.  The  candidates 
undressed  as  if  entering  a  bath;  but  Hofling  says  that  those  parts 
which  nature  and  reason  demand  to  be  concealed  were  always 
kept  covered  diu^ing  the  reception  of  this  sacrament.  The  dea- 
cons waited  upon  the  male  candidates,  and  the  deaconesses  at- 
tended the  females.  These  attendants  rubbed  the  bare  limbs  of 
the  candidates  both  before  and  also  after  the  baptism.  Each  of 
the  newly  baptized  was  given  a  taste  of  honey  and  milk;  and  al- 
so received  the  kiss  of  peace.  This  sacrament  was  generally  only 
administered  on  Easter  and  on  Whitsunday;  and  at  first  took 
place  between  the  hours  of  one  ar.d  two  in  the  morning.  The 
administration  of  this  sacrament  at  such  special  times  was  called 
"Solemn  Baptism,"  especially  that  which  was  administered  on 
the  above  named  days,  and  even  here,  the  decided  preference 
was  for  Whitsunday. 

The  liturgy  used  by  the  Apostles  themselves  must  have  been 
very  simple;  and  we  have  nothing  in  the  New  Testament  that  in- 
dicates that  any  preparation  was  ever  made  to  administer  Bap- 


116  MEMOIRS. 

tism  by  any  special  mode.  They  evidently  did  not  place  much 
importance  on  the  manner  in  which  the  sacrament  was  adminis- 
tered; and  it  was  not  at  all  necessary  that  they  should.  There 
was  enough  in  their  own  lives,  and  their  experience  with  Jesus, 
that  would  make  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  solemn  to 
all  to  whom  they  ministered.  For,  there  could  not  help  but  be  a 
great  reverence  shown  them  by  all  classes  of  Christians,  on  ac- 
count of  having  been  those  whom  the  Savior  had  chosen  to  walk 
with  Him  and  to  be  His  holy  Apostles.  And  with  each  coming 
generation,  this  respect  would  even  be  greater,  since  as  the 
Church  became  older.  Christians  would  be  able  to  understand 
what  a  distinguished  privilege  had  been  accorded  to  the  Apostles 
in  being  chosen  to  be  the  companions  of  the  Lord. 

But  immediately  after  the  days  of  the  Apostles,  we  have  ev- 
idences of  a  churchly  disposition  in  everything  that  pertained  to 
the  Church  of  Christ;  and  this  tendency  was  not  due  to  a  desire 
to  please  the  world,  or  because  the  Church  was  losing  spirituality, 
as  is  sometimes  intimated.  One  need  only  study  carefully  the 
character  of  the  ancient  catechumenate  in  order  to  realize  that 
the  discipline  of  the  Christian  Church  never  was  so  rigid  as  then. 
It  seems  a  wonder  that  with  such  requirements  as  the  Church 
then  made  of  those  who  sought  to  enter  her  communion,  together 
with  the  terrible  heathen  persecution  which  appeared  constantly 
about  to  crush  the  Christians  out  of  existence,  that  so  many  came 
into  her  communion,  and  that  the  Church  grew  so  rapidly.  The 
catechumenate,  like  almost  everything  in  the  discipline  of  the 
Church,  was  a  growth  and  not  something  suddenly  adopted. 
But  that  it  had  a  rapid  development  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
there  is  much  said  about  the  reception  of  catechumens,  as  early 
as  the  third  century.  The  period  of  instruction  lasted  from  one 
to  three  years,  during  which  time  the  candidate  was  passed  from 
one  period  to  another  by  a  special  service  for  each  period.  At 
first,  these  people  who  were  thus  undergoing  preparation  and  in- 
struction were  not  permitted  to  be  present  at  many  of  the  public 
services  of  the  Church;  and  when  they  were  present  during  part 
of  the  regular  services,  they  had  a  special  place  assigned  to  them. 
But  as  they  advanced  toward  the  close  of  their  period  of  proba- 
tion, they  were  permitted  to  be  presen  during  more  of  the  public 
service,  and  those  who  had  completed  the  course,  and  were  re- 
ceived as  candidates  for  baptism,  could  remain  during  all  the  ser- 


THE   LITURGICAI.   HISTORY    OP    BAPTISM.  117 

vices.  When  the  catechumenate  was  fully  developed,  there  were 
seven  distinct  steps  through  which  one  had  to  pass  before  he 
could  be  received  into  the  communion  of  the  Church  by  the  sac- 
rament of  Holy  Baptism.  These  steps  through  which  the  cate- 
chumen was  required  to  pass,  were  named  from  the  parts*  of  the 
divine  worship  in  which  they  were  permitted  to  take  part,  or  be 
present. 

St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (347  A.  D.)  gives  a  very  full  account 
of  the  liturgy  of  baptism  as  used  at  that  place.  On  Easter,  the 
candidates  assembled  in  the  outer  chamber  of  the  baptistry. 
Facing  the  west,  they  said,  "I  renounce  Satan  and  all  his  works." 
Then  turning  toward  the  east,  they  said,  "I  believe  in  the  Father, 
and  in  the  Son,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  in  one  baptism  of 
repentance."  They  then  went  into  the  inner  chamber,  where 
the  baptistry  itself  was,  put  off  their  garments,  were  anointed  with 
oil  from  head  to  foot;  advanced  to  the  font.  Here  the}^  were 
asked,  "Dost  thou  believe  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the 
Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost?"  In  answer  they  witnessed  the 
saving  faith  of  their  confession;  and  dipped  themselves  thrice  in 
the  water.  And  coming  out  of  the  water,  they  were  clothed  in 
white,  and  were  anointed  wdth  holy  oil,  on  the  forehead,  on  the 
ears,  on  the  nostrils,  and  on  the  breast.  Then  followed  the  Holy 
Communion,  of  which  the  newly  baptized  all  partook. 

One  of  the  most  curious  of  all  the  ancient  baptismal  services 
that  has  come  down  to  us  is  the  Book  of  Christianity  (Baptismal 
Book)t  of  the  Ethiopic  Church.  It  is  interesting  in  every  way, 
following  the  order  of  all  of  the  liturgies  of  those  times,  and  yet 
differing  from  all  of  them  in  most  of  the  material  that  composed 
it.  The  service  is  arranged  to  be  administered  by  a  priest  and 
aided  by  a  deacon;  seven  different  Scripture  lessons  are  read,  or 
recited;  a  multitude  of  symbolic  acts  are  provided  in  the  rubrics. 
Then  the  priest  leading  the  candidate  from  the  west  toward  the 
east  (in  the  font),  takes  water,  snying,  "I  baptize  thee  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  in  the  name  of  the  Son,  and  in  the  name 


*  For  the  liturgy  of  each  step  in  the  catechumenate,  see  Iloefling,  Vol.  I. 
PP-  303-318. 

t  Published  by  Prof.  Trumpp  of  Munich,  in  the  Abhandliingender  Koen.  bayer. 
Akademie  der  IVissenschaften,  1878,  ICL.  Vol.  XIV.  Sec.  3,  pp.  155-167.  It  was 
translated  into  English  by  Prof.  Geo.  H.  Schodde,  Ph.  D.,  Cap.  Univ.,  Col.  O.,  and 
appeared  in  the  Lutheran  Quarterly  in  1882. 


lis  MEMOIRS. 

of  the  Holy  Ghost."  This  is  repeated  three  times.  Then  the 
priest  at  once  begins  with  the  coufirmation  service  without  any 
interruption. 

The  Gallican  Hturg>'  is  different  from  all  other  ancient  orders 
in  the  peculiar  figurative  language  used  in  the  opening  address. 
A  synopsis  of  this  venerable  sers'ice  is  not  only  interesting  but 
also  valuable.  "Standing,  dearest  brethren,  on  the  bank  of  this 
cr>-stal-clear  font,  bring  ye  from  the  land  to  the  shore  new-comers 
to  ply  the  traffic  whereof  they  have  need.  Let  all  who  embark 
on  this  voyage  make  their  way  over  this  new  sea,  not  with  rod, 
but  with  the  cross;  not  with  traveller's  staff,  but  in  sacramental 
mystery.  The  place  is  small  but  full  of  grace.  Happy  hath 
been  the  pilotage  of  the  Hoh*  Spirit.  Therefore  let  us  pray  the 
Lord  God  that  He  will  sanctify  this  font,  and  make  it  a  laver  of 
blessed  regeneration  in  the  remission  of  all  sins;  through  the 
Lord."  Then  follows  (i).  Prcefatio  antequani  exorcidietur;  (2), 
CoUectio;  (.3),  Exorcismiis  aqiice  fontis;  (4),  PrcBfatio  ad  betiedicen- 
dum  f otitis;  (5),  Benedidio  foiitis;  (6),  Contestatio  fontis;  (7),  Pos- 
teafacis  cruces  super  aquam  de  chrismu  et  dicis;  (8),  Interrogatio; 
(9),  the  act  of  baptism  itself.  Baptize  te  crcdejiier?!  iri  nomine  Pa- 
tris,  et  Filii,  et  Spifitus  Sancti,  nt  habeas  vitam  aternam  in  scecula 
saculoruni;  (10),  Infusio  chrisviiZ;  (11),  Ad  pedes  lavandos;  (12), 
Post  baptisnium. 

The  best  account  of  the  liturgy-  of  the  sixth  century-  is  pre- 
sented in  the  Sacramentaries  of  Gelasius  and  Gregory.  It  was 
ver^-  much  the  same  as  the  more  ancient  liturgies  (only  more 
lengthy),  with  this  notable  exception  that  it  was  rather  arranged 
for  children  than  for  adults.  And  it  is  stated  that  a  great  deal 
of  pomp  attended  the  administration  of  Baptism.  At  2  P.  M., 
the  clerg}-  and  people  assembled,  the  ministers  being  clothed  in 
the  usual  vestments.  The  ministers  went  within  the  sacrarium 
and  a  lighted  taper  was  held  at  each  comer  of  the  altar.  The 
choir  sang  the  Litania  Septena;  a  reader  went  up  to  the  ambon 
and  read  eight  Scripture  lessons,  after  each  lesson  a  collect  was 
sung,  and  before  the  last  lesson  was  sung  the  collect,  "Like  as 
the  hart  desireth  the  water-brooks."  A  procession  was  formed 
from  the  altar,  ad  fatitem,  with  the  taper-bearers,  a  minister  car- 
rvdng  the  ampulla  of  consecrated  oil.  At  the  font,  the  bishop 
was  supported  by  a  deacon  on  each  side.  The  prayers  for  the 
benediction  of  the  font  were  said  by  the  bishop,  who  at  one  place 


THE   I^ITURGICAI,   HISTORY   OF   BAPTISM.  119 

divided  the  water  (with  his  hands)  in  the  form  of  a  cross;  at  an- 
other place,  he  held  a  lighted  taper  in  the  water;  at  another  place, 
he  breathed  upon  the  water  three  times;  at  another  place,  he 
poured  in  chrism  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  spreading  it  with  his 
hands.  Then  those  who  presented  children  were  asked,  "  Vis 
baptizari?  Response,  "  Vo/o."  This  question  was,  however, 
preceded  by  four  questions,  into  which  the  creed*  was  divided 
for  this  purpose.  Then  the  children  were  baptized,  first  the  bo5''S, 
then  the  girls,  with  the  words  of  Christ,  "Bg-o  baptizo  te  in  nomi- 
ne Patris,  et  Filii,  et  Spiritus  Saudi. ' '  One  of  the  priests  now 
made  the  sign  of  the  cross,  with  chrism,  on  the  crown  of  the 
head,  saying,  "Almighty  God,  the  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  Who  hath  regenerated  thee  by  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  hath  given  thee  remission  of  all  thy  sins,  anoint  thee  with 
the  chrism  of  salvation  unto  eternal  life.  Amen."  Then  all  the 
newly  baptized  were  confirmed,  their  names  being  given  them  in 
the  confirmation.  The  service  was  concluded  with  the  Holy 
Communion,  which  was  administered  to  infants  as  well  as  to 
others.  This  was  likely  a  very  primitive  service;  and  upon  it 
were  founded  all  the  leading  mediaeval  offices  for  baptism.  But 
the  service  was  still  made  far  more  lengthy  by  the  addition  of 
many  ceremonies  and  symbolic  rites.  Hence  the  liturgy  for  bap- 
tism was  finally  divided  into  three  parts:  ''Ordo  ad  faciendum 
Catechjime7iii?n,^'    '''' Benedictio  Foniis,'^   and  "' Ritus  Baptizajidi.'" 

The  Church  administered  the  sacrament  of  Holy  Baptism  to 
infants  in  the  same  way  as  to  adults,  only  in  the  case  of  infants 
sponsors  made  reply  for  the  child;  and  this  is  how  the  custom  of 
having  sponsors  came  into  vogue.  So  closely  was  the  regular 
order  of  service  followed  that  children  were  not  even  relieved 
from  the  liturgical  action  of  the  catechumenate.  In  short,  the 
entire  service  of  the  catechumenate  was  simply  transferred  over 
without  change  (except  the  addition  of  sponsors)  and  used  for 
infant  baptism.  Hence  it  naturally  followed  that  "child-com- 
munion" was  practiced,  which  was  the  general  custom  since  the 
third  century,  and  is  still  the  custom  of  the  Eastern  churches. 
The  early  Church  regarded  confirmation  as  the  title  given  to  the 
unction  which  accompanies  baptism;  and  the  Eastern  Church  so 
holds  it  to-day.  But  the  Western  Church  finally  made  confirma- 
tion the  title  given  to  the  open  adoption  of  the  Christian  faith 

*  See  Hoefling's  discussion  on  the  development  of  the  Creed,  Vol.  I.  p.  208. 


120  MEMOIRS. 

and  life  in  maturer  years.  And  this  change  laid  the  foundation 
for  catechetical  instruction  before  confirmation,  as  we  have  it 
to-day.  But  the  separation  of  baptism  and  confirmation  also 
brought  about  another  important  change;  namely,  as  originally 
constituted,  baptism  could  only  be  administered  by  a  bishop;  but 
after  these  services  were  separated,  the  privilege  of  administering 
this  Sacrament  was  at  once  extended  to  presbyters,  soon  to  dea- 
cons, then  to  laymen,  and  finally  also  to  women — in  case  of  ex- 
treme necessity.  But  the  liturgical  acts  of  the  catechumenate 
and  of  baptism  itself  were  united  into  one  service.  And  also 
since  the  practice  of  infant  baptism  was  almost  universal,  the 
tendency,  as  Hofling  says,  w^as  to  draw  together  the  liturgical 
acts  of  the  catechumenate,  of  adult  baptism,  and  of  infant  bap- 
tism, into  one  complete  ser\-ice.  Traces  of  this  are  visible  in 
some  liturgies  for  baptism  at  this  very  day:  for  instance,  the  ex- 
pression in  many  liturgies  is  still  made;  "The  L^ord  preserve  thy 
coming  in  and  thy  going  out,"  which  was  in  ancient  times  ad- 
dressed to  the  compcte7ites  who  for  the  first  time  entered  the 
Church  privileged  to  take  part  in  the  entire  Service. 

The  intention  of  the  early  Church  in  the  strict  discipline  of 
the  catechumenate  was  no  doubt  good;  the  idea  of  instruction 
was  all  right.  But  to  keep  the  children  out  of  the  fold,  which 
Christ  prepared  as  much  for  them  as  for  adults,  was  certainly  all 
wrong.  This  wrong  notion,  together  with  the  corruptions  that 
crept  into  the  Church  and  her  liturgy,  as  Roman  Catholicism  be- 
gan to  rise,  divested  baptism  of  much  of  its  Scriptural  meaning, 
and  at  the  same  time  well-nigh  ruined  the  rite  of  confirmation. 
For,  during  the  Reformation,  when  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Church  was  going  on,  confirmation  was  almost  abrogated  for  a 
time;  and  Protestants  seemed  opposed  to  it  because  the  papacy 
had  declared  it  to  be  a  sacrament,  second  in  order  to  baptism. 
And  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  abuse  of  the  ancient 
catechumenate,  together  with  the  Romish  ex  opere  operato  doc- 
trine concerning  the  sacraments,  were  the  leading  things  which 
made  the  Christian  life  so  low  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

When  the  Reformation  came  on,  we  find  that  the  liturgy  for 
baptism  was  well  based  upon  Scripture,  and  the  historical  litur- 
gies of  the  Church,  but  so  intermixed  with  symbolical  ceremonies, 
and  surrounded  by  false  doctrines,  that  the  true  significance  of 
the  sacrament  was  almost  hidden  from  view.     For,  while  the  an- 


THE   LITURGICAL   HISTORY   OF   BAPTISM.  121 

cient  Church  used  a  long  liturgy,  and  administered  the  sacrament 
with  many  symbolic  rites,  she  kept  the  true  meaning  of  baptism 
before  the  people.  The  Romish  Church  placed  more  stress  upon 
the  power  of  the  Church  in  administering  the  sacrament,  than 
upon  the  Word  of  God,  together  with  instruction  and  admoni- 
tion, as  did  the  early  Church. 

Luther's  first  Taufbuechlein  (1523)  was  simply  a  translation 
of  liturgies  then  in  use.  But  it  is  evident  that  he  selected  with 
great  care  and  wonderful  wisdom  the  liturgies  from  which  he 
made  his  translation.  And  even  then,  the  result  was  not  such  as 
he  peisonally  liked,  but  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  many 
consciences,  he  did  not  deem  it  prudent,  at  that  time,  to  revise 
the  liturgy,  which  contained  many  ceremonies  that  obscured  the 
simplicity  of  this  sacrament.  But  in  1526,  he  published  his  sec- 
ond Taufbiiechlehi,  from  which  he  omitted  the  distinctively 
Romish  features.  This  liturgy  was  based  on  the  Scriptural  idea 
of  Holy  Baptism,  and  is  in  accordance  with  the  ancient  usage  of 
the  Church.  This  Service  was  at  once  received  with  favor.  Its 
influence  was  immeasurable.  The  numerous  independent  Kirch- 
enordnungen  of  the  Reformation  period  almost  without  exception 
and  with  but  the  slightest  changes  give  it  as  their  form  for  the 
administration  of  the  sacrament.  The  Order  of  Baptism  in  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  of  the  Church  of  England  was  largely 
determined  by  it,*  and  through  this  liturgy  its  influence  has  also 
been  felt  in  many  other  parts  of  the  Christian  Church.  No  lit- 
urgy' framed  independently  of  this  order  of  I,uther's,  has  been 
satisfactory;  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  these  newer  liturgies 
have  continually  been  undergoing  alteration,  or  else  have  been 
discarded  altogether.  Luther's  liturgy  makes  the  most  emphatic 
distinction  between  sin  and  grace — between  the  kingdom  of  Sa- 
tan and  the  Savior's  kingdom.  As  above  indicated  more  than  a 
hundred  of  the  leading  Lutheran  liturgies  of  the  i6th  and  17th 
centuries  contain  no  other  form  but  this,  with  occasional  local 
variata.  During  the  i8th  and  igth  centuries,  the  disposition  was 
just  as  strong  to  cling  to  this  form  which  Luther  arranged  from 
the  ancient  sources.  And  the  very  latest  Agenda  almost  invaria- 
bly give  it  first  place  under  this  head  of  services.  The  Dresden 
Lit.  Con.  (1854),  composed  of  representatives  from  Bavaria, 
Hannover,  Wiirtemberg,   and  both  Mecklenburgs,  unanimously 

*  See  especially  Dr.  Jacobs'  Lutheran  Movement  in  England,  Chap.  XXI. 


122  MEMOIRS. 

agreed  upon  this  form.  The  Prussian  Church,  though  composed 
of  lyUtheran  and  Reformed,  yet  in  1894  adopted  this  as  her  first 
form,  which  is  worthy  of  note  since  the  Prussian  Union  Church 
probably  represents  more  scholarship  than  any  one  branch  of  the 
Church  in  the  world.  And  since  the  spirit  of  the  I^utheran 
Church  is  conservative,  not  revolutionary,  being  disposed  to  keep 
in  the  line  of  history  in  so  far  as  this  is  not  contrary  to  the  Word 
of  God,  this  form  should  ever  be  retained. 

The  only  part  of  Luther's  second  Tauf  buechleiyi  that  has  fur- 
nished the  basis  of  much  discussion  is  the  matter  of  addressing 
the  questions,  some  contending  that  they  should  not  be  addressed 
to  the  child,  but  to  the  sponsors.*  But  by  far  the  larger  majority 
of  theologians  have  always  been  decidedly  against  such  a  change. 
The  Lutheran  Church  baptizes  a  child,  not  because  it  is  presented 


*  The  Cologne  Liturgy  of  1543  addresses  the  questions  to  the  sponsors.  The 
Erbach  Agende  of  1560  omits  all  questions.  The  Augsburg  Kirchenordnung  of  the 
first  half  of  the  1 6th  century  omits  the  questions.  The  Austrian  Liturgy  of  1 571  ad- 
dresses all  questions  to  the  sponsors.  The  Strassburg  Kirchenordnung  of  1598  ad- 
dresses all  questions  to  the  sponsors.  This  is  also  the  case  with  many  Liturgies  that 
are  in  use  in  the  United  States.  The  eight  Liturgies  of  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
New  York  Ministeriums  all  address  the  questions  to  the  sponsors.  And  again  in 
i860  the  Ministerium  adopted  an  order  for  baptism,  in  which  all  the  questions  are 
addressed  to  the  sponsors.  The  English  Liturgy  of  the  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio,  adopt- 
ed in  1874,  also  addresses  the  questions  to  the  sponsors;  but  the  German  Agende, 
however,  has  two  forms — the  first  addresses  all  the  questions  to  the  child,  and  the 
other,  all  questions  are  addressed  to  the  sponsors.  In  1S55  a  change  was  also  made 
in  the  Swedish  Liturgy  in  which  all  questions  to  the  child  were  omitted;  but  after 
the  confession  of  the  Creed  the  sponsors  were  asked,  "Do  you  desire  that  this  child 
shall  be  baptized  into  this  Christian  faith,  and  through  its  baptism,  shall  be  received 
into  the  fellowship  of  Christ  and  Mis  Church?"  In  1895  the  Swedish  Augustana 
Synod  adopted  the  same  form.  And  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Iceland  has  no  ques- 
tions at  all.  But  the  orders  prepared  by  Luther  addressed  all  the  questions  before 
baptism  to  the  child;  and  Hoefling,  who  is  the  greatest  authority  on  this  subject, 
strongly  defends  this  form  of  address.  The  latest  Liturgy  adopted  by  the  General 
Synod  (at  York,  Pa.  in  1899)  addresses  all  questions  to  the  sponsors,  otherwise  it  is 
a  translation  of  Luther's  second  Taufhtiechlein.  The  Church  of  Prussia  (Germany), 
in  its  form  adopted  in  1S95,  has  its  first  form  arranged  with  all  the  questions  ad- 
dressed to  the  child,  which  are  to  be  answered  by  the  sponsors.  The  Liturgy  of  the 
General  Council  is  arranged  ^^ith  a// the  questions  addressed  to  the  child;  this  Litur- 
gy is  also  based  upon  Luther's  second  Taufhuechlein,  with  additions  from  the 
Kirchenordnung  of  Duke  Henry  of  Saxony,  1539;  the  KO  of  Saxe-Coburg,  1626; 
Wuertemberg  KO,  1553;  Brandenburg-Nuernberg  KO,  1533.  The  United  Syn- 
od South  also  uses  a  translation  of  Luther's  second  Tmifbuechlein,  and  addresses 
all  questions  to  the  child. 


THE   LITURGICAL   HISTORY  OP   BAPTISM.  123 

by  any  one,  but  solely  upon  Christ's  own  command.  It  is  also 
claimed  that  a  change  of  the  liturgy  would  actually  create  two 
baptisms;  one  for  infants,  and  another  for  adults.  Also  that 
such  a  change  in  the  liturgy  is  only  desired  by  the  rationalist 
who  wishes  to  reduce  everything  to  the  level  of  his  own  reason. 
These  differences  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  liturgy  come  from 
differences  of  belief  concerning  what  is  known  as  "infant  faith," 
which,  after  all,  does  not  absolutely  necessitate  the  questions  ad- 
dressed to  the  sponsors,  no  matter  which  view  is  taken. 


Authorities  consulted: — The  International  CyclopcBdia,  The 
Encyclopczdia  Britannica,  The  Lutheran  Quarterly ,  The  Lutheran 
Omrch  Review,  Baptizein  by  E.  Gerfern,  The  Lutheran  Move- 
ment in  England  by  Jacobs,  The  A?inotated  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  by  J.  H.  Blunt,  The  Ltitheran  Cyclopedia,  The  History 
of  the  Christia7i  Church  by  P.  Schaff,  The  Ante  Nicene  Fathers, 
the  Didache,  Dictioiiary  of  Christian  Antiquities  by  Smith  and 
Cheetham,  Christian  Institutions  by  A.  P.  Stanley,  Das 
Sakramejit  der  Taufe  by  Hofling,  and  Theses  on  the  Order  of 
Baptism  by  H.  Peters  and  Dr.  E.  J.  Wolf. 

Chief  authority: — Hofling. 

H.  S.  Gilbert. 
Allegheny,  Pa. 


Vol.  IV. 


THE   LITURGICAL  INFLUENCE   OF  THE   LESSER 
REFORMERS. 


When  one  studies  the  formative  period  of  the  doctrines  and 
forms  of  worship  that  constitute  the  exclusive  property  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  he  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  fact 
that  so  many  influences  were  at  work  at  the  same  time,  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  ascribe  a  greater  or  less  effect  to  one  cause 
or  the  other.  While  even  the  development  of  a  doctrinal  system 
depended  on  the  workings  of  man)'  and  varied  historical  causes, 
it  is  foimd  in  the  tracing  of  liturgical  practices  that  they  depend 
fully  as  much  (if  not  more)  upon  the  history  of  given  conditions, 
as  they  do  upon  specific  theories  or  decided  views  concerning 
their  propriety.  So  powerful  are  the  claims  of  the  past,  that  they 
had  to  be  considered  and  respected  even  in  the  formulating  of 
ecclesiastical  laws,  and  an  examination  of  the  Kirchenordnungen 
reveals  numerous  examples  of  the  firm,  stiff  grasp  in  which  the 
dead  hand  of  the  past  clasped  the  issues  of  the  present.  Thus 
we  find  that  exceptions  from  prescribed  orders  are  made  in  favor 
of  certain  churches  within  the  same  sphere  of  jurisdiction,  pre- 
scribing e.  g.  the  robe  in  one  church  and  permitting  its  disuse  in 
another,  ordering  certain  forms  of  Ser\dce  for  the  whole  district 
and  exempting  from  it  certain  congregations  in  the  same  terri- 
tory. Or,  also  we  find  the  Reformers  laying  down  certain  rules 
in  one  Kirchenordnung  and  themselves  departing  widely  from 
them  in  the  composition  of  another.  And  to  go  further,  we  see 
instances  of  a  complete  change  of  view  at  certain  periods  of  life, 
not  only  in  the  case  of  Luther,  but  notably  so  also  in  the  case  of 
Melanchthon  and  Brenz.  Some  of  these  changes  of  view  were 
such  truly  speaking,  others  again,  especially  those  of  Melanch- 
thon and  Brenz,  were  enforced  accommodations  to  existing  con- 
ditions. These  changes  of  view,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
times,  when  men  lived  their  intellectual  life  in  the  public  gaze. 


Z  MEMOIRS. 

as  much  as  their  outward  hfe,  were  always  promulgated,  always 
published  and  always  had  a  certain  effect  and  made  a  distinct  im- 
pression upon  the  views  of  the  contemporaries.  It  was  an  age  of 
argumentation  and  public  discussion,  the  utmost  consequence  of 
the  scholastic  spirit;  but  withal,  the  fairest  flower  that  sprung 
like  a  white  water-lil}^  from  those  dark  and  murky  waters.  Ow- 
ing to  these  views  promulgated,  changed,  reiterated,  embodied  in 
doctrines  and  made  active  in  regulations,  producing  ecclesiastical 
laws  through  their  ethical  inspirations,  and  voicing  the  devotions 
of  the  believer  through  their  religious  aspirations,  the  different 
KOO  took  their  origin  in  all  Europe  among  Lutherans  and  Re- 
formed alike.  Those  of  the  one  side  frequently  had  a  reflex  in- 
fluence upon  those  of  the  other,  frequently  the  Lutheran  adopted 
the  hue  of  Reformed,  frequently  the  latter  shone  in  the  borrowed 
glories  of  the  former.  Sometimes  one  master-mind  made  a  con- 
tribution which  for  the  time  was  made  use  of  and  sought  after  as 
a  treasure,  and  then  it  was  lost  and  buried,  either  to  remain  for- 
ever unused  among  all  the  rummage  in  the  storied  attics  of  the 
past,  or  to  be  brought  to  light  and  use  again,  by  the  descendants 
who  in  the  present  age  are  inquiring  into  the  possessions  of  their 
fathers.  For  these  reasons  it  is  almost  impossible  to  give  a  true 
estimate  of  the  influence  of  any  given  Reformer,  if  the  problem 
be  to  state  what  effect  he  had  upon  the  liturgical  observances  of 
the  present  day,  though  one  might,  with  propriet}^  follow  him 
through  his  works  and  discover  what  he  advocated  and  for  what 
he  strove.  The  most  abiding  work  of  all  these  great  ones  of  that 
great  time  was  transmitted  to  us  in  the  KOO,  but  even  they  have 
not  yet  been  adequatelj^  treated,  as  Rietschel  tells  us,  though  much 
excellent  work  has  so  far  been  done  upon  them. 

Among  these  KOO  we  can  find  various  types,  some  (and  we 
deal  here  only  with  those  that  are  Lutheran)  correct  in  their  doc- 
trinal position,  but  conservative  in  their  treatment  of  Roman 
forms;  some  genuinely  Lutheran,  based  upon  the  Forjnzda  Misses 
(1523)  and  Lutheran  in  regard  to  doctrine  and  forms;  some  which 
are  more  radical  in  their  treatment  of  forms  of  worship  and  medi- 
ate between  the  Lutheran  t}'pe  and  the  Reformed.  Among  the 
first  type  we  find  the  Brandenburg  KO  prepared  by  Stratner  and 
Buchholtzer,  the  Pfalz-Neuburg  KO,  1543,  the  Austrian  Agenda 
of  Chytraeus,  1571.  The  second  type,  called  the  Saxo-Lutheran, 
represented  as  stated,  by  the  Fonmda  Jlfissce^  which  became  au- 


LITURGICAI,   INFLUENCE   OF  THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.  3 

thoritative  for  Prussia  under  Duke  Albrecht,  1525;  for  the  Elect- 
orate of  Saxony,  for  all  the  KOO  by  Bugenhagen,  viz.,  Bruns- 
wick 1528,  Hamburg  1529,  Minden  and  Gottingen  1530,  Liibeck 
1531,  Saest  1532,  Bremen  1534,  Pommerania  1535;  for  that  of 
Brandenburg-Nuremberg  1533  by  Osiander  and  Brenz;  for  Hano- 
ver 1536  by  Urbanus  Regius;  for  Naumburg  1537;  for  the  KO  of 
Duke  Henr}^  of  Saxon 5^  b}-  Justus  Jonas  1539;  for  Mecklenburg 
1540  and  1552  by  Aurifaber,  Riebling,  Melanchthon  and  later 
Chytrseus;  for  Braunschweig-Wolfenbiittel  1543  and  1569  by 
Chemnitz  and  Andrese;  for  Riga  1531;  for  Courland  1570;  for  the 
Hessian  Agenda  of  1566  and  1573  with  the  exception  of  the  act 
of  Communion.  Of  the  third  or  mediating  type  the  regulations 
at  Strassburg,  the  Wiirttemberg  KOO  among  which  less  than 
the  others  that  by  Brenz  for  Schwabisch-Hall  1526,  the  KO  of 
Duke  Ulrich  1536  and  of  Duke  Christopher  1533;  the  Palatine 
KO  1554,  the  Badensian  1556,  the  Wormsian  1560.'^  Those 
among  the  above  that  have  become  most  fundamental  or  basic 
for  others  are  the  Braunschweig  KO  of  Bugenhagen  and  the 
Brandenburg-Nuremberg  KO  of  Osiander.  It  is  upon  the  consen- 
sus of  the  orders  of  the  second  type  that  the  forms  of  Service  of 
our  Common  Service  are  based,  and  it  is  with  them  and  the  men 
who  produced  them  that  the  present  inquiry  is  chiefly  concerned. 
As  has  been  indicated  all  of  these  KOO  are  partly  based  up- 
on the  Forimda  Misses  issued  by  lyUther  in  1523,  partly  derive 
their  spirit  and  impetus  from  it  and  partly  develop  in  the  direction 
indicated  by  it.  Thus  even  in  this  inquiry  Luther's  name  de- 
serves especial  mention,  for  he  is  the  Prometheus  who  brought 
the  fire  from  Pleaven  and  taught  his  knowledge  to  the  sons  of 
men.  His  giant  form  overtowers  every  other  of  the  mighty  men 
of  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  but  beside  him,  near  him,  reach- 
ing toward  him  and  approaching  his  stature  in  conspicuous  meas- 
ure are  the  persons  of  Melanchthon  and  Bugenhagen.  How 
much  the  prophet  of  the  Reformation  was  indebted  to  its  gram- 
marian and  to  its  pastor  will  perhaps  never  be  known;  but  he 
refers  to  them  so  constantly,  and  describes  their  labors  and  influ- 
ence so  lovingly,  that  one  is  compelled  to  ascribe  to  these  two, 
Melanchthon  and  Bugenhagen,  no  mean  share  in  the  outcome  of 
that  momentous  upheaval  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  a 
time  of  tearing  down  and  of  building  up.  Luther,  the  genius, 
*  For  this  classification  see  Zoecklcr,  Vol.  IV,  p.  456. 


4  MEMOIRS. 

did  both,  Melanchthon  and  Bugenhagen  mainly  built  up.  Luther 
was  the  greater  for  he  was  more  versatile,  more  many-sided;  he 
was  equal  to  the  destruction  that  his  work  implied,  and  equal  to 
the  construction  that  it  necessitated;  but  in  his  constructive  abil- 
ities he  was  ably  assisted  and  almost  matched  by  the  other  two 
of  this  great  triumvirate.  But  if  we  give  due  credit  to  the  labors 
of  the  grammarian  and  the  pastor,  we  cannot  pass  by  lesser  men 
who  influenced  them  and  whose  labors  in  the  common  cause  were 
similar  to  theirs  and  whose  influence  in  certain  directions  as  great 
as  theirs.  And  so  upon  a  plane  but  little  lower,  acting  and  acted 
upon  mutually  and  reciprocally  with  them  appear  Brenz  and 
Osiander,  Justus  Jonas  and  others  whose  names  have  been  men- 
tioned above. 

To  Philip  Melanchthon,  the  Praceptor  Germanics,  is  usually 
ascribed  the  place  of  honor  directly  after  Luther.  His  life  is 
too  well  known  to  be  described  here,  but  it  may  be  well  to  recall 
certain  details  of  it  which  explain  the  part  he  played.  Born 
Feb.  6,  1497  the  son  of  a  man  standing  in  high  favor  with  the 
Palatine  Elector  Philip,  and  of  a  woman  the  niece  of  one  of  the 
greatest  humanists,  Reuchlin,  his  opportunities  for  learning  and 
advancement  were  the  verj^  best.  His  learning  was  such  that  as 
a  mere  stripling,  he  could  easily-  win  in  debate  with  the  wander- 
ing bachantes,  that  he  was  soon  distinguished  for  his  knowledge 
of  Greek  and  the  elegance  of  his  Latin  and  was  ready  to  take  the 
master's  degree  at  the  University  of  Heidelberg  before  his  age 
made  him  eligible.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  University 
of  Tiibingen,  took  an  active  part  in  Reuchlin' s  controversy,  pub- 
lished a  Greek  grammar  before  he  was  twentj^-five  and  received 
the  most  enthusiastic  praise  of  Erasmus.  In  the  meantime  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  theolog}',  law  and  medicine. 
Such  was  the  man  who  in  1518  was  installed  as  professor  of 
Greek  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg  and  who,  with  his  address 
on  the  "Improvement  of  the  Studies  of  Youth"  attracted  Luther's 
attention,  which  grew  into  admiration,  then  to  esteem  and  lastly 
to  love.  And  this  grammarian  soon  entered  so  heartily  into  the- 
ology that  while  he  never  received  a  doctor's  degree,  he  became 
the  master  of  many  doctors.  Entering  into  active  participation 
in  theological  questions  by  his  interest  in  Luther's  dispute  with 
Eck,  he  soon  obtained  the  honor  of  a  baccalatireus  biblicus,  and  as 
early  as  15 19  began  to  lecture  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and 


LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.  5 

the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  Out  of  these  studies  grew  his  Loci  Com- 
inu7ies  which  was  first  pubhshed  in  15 19,  the  first  dogmatical 
treatise  of  the  L,utheran  Church,  reprinted  more  than  eighty- 
times  during  his  life. 

When  Luther  was  absent  at  Worms  and  then  at  the  Wartburg, 
the  care  for  the  University  and  the  condition  of  the  work  of  the 
Gospel  began  to  rest  more  heavily  upon  Melanchthon's  shoulders. 
When  Luther  returned  he  brought  with  him  the  dawn  of  an  era 
of  work  mutually  borne.  This  literary  and  theological  partner- 
ship, of  more  import  to  the  world's  welfare  than  any  described  in 
the  purely  literary  annals  of  the  race,  comprised  particularly  the 
work  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible  and  the  visitation  of  the 
churches  of  Saxony.  It  was  out  of  this  visitation  that  the  work 
originated,  which  most  directly  influenced  the  composition  of  the 
various  KOO.  This  work  is  known  as  the  Saxon  Articles  of  Vis- 
itation and  appeared  in  1528,  the  same  year  as  Bugenhagen's 
Brunswick  KO.  Then  followed  in  rapid  succession,  the  protesta- 
tion at  Spires  in  1529,  and  the  Marburg  colloquy  in  the  same 
year.  Early  in  1530  we  find  Melanchthon  indicating  the  basis  of 
the  Torgau  articles,  collaborating  the  Schwabach  articles,  practi- 
cally writing  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  himself  producing 
the  Apology  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  In  the  next  sixteen 
years  he  is  bus}^  in  assisting  the  establishment  of  the  Reformation 
in  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  giving  his  counsels  in  Cologne,  at 
Smalcald,  and  at  Ratisbon,  and  producing  the  Wittenberg  Con- 
cordia. The  remaining  5'ears  of  his  life  were  spent  in  endless 
doctrinal  controversies,  in  which  his  position  was  not  always  ap- 
preciated and  which  brought  him  many  sorrows. 

As  has  been  well  said,  he  was  the  Preceptor  of  Germany  by 
reason  of  his  reforms  in  the  management  of  the  schools,  from  the 
University  down  to  the  boys  in  the  Latin  schools.  He  would  be 
the  Preceptor  of  the  Church  if  he  had  left  us  nothing  but  the 
Augsburg  Confession  and  its  Apology.  But  these  two  so  far  out- 
shine his  other  productions  that  his  work  as  a  theologian  as 
shown  in  his  other  writings  need  not  even  be  counted  to  make 
him  glorious.  That  he  was  preeminently  the  schoolmaster  of 
the  Church  is  not  only  evident  in  the  lasting  and  imperishable 
instruction  which  he  bequeathed  to  her  in  his  theological  writings 
but  in  the  rules  for  her  management  and  guidance  which  he  left 
in  the  Saxon  Articles  of  Visitation  and  which  scattered  broad- 


b  MEMOIRS. 

cast  even  through  his  doctrinal  works.  Besides  he  does  not  deny 
a  schoolmaster's  noblest  aim,  the  education  of  the  j^oung,  in  the 
very  regulations  which  he  gives  for  the  ordering  of  public  Ser- 
vices. To  him  Church  and  school  were  one,  always  inseparable; 
and  while  in  the  school  he  trains  the  j^outh  for  the  Church  he 
does  not  forget,  even  in  such  matters  as  the  singing  of  Latin 
hymns  and  the  chanting  of  the  psalms  in  Latin  to  impress  the 
Church  with  the  sense  of  her  duties  in  the  training  of  the  young. 
It  seems  as  if  this  pedagogical  principle  for  which  he  stood,  can 
not  be  left  out  of  consideration  when  one  estimates  the  work  he 
did  in  the  Church.  Without  a  just  appreciation  of  this  principle 
much  in  Melanchthon's  regulations  appears  incongruous,  and,  so 
far  as  modern  liturgical  views  go,  even  out  of  place. 

With  this  in  mind,  we  can  understand  Melanchthon's  litur- 
gical position.  To  him,  as  to  Luther  in  his  earlier  views,  worship 
was  of  the  nature  of  a  training.  It  lies  in  the  nature  of  things 
that  he  demands  that  all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order 
and  consequenth'  he  demands  a  quiet  dignified  conduct  of  the 
things  of  public  worship.  But  beyond  this,  the  entire  Service 
has  to  him  a  preeminentlj'  educative  tendency.  The  public  as- 
semblies depend  upon  Christ's  command  to  preach  the  Gospel 
publicly.  The  publicity  of  worship  assures  the  widest  spread  to 
the  Gospel  and  prevents  ethical  and  moral  aberrations.  The  in- 
dividual is  to  confess  himself  a  member  of  the  congregation  pub- 
licly and  the  congregation  must  publicly  separate  itself  from  the 
sects.  He  only  belongs  to  God's  people  who  is  called.  He  only 
is  called,  who  is  a  member  of  the  visible  congregation  and  re- 
ceives its  benefits.  But  as  the  congregation  in  its  assemblies  on- 
ly presents  the  means  of  thus  calling  to  the  childhood  of  God,  the 
idea,  consequences,  effects  and  aims  of  worship  are  those  known, 
but  its  real  essence  is  not  grasped.  Hence  Melanchthon's  view 
implies  that  the  regenerated  Christian  has  no  absolute  need  for 
this  public  worship.  It  is  to  Melanchthon  the  means  and  place 
for  the  experienced  Christian,  to  lead  to  perfection  the  inexperi- 
enced one.  As  Jakoby  says,  an  outer  motive,  formally  God's 
command,  materially  the  consideration  for  the  masses,  impels 
him  to  Church;  it  is  the  Law,  not  the  Gospel,  and  Melanchthon 
lacks  the  worshipping  subject,  while  he  looks  to  the  object;  in  a 
word,  it  is  a  pedagogical  institution,  exalted  and  spiritual,  edu- 
cating for  the  inheritance  of  the  children  of  light;  but  no  worship. 


LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.  7 

In  this  Luther  and  Melanchthon  thought  alike;  but  while  Luther 
hoped  for  a  future  worship  of  the  trained  and  experienced  con- 
gregation, Melanchthon  regarded  this  as  an  illusion.  But  on  the 
other  hand  he  saw  the  constitutive  factors  of  Christian  worship. 
The  way  to  perfection  here  indicated  when  once  entered,  led  to 
glories  far  be3-ond  those  aspired  to  bj^  Melanchthon;  but  as  all 
worship  was  to  him  mandatory  in  Christ's  command,  and  as  he 
was  on  the  other  hand,  confronted  by  the  demands  of  evangelical 
liberty,  he  could  not  harmonize  the  tendencies. 

As  to  the  object  of  worship,  he,  like  Luther,  contended  that 
it  lay  in  the  adoration  of  God.  For  this  reason  he  strove  to  abol- 
ish the  adoration  of  the  saints,  claiming  that  it  limited  the  adora- 
tion of  God,  and  the  mediatorial  work  of  the  Savior. 

His  pedagogical  views  also  modify  his  views  of  the  contents 
of  worship,  namel}',  the  sacraments  and  their  application.  As  to 
baptism  he  teaches  plainly  that  it  is  the  implanting  into  the  new 
life;  but  he  cannot  explain  the  baptism  of  children  in  any  other 
way  than  that  thereby  they  receive  access  to  all  that  is  implied  in 
worship.  For  this  reason  the  faith  of  infants  is  to  him,  as  he  ad- 
mits, unintelligible,  but  he  insists  on  baptizing  them  as  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Divine  command.  This  has  a  natural  bearing  upon 
the  form  of  the  act  of  baptism.  In  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  Melanchthon  defended  Luther's  view.  It  is  but  natural 
therefore,  that  he  contended  against  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  and 
therefore  becomes  a  powerful  protagonist  for  a  purified  order  of 
Ser\'ice.  His  convictions  as  to  this  doctrine  also  led  him  to  re- 
pudiate the  Romish  celebration  sub  una  and  to  contend  first  mild- 
ly, then  emphatically  for  the  administration  stib  utraque.  As  to 
confession,  his  views  also  coincide  with  those  of  Luther.  We 
still  possess  a  beautiful  prayer  for  indii'idual  confession,  composed 
by  him.  His  formula  of  absolution  however,  is  replete  with  doc- 
trinal statements  and  vindications  and  was  condemned  by  Luther 
as  being  too  prolix. 

In  his  views  on  the  means  of  worship  or  cermonies,  he  occu- 
pies the  same  position  as  Luther.  He  is  conservative  and  does 
not  abolish  anything  except  what  he  finds  to  be  in  contradiction 
to  the  Word  of  God;  but  he  contends  against  the  false  value  giv- 
en all  ceremonies  in  the  Catholic  Church.  This  conservative 
position  as  expressed  in  Article  VII  of  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
is  due  partly  to  Melanchthon's  pedagogical  views,  partly  to  his 


8  MEMOIRS. 

irenical  endeavors.  On  the  other  hand  at  Ratisbon  m  1541  he 
presented  a  memorandum  to  the  Emperor  in  which  he  urged  that 
all  ceremonies  should  be  sifted  and  the  measure  of  dignity  applied 
to  all.  What  was  accordant  with  churchly  dignity  was  to  re- 
main, what  was  out  of  harmony  with  it  was  to  be  cast  aside. 

In  his  criticism  of  Catholic  forms  of  worship  he  concedes  to 
the  bishops  the  power  of  oversight  limited  by  the  powers  and 
rights  of  the  congregation;  but  clearly  separated  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal powers  from  the  civil  ones.  This  removes  from  them  the 
powers  which  they  wielded  and  v/ith  these  powers  he  takes  the 
authorization  of  their  commands.  Thus  he  looks  upon  fasting, 
not  as  a  meritorious  deed,  but  as  a  useful  honoring  of  festival 
days  and  a  furtherance  of  prayer  and  the  consideration  of  the 
Gospel.  The  festivals  of  an  evangelical  character  he  advised  to 
retain.  The  principle  guiding  him  herein  was  the  abolition  of 
unevangelical  abuses.  Thus  he  abolished  the  Corpus  Christi  cele- 
brations and  contended  against  all  processions,  not  only  those  in 
which  the  sacrament  was  carried  about,  but  all  others  also,  be- 
cause he  claimed  that  they  gave  occasion  to  abuses. 

An  important  liturgical  consideration  is  Melanchthon's  view 
of  the  language  question.  He  and  lyUther  from  a  feeling  of  con- 
servatism were  both  strongl}^  in  favor  of  retaining  the  Latin  lan- 
guage in  the  public  Services.  The  sermon  of  course  was  to  be 
excepted,  as  through  it  the  Gospel  was  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
people.  When  the  Zwickau  fanatics  appeared  in  Wittenberg, 
the  question  first  assumed  shape.  Melanchthon's  answer  was, 
that  lyatin  should  be  used  for  the  whole  Service  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  sermon  and  the  Communion  Service.  In  a  writing  to 
the  Senate  of  Nuremberg  in   1525  he  declared: — 

"Those  who  do  not  understand  Latin  have  practice  enough 
even  when  the  singing  is  in  Latin  for  they  hear  the  German  ser- 
mon and  lessons.  And  even  if  one  sang  in  German,  not  all  would 
sing  or  understand  the  singing.  The  Latin  singing  is  good  for 
the  boys  who  are  being  educated.  Besides  I  do  not  wish  to  cast 
aside  figurated  singing."  From  this  incidentally  we  also  learn 
his  views  on  music  in  the  congregation.  As  to  the  use  of  Latin 
he  ordered  later  that  the  lessons  should  first  be  sung  in  Latin  and 
then  read  in  German.  What  solicitude  for  the  boys  that  could 
thus  influence  his  liturgical  views  ! 

Intimately  connected  with  these  questions  is  also  the  one 


LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.  9 

concerning  the  vestments.  His  position  was  that  they  should  be 
continued  where  thej-  were  still  in  vogue;  but  he  was  very  indif- 
ferent to  their  introduction  where  they  had  fallen  into  disuse. 
However  he  protests  against  the  wearing  of  those  vestments  that 
recall  the  mass,  and  favors  the  wearing  of  a  robe. 

Extreme  unction,  the  chrism  in  baptism,  the  exorcism  and 
consecration  of  oil,  he  opposed;  but  owing  to  the  many  questions 
to  be  solved  at  the  time,  he  resorted  to  an  extreme  Fabian  policy, 
by  which  the  discussion  of  the  question  of  unction  was  dela3'ed 
until  it  was  no  longer  a  menace  to  the  peace  of  the  church. 

Melanchthon  favored  the  rite  of  confirmation.  It  had  fallen 
into  disuse  as  lyUther  had  regarded  it  as  a  rite  to  be  suffered  only 
under  certain  conditions.  Melanchthon  considered  it  as  an  in- 
stitution which,  if  filled  with  the  evangelical  spirit,  would  become 
of  the  greatest  value  for  the  Christian  life  of  the  young.  He 
stands  therefore  as  one  of  the  earliest  Lutheran  champions  for 
confirmation,  and  its  retention  among  the  institutions  of  the 
Church  is  very  largely  due  to  him. 

In  regard  to  the  Service  of  the  Church  he  gives  us  an  out- 
line in  his  Reformatio  Wittenbergensis  (1545).  Its  constitutive 
factors  are  enumerated  as  Hymns,  Prayers,  Scripture  Lessons, 
Sermon,  Intercession,  Communion.  In  the  Repetitio  Confessionis 
AugiLstancB  1551  he  gives  the  following  for  the  first  part  of  the 
Sendee: — Prayers,  Hj-nins,  Confession  of  the  Creed,  Lessons, 
Sermon,  Thanksgiving  and  Intercession.  The  second  part  is  the 
administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  comprising  the  words  of  in- 
stitution, the  self-communion  of  the  minister,  then  the  distribu- 
tion to  the  congregation  (previously  confessed  and  absolved), 
then  the  thanksgiving. 

And  as  Melanchthon  urged  the  necessity  for  confirmation, 
establishing  the  needs  and  the  nature  of  instruction  and  provid- 
ing a  form  to  be  used,  so  he  also  advocated  a  dignified  conduct  of 
funerals.  He  provided  for  the  singing  of  hymns,  prayers  and 
lessons.  A  funeral  sermon  was  not  recommended  except  for  per- 
sons of  distinction. 

Such  were  the  principles  that  actuated  the  man  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  liturgical  practices.  On  the  whole  his  influence  is  felt 
more  in  the  principles  he  laid  down  and  advocated  than  in  actual 
forms  which  he  introduced,  and  this  influence  can  hardl}'  be  esti- 
mated at  its  full  value  because  so  many  others  worked  in  the 


10  MEMOIRS. 

same  direction.  It  has  been  said  (Jakoby)  that  Melanchthon 
was  more  didactic  than  I^uther  and  had  not  the  same  gift  of  put- 
ting statements  into  concise  but  pregnant  Hturgical  form.  On 
the  other  hand  he  exhibited  a  tact  and  dignity  that  were  not  al- 
ways to  be  found  in  Luther's  hturgical  expressions,  {_e.  g.  Luther 
reminds  those  to  be  ordained  that  their  congregations  do  not  con- 
sist of  geese  and  cows.)  To  quote  Jakoby:  "Both  reformers 
were  liturgical  architects  who  drew  model  plans  and  gave  perma- 
nent norms.  In  this  respect  their  work  was  basic  and  typical,  a 
guide  for  all  times.  But  to  execute  their  plans  with  equal  skill 
and  authority  they  had  not  sufficient  strength.  For  this  work 
other  men  were  called." 

Next  to  Melanchthon  in  the  assistance  of  Luther  came  John 
Bugenhagen,  whom  Luther  usually  called  Pommer,  or  Dr.  Poni- 
mer,  from  his  native  land.  He  was  the  gifted  and  richly  blessed 
practician  or  organizer  of  the  Reformation  and  has  frequently 
been  named  the  "pastor."  He  was  bom  at  Wollin,  June  24, 
1485,  the  son  of  a  counsellor.  In  1502  he  entered  the  University 
of  Greifswald  but  owing  to  lack  of  means  he  soon  after  began  to 
teach  a  children's  school.  During  this  work  he  continued  his 
studies  and  in  1505  was  called  as  rector  of  the  Latin  school  at 
Treptow.  The  school  flourished  and  Bugenhagen  at  the  same 
time  busily  increased  his  learning  and  was  at  last  ordained  as 
priest.  Having  loved  the  Scriptures  from  childhood,  he  began  a 
series  of  lectures  on  biblical  books  after  he  was  made  lector  in 
Belbuck  and  gathered  many  hearers.  During  this  time  he  began 
his  "Passional"  and  composed  a  history  of  Pommerania.  Until 
1520  Luther's  works  seemed  to  make  no  impression  upon  him; 
but  when  the  tract  on  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church 
fell  into  his  hands,  he  immediately  assented  to  its  teachings.  He 
could  not  stay  any  longer  in  Treptow,  but  hastened  to  Witten- 
berg and  met  Luther  just  before  the  latter' s  departure  to  Worms. 
His  first  work  was  a  series  of  private  lectures  on  the  psalms;  but 
by  the  time  he  reached  the  sixteenth  he  had  so  many  hearers 
that  Melanchthon  advised  him  to  lecture  in  public.  His  expla- 
nations won  Luther's  unqualified  approval  and  the  praise  that  no 
other  exegete  had  so  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  psalms.  His 
firmness  in  dealing  with  the  Anabaptists  induced  the  congrega- 
tion and  the  University  to  call  him  as  pastor  of  the  town  church. 
This  ofiice  he  filled  for  years  with  unexcelled  fidelity  and  left  his 


LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.       11 

post  only  when  important  duties  temporarily  called  him  away. 
Even  the  j-ear  1527,  when  the  pestilence  raged  in  Wittenberg, 
found  him  comforting  the  congregation  and  lecturing  to  the  few 
students  who  had  not  fled.  He  was  busy  also  during  these  years 
in  a  literary  way,  defending  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, publishing  a  tract  on  '  'The  Christian  Faith  and  true  Good 
Works, ' '  and  produced  explanations  of  various  biblical  books  and 
rendered  Luther  valuable  assistance  in  the  translation  of  the 
Bible. 

It  is,  however,  as  an  organizer  that  he  rendered  his  most  val- 
uable service.  In  1528  he  was  called  to  organize  the  Church  of 
the  Reformation  in  Braunschweig,  in  the  same  year  in  Hamburg, 
1530  in  Liibeck,  1534  in  Pommerania,  1537  in  Denmark  where  he 
gained  the  confidence  of  the  king  and  enjo5^ed  the  honor  of  per- 
forming the  coronation,  and  in  1542  in  Braunschweig  for  the  sec- 
ond time  and  in  Hildesheim.  The  results  of  his  work  in  these 
places  were  embodied  in  various  KOO,  first  and  most  important 
among  which  was  that  of  Braunschweig.  His  object  did  not  con- 
sist in  formalities;  but  in  the  training  of  true  Christian  congre- 
gations, the  raising  of  an  efficient  ministry,  the  founding  and 
management  of  schools,  and  the  proper  financial  management 
of  the  Church.  In  1542  he  returned  to  Wittenberg  to  stay;  but 
the  increasing  work,  the  bitterness  of  theological  strife,  the  thin- 
ning of  the  ranks  about  him,  and  most  of  all,  Luther's  death, 
visibly  broke  doWn  his  constitution  and  in  1558  he  was  called  to 
his  reward. 

His  Braunschweig  (or  Brunswick)  KO  is  the  most  lasting 
monument  of  his  labors,  acre pere7inius.  In  it  he  gives  directions 
for  the  organizing  of  the  Church,  the  conducting  of  the  Services 
and  the  performance  of  ministerial  acts.  As  Melanchthon  in  his 
Loci,  so  Bugenhagen  in  this  KO  establishes  the  principles  upon 
which  his  practices  are  based.  Baptism  is  the  first  subject  to 
which  he  attends.  He  develops  the  Scriptural  and  doctrinal 
statements  concerning  the  sacrament,  insists  on  the  baptism  of 
children,  and  devotes  considerable  attention  to  proving  their  faith. 
For  this  reason  he  can  follow  the  directions  of  Luther's  Taiifbucch- 
lein  much  more  confidently^  than  Melanchthon.  He  insists  on 
baptism  in  the  vernacular  and  asserts  that  its  real  glory  lies  in  its 
application  to  all  hearts  and  not  in  the  adornments  of  lights,  ban- 
ners, consecrations,  and  unctions.     All  these  he  rejects. 


12  MEMOIRS. 

In  giving  his  directions  for  the  estabHshment  of  the  schools, 
their  curricula,  their  methods  of  instruction,  he  pays  much  atten- 
tion to  the  chanting  of  the  psalms  in  Latin.  For  the  ministers 
he  has  explicit  directions  for  the  observance  of  the  Church  Year, 
giving  the  details  even  for  their  preaching.  He  likewise  insists 
on  private  confession  and  absolution  as  well  as  public,  permits 
giving  the  sacrament  to  the  d3ang,  orders  the  visitation  of  the 
sick  and  gives  directions  what  to  do.  He  forbids  the  blessing  of 
water,  fire,  light,  herbs  and  fruit  as  a  sacrilege  and  rejects  ex- 
treme unction.  He  gives  full  directions  for  extra  services,  both 
Matins  and  Vespers  and  the  so-called  catechism  services.  It  is  to 
him  that  we  are  principally  indebted  for  the  ordering  of  the  mi- 
nor services,  but  to  him  they  were  mainly  acts  of  devotion  pre- 
scribed for  the  schools.  In  regard  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass 
and  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  he  maintains  the  same 
standpoint  as  Luther  and  Melanchthon  and  he  devotes  much 
space  to  the  discussion  of  these  subjects.  For  the  Chief  Service 
he  orders  Luther's  German  Mass  and  does  not  develop  anything 
new.  Thus  Bugenhagen  stands  to  us,  considered  from  the  view- 
point of  liturgical  influence,  preeminently  as  the  Reformer  who 
has  given  the  Church  the  minor  services.  It  is  true,  they  are 
not  fully  developed  in  the  form  in  which  we  possess  and  use 
them;  but  from  him  we  have  received  the  essential  outlines. 

In  the  case  of  John  Brenz  we  see  a  most  varied  life  and  can 
trace  in  his  works  the  influence  of  political  and  doctrinal  differ- 
ences and  especially  the  influence  of  the  Reformed  type  of  doc- 
trine and  life  while  his  doctrinal  positions  must  be  regarded  as 
true  to  the  confessions  of  the  Church.  He  was  born  in  Weil, 
Wiirttemberg  in  1499  and  entered  Heidelberg  University  when 
he  was  but  thirteen  years  old.  Here  among  others  he  became 
acquainted  with  Melanchthon  and  Oecolampadius.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  he  became  Bachelor  of  Philosophy,  at  seventeen  Master 
of  Arts  and  from  that  time  on  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
theology.  Luther's  Theses  first  inflamed  his  soul  and  he  eagerly 
read  everything  coming  from  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  This 
was  of  the  greatest  influence  on  the  views  expressed  in  his  lect- 
ures, but  he  suffered  himself  to  be  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in 
1520.  He  made  no  secret  of  his  Lutheran  tendencies  and  in  1521 
was  put  under  the  ban.  In  1522  he  was  called  as  pastor  to 
Schwabisch-Hall  and   remained   there  twenty- four  years.     The 


LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.       13 

next  seven  years  were  a  period  of  severe  tribulations  and  perse- 
cution, but  for  fourteen  years  more  he  labored  as  provost  in 
Tiibingen,  where  he  ended  his  days  in  1570. 

He  took  part  in  the  preparation  of  five  KOO.  The  first  was 
that  of  Schwabisch-Hall,  1526;  the  next  that  of  Brandenburg- 
Nuremberg  in  1533;  the  First  or  lyittle  Wiirttemberg  KO  ap- 
peared in  1536;  in  1543  Brenz  prepared  a  new  KO  for  Schwabisch- 
Hall  and  in  1553,  that  known  as  the  Great  Wiirttemberg  KO. 
The  KO  of  Schwabisch-Hall  he  prepared  with  the  help  of  Isen- 
mann  and  perhaps  of  others.  The  Brandenburg-Nuremberg  KO 
is  an  important  one.  It  is  said  that  it  is  second  in  influence  only 
to  the  Saxon  Visitation  Articles.*  Its  authority  derives  from 
the  fact  that  it  represents  the  consensus  of  many  theologians, 
leading  and  otherwise.  The  first  sketch  was  prepared  by  Osian- 
der,  but  Luther,  Melanchthon  and  Brenz,  with  the  theologians  of 
Brandenburg  and  Nuremberg,  added  their  judgment  and  con- 
tributed to  its  final  shape.  The  Little  Wiirttemberg  KO  was 
written  by  Schnepf,  revised  and  approved  by  Brenz.  The  history 
of  this  KO  vividly  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  Brenz  contrary 
to  his  own  judgment,  was  obliged  to  yield  to  Reformed  influ- 
ences. When  Brenz,  however,  after  the  "Interim"  during  which 
the  first  KO  of  Schwabisch-Hall  was  destroyed,  found  himself 
before  the  task  to  prepare  a  new  KO  for  this  church,  he  was  not 
hampered  by  the  difficulties  that  beset  him  in  the  preparation  of 
the  Little  Wiirttemberg  KO.  He  was  free  to  write  this  himself 
and  in  so  doing,  based  it  upon  the  Brandenburg-Nuremberg  Or- 
der, thus  giving  the  sanction  of  his  authority  to  this  latter.  He 
was  equally  fortunate  when  he  prepared  the  Great  Wiirttemberg 
KO.  He  was  now  free  to  correct  at  least  some  of  the  abuses  of 
the  Little  Wiirttemberg  Order  and  based  it  upon  his  second  one 
of  Schwabisch-Hall.  This  then,  is  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
Brandenburg-Nuremberg  KO  and  as  it  was  sanctioned  by  the 
authority  of  Duke  Christopher,  it  became  a  model  for  many  other 
Orders.  It  might  be  interesting  to  trace  Brenz' s  departures  from 
and  returns  to  his  own  views  throughout  these  Orders,  but  this 
would  far  exceed  the  scope  of  the  present  paper.  The  student  is 
referred  for  this  to  the  excellent  article  of  Dr.  Horn,  For  the 
present  purpose  suffice  it  to  call  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the 
Brandenburg-Nuremberg  Order  is  the  one  with  which  the  litur- 
*  Horn  on  authority  of  Richter. 


14  MEMOIRS. 

gical  part  of  our  Common  Service  most  nearly  agrees.  We  must, 
therefore,  measure  Brenz's  liturgical  influence  by  the  part  he 
took  in  the  preparation  of  this  famous  Order  and  the  sanction  he 
gave  it  by  its  introduction  and  by  the  Orders  which  he  based  up- 
on it.  When  we  consider  that  the  provisions  of  this  KO  are  the 
fullest  and  simplest  for  the  major  and  minor  services  of  the 
Church,  and  that  the  ministerial  acts  are  here  treated  more  fully 
and  approximately  in  the  form  which  our  American  Church 
authorizes  to-day,  we  are  justified  in  concluding  that  this  influ- 
ence was  no  mean  or  insignificant  one. 

Closely  associated  with  the  labors  of  Brenz,  but  more  espe- 
cially identified  with  the  Reformation  at  Nuremberg  and  conse- 
quently the  production  of  the  just  mentioned  famous  Order,  is 
the  name  of  Osiander.  Andrew  Osiander  was  born  at  Gunzen- 
hausen  in  1498  and  studied  at  Leipzig,  Altenburg  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Ingolstadt.  His  education  and  early  history  have  never 
been  traced  and  he  never  obtained  academic  honors.  His  enemies 
taunted  him  with  being  a  self-made  theologian.  Still  he  became 
distinguished  in  humanistic  studies,  mathematics  and  theology 
and  was  a  master  of  Hebrew.  At  Nuremberg  he  was  ordained 
a  priest  and  made  teacher  of  Hebrew.  He  soon  became  the 
mainspring  of  reformatory  activity  in  this  city  and  soon  be- 
came widely  known  for  his  bold  preaching  and  his  literary  activ- 
ity. He  did  not  meet  Luther  until  1529  and  always  strictly 
maintained  his  independence  of  him.  He  never  fully  entered  in- 
to Luther's  view  of  justification  and  thereby  became  the  occasion 
of  numerous  theological  controversies;  but  he  thoroughly  agreed 
with  Luther  in  the  main  and  especially  in  regard  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  His  name  also  was  soon  known  every- 
where as  that  of  a  spirited  and  uncompromising  champion  of 
evangelical  truth.  It  was  on  this  account  that  he  was  enabled  to 
take  a  prominent  part  in  the  organization  of  the  Church  at  Nu- 
remberg, both  by  aiding  in  the  Brandenburg-Nuremberg  Church 
visitation  and  also  by  preparing  the  first  draft  of  the  Branden- 
burg-Nuremberg KO.  It  is,  perhaps,  due  to  his  personality  that 
this  Order  prevailed  so  extensively,  for  during  many  years  he  was 
a  power  in  Nuremberg,  of  such  influence  as  to  be  called  the 
Nuremberg  Pope.  His  fearless  defence  and  promulgation  of  the 
truth,  his  unrelenting  opposition  to  everything  unevangelical,  his 
uncompromising  insistence  on  the  carrying  out  of  the  Reforma- 


LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.       15 

tion  ideas,  all  these  gave  the  supports  and  backing  that  his  KO 
needed  to  secure  its  adoption  and  retention.  And  having  said 
this,  we  need  say  no  more  to  characterize  his  influence. 

One  more  character  deserves  mention  in  this  connection.  It 
is  Justus  Jonas,  the  intimate  friend  of  lyUther.  He  was  born  in 
1493,  studied  at  Erfurt  and  took  his  degree  in  15 10.  He  devoted 
much  attention  to  eloquence  and  the  composition  of  lyatin  verses; 
but  soon  entered  upon  the  study  of  law  to  please  his  father. 
While  studying  at  Wittenberg  he  heard  Luther  and  was  converted 
by  him,  as  he  himself  says.  He  soon  turned  from  law  after  hav- 
ing been  licensed,  and  devoted  himself  to  theology.  It  was  he 
who  translated  the  Ninety-five  Theses,  but  notwithstanding  he 
was  made  canon  at  Erfurt  and  rector  of  its  Latin  school.  It  was 
Erasmus  who  persuaded  him  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  theolo- 
gy and  in  this,  his  knowledge  of  languages  and  history  served 
him  admirably.  His  eloquence  soon  increased  the  number  of  his 
hearers  and  he  attracted  such  attention  that  he  was  soon  called 
— "another  Luther" — to  the  provostship  at  Wittenberg.  In 
152 1  he  became  Doctor  of  Divinity  and  in  his  new  position  and 
dignity  he  began  an  earnest  controversy  against  all  abuses,  prin- 
cipally that  of  the  mass,  of  mariolatry  and  worship  of  the  saints, 
and  proposed  a  new  Order  of  Service,  which,  however,  was  not 
adopted  until  the  accession  of  a  new"  elector.  He  is  preeminently 
the  German  translator  of  the  documents  of  the  Reformation, 
principally  of  Luther's  '^De  Servo  Arbitrio,''  Melanchthon's 
"LocV  and  the  "Apology."  He  has  left  the  Church  some 
beautiful  hymns  which  he  composed.  In  1523  he  conducted  the 
second  Saxon  Church  visitation;  in  1536  he  aided  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Reformation  at  Naumburg;  in  1539  he  was  engaged 
in  the  same  work  at  Meissen  and  in  1541  at  Halle.  At  Halle  he 
composed  a  KO  based  on  the  one  at  Wittenberg.  His  death  oc- 
curred in  1555.  His  direct  influence  upon  the  ordering  of  the 
Church  at  Wittenberg  is  not  so  directly  appreciable  on  account 
of  the  presence  and  labors  there  of  so  many  other  great  minds; 
but  the  KOO  of  Meissen,  Naumburg  and  Halle  are  enough  to 
entitle  him  to  distinction  in  this  field  also. 

Upon  such  men  and  their  labors  did  the  ordering  of  the 
Church  of  the  Reformation  depend.  We  can  not  read  a  detailed 
description  of  this  period  without  thinking  of  the  "helden  lobe 
bseren,  und  grozzer  arebeit"  of  the  Nibelungen,  but  far  greater, 


16  MEMOIRS. 

far  more  wonderful  are  the  great  labors  of  these  praiseworthy 
heroes.  We  are  astounded  at  their  condition,  we  are  humbled 
by  their  faith,  we  admire  their  versatility,  we  can  not  compre- 
hend the  many  and  varied  causes  to  which  they  gave  their  atten- 
tion. We  can  not  but  think  of  the  great  things  they  accom- 
plished and  compare  with  them  the  humble  following  of  their 
footsteps  to  which  we  of  a  latter  day,  are  limited,  and  we  ex- 
claim as  Schiller  did  of  Kaut,  "Wenn  die  Konige  bauen,  haben 
die  Karrner  zu  thun." 


Authorities  consulted  and  used: — Jakoby:  Liturgik  der 
Reformatoren;  BellERMANN:  Das  Leben  des  Johannes  Bugen- 
hagen;  Horn:  The  Liturgical  Work  of  John  Brenz,  (^Church 
Review,  1882);  Rietschel:  Lehrbuch  der  Liturgik;  Zockler: 
Hayidbuch  der  theologischen  Wissenshaften;  Meusel:  Kirchliches 
Handle xikon. 

C.  Theodore  Benze. 

Erie,  Pa. 


THE   ECCLESIASTICAL   CALENDAR. 


The  Calendar,  (from  Calends),  is  the  mode  of  adjusting  the 
artificial  divisions  of  time,  such  as  months,  Lent,  Advent  and  the 
like  to  the  natural  or  Solar  year.  Calendars  are  devised  for  civil 
and  religious  purposes,  each  embracing  the  same  period  of  time 
as  their  unit,  (365 1/(  days),  but  differing  in  accordance  with  the 
use  for  which  the}'  are  intended.  We  are  concerned  with  the 
civil  calendar  only  in  so  far  as  the  religious  is  related  to  it.  In 
the  beginning,  the  Christians  simply  emploj'ed  the  divisions  of 
time  current  in  the  country  of  which  they  were  citizens.  Certain 
days  were  marked  as  anniversaries  of  great  events  in  the  life  of 
Christ;  for  example  the  festival  days  of  the  early  Church.  To 
these  were  added  commemorations  of  the  deaths  of  the  first  mar- 
tyrs. As  the  Roman  wrote  on  his  tablets  the  obligations  he  must 
meet,  or  the  debts  he  would  receive,  connecting  each  with  its 
date  in  the  Julian  year,  so  the  Christian  marked  opposite  certain 
dates,  the  name  or  event  he  thought  worthy  of  special  note  in  his 
devotional  life.  Such  lists  were  the  earliest  Calendars  of  the 
Church.  A  formal  and  authoritative  division  of  the  year  for 
religious  use  was  arranged  as  earlj'  as  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century. 

As  the  religious  Calendar  was  simply  an  adaptation  of  the 
civil  year,  and  grew  up  from  traditional  usages  by  different  bodies 
of  believers,  many  differences  are  to  be  found  in  the  various  parts 
of  Christendom,  b}'  which  local  conditions  of  the  life  of  the 
Church  are  marked.  Nationality,  controvers)^  and  doctrinal  fun- 
damentals have  each  been  factors  in  the  determination  of  what 
should  be  marked  by  the  Church.  Almost  every  day  in  the  year 
in  the  Greek  Church  is  dedicated  to  some  event  in  the  life  of 
Christ,  or  to  the  Apostles,  or  saints,  or  national  heroes.  With 
the  Puritans  at  the  other  extreme,  even  the  anniversary  of  our 
Lord's  nativity  was  .scarcely  admitted  to  form  a  special  day  in 

(xvii) 


18  MEMOIRS. 

their  year.  In  general,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  there  are 
two  great  families  of  Calendars;  one  from  the  Eastern,  the  other 
from  the  Western  division  of  Christendom.  Through  the 
Roman  or  Western  wing,  we  derive  the  Church  Year  in  use  by 
Lutherans. 

The  three  great  events  in  the  life  of  Christ,  His  birth,  His 
resurrection,  and  the  sending  of  the  Holy  Ghost  have  been  the 
nuclei  around  which  all  the  Calendars  have  been  formed.  The 
latter  two  of  these  were  marked  from  the  Apostolic  period,  and 
in  fact,  are  simply  modifications  of  feasts  established  by  God  for 
the  Jews.  Instead  of  the  Passover,  we  have  Easter  and  its  asso- 
ciated days,  and  in  the  room  of  the  Harvest  festival,  we  celebrate 
Pentecost  as  the  memorial  of  the  pouring  forth  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Christmas  and  the  connected  festivals  of  Epiphany  and 
Circumcision  arose  somewhat  later,  and  are  of  Gentile  origin. 
These  three  feasts  became  the  centers  of  cycles  and  octaves.  As 
the  Church  grew  older,  and  its  cultus  became  more  complex,  va- 
rious customs  were  added.  Martyriology  gave  us  Saints'  days, 
asceticism  furnished  the  preparatory  seasons  of  fasting,  and  now 
and  then  the  settlement  of  a  great  doctrinal  battle  added  a  special 
day  to  the  Calendar.  By  the  time  the  Reformation  occurred,  the 
entire  year  was  occupied  with  the  commemoration  of  events  in 
the  history  of  the  Church.  The  opposition  of  the  reformers  to 
the  worship  of  the  saints  and  of  the  Virgin  resulted  in  the, re- 
moval of  many  names  and  customs  from  the  list;  or  where  they 
were  not  oflScially  removed,  the  spirit  of  the  denomination  caused 
them  to  fall  into  desuetude.  By  us,  little  not  directly  connected 
with  the  life  of  our  Lord,  was  retained. 

If  we  should  study  the  seasons  of  the  Church  Year  in  the 
order  of  its  development,  we  would  begin  with  Easter,  this  being 
the  festival  earliest  observed,  and  for  a  long  time  the  beginning 
of  the  year.  But  since  we  are  accustomed  to  Advent  being  con- 
sidered as  the  first  of  the  Calendar,  we  will  begin  with  the  Christ- 
mas cycle,  of  which  Advent  is  the  preparatory  season. 

Concerning  Advent  itself,  it  may  be  said,  that  there  is  no 
mention  of  this  season  under  this  title  before  the  seventh  century. 
Essentially  however,  it  had  a  place  in  the  Calendar  at  a  much 
earlier  time.  Jerome  has  pericopes  and  collects  for  "the  five 
Sundays  before  the  Nativity  of  our  Lord."  Like  Lent,  it  was 
observed  as  a  season  of  penance  and  fasting.     An  ancient  canon 


THE    ECCLESIASTICAL    CALENDAR.  19 

forbids  marriages  during  its  continuance.  The  time  over  which 
it  extended,  varied  at  different  places  and  dates.  In  Jerome's 
time,  and  in  parts  of  France  at  a  later  date,  it  covered  five  Sun- 
days. In  the  Greek  Church  to  the  present  day,  under  the  name 
"Fast  of  the  Nativity"  it  covers  forty  days  and  is  one  of  the  four 
great  periods  of  fasting,  set  for  each  year.  To  Gregory  the 
Great,  is  ascribed  its  duration  of  the  four  Sundays  preceding 
Christmas.  One  of  its  four  Sundays  was  used  for  each  of  the 
four  comings  of  Christ  to  man;  i.  e.,  to  mankind  in  the  flesh,  to 
the  believer  in  the  hour  of  death,  to  Jerusalem  at  its  fall,  and  on 
the  day  of  Judgment. 

Since  the  sixth  centurj^  Advent  has  been  the  beginning  of 
the  Church  Year  in  the  Western  Church.  The  chief  cause  of 
the  change  from  the  Easter  cycle  was  the  desire  to  have  the 
Christian  year  begin  at  a  time  different  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Jewish  ecclesiastical  3'ear. 

The  Christmas  cycle  makes  its  appearance  in  the  Church 
under  the  name  of  Epiphany.  There  was  a  heathen  festival 
widely  celebrated  among  the  Greeks,  in  honor  of  the  manifesta- 
tion of  one  of  their  myths  to  mankind,  under  the  name  of  EPI- 
PHANEIA  (eTTtt^aveia);  this  was  replaced  in  the  Oriental  Church 
by  the  festival  in  honor  of  the  coming  of  Christ  in  the  flesh.  The 
date  first  set  for  the  celebration  was  the  sixth  of  January,  which 
date  is  still  retained  by  the  Armenian  Church  for  the  Christmas 
festival.  The  only  attempt  to  explain  the  choice  of  this  day,  so 
far  as  we  have  seen,  was  an  example  of  Oriental  allegory.  Since 
Adam  was  created  on  the  sixth  day  of  time,  the  sixth  of  the  year 
might  well  be  chosen  to  commemorate  the  birth  of  Christ.  Mean- 
time, the  Western  Church  had  adopted  December  25th  as  the 
Natal  Day.  When  the  controversies  of  the  Grecian  Church  re- 
quired more  emphasis  to  be  placed  on  the  human  birth  of  the 
Lord,  the  Greek  Church,  retaining  Epiphany,  added  the  Festival 
of  the  Nativity'  to  their  Calendar,  using  for  it  the  date  current 
among  the  Roman  Christians. 

When  December  25th  was  chosen  as  the  date  of  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  birth  of  Christ,  is  not  known,  nor  have  we  any  clear 
reason  given,  why  this  time  was  taken.  Chrysostom  says  in  a 
Christmas  homily,  that  Pope  Julius  I,  (A.  D.,  337-352),  had 
caused  strict  inquiry  to  be  made  as  to  the  time  of  Christ's  birth, 
and  confirmed  its  customary  celebration  on  this  day.     Some  his- 


20  MEMOIRS. 

torians  claim  that  this  date  was  chosen  by  the  Church  to  counter- 
balance a  heathen  festival  occurring  December  25th  by  the  Julian 
calendar.  Piper  derives  the  date  from  March  25th,  which  the 
early  Church  considered  as  the  normal  time  for  the  beginning  of 
the  world,  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  and  the  date  of  His  con- 
ception. 

Early  in  the  development  of  the  Church  Year,  it  became 
customary  to  connect  with  a  festival,  its  Octave.  The  events  of 
Easter  week  probably  form  the  precedent  for  this  habit.  With 
Christmas  was  thus  connected  the  eighth  day  after,  and  from  a 
Gospel  basis,  this  became  specificall}^  the  Festival  of  the  Circum- 
cision, after  the  6th  century.  Between  Christmas  and  the  Festi- 
val of  the  Circumcision,  our  Church  also  retains  the  minor  days 
of  St.  Stephen  and  St.  John,  Dec.  26th  and  27th.  In  the  ancient 
Church,  Dec.  28th  was  also  marked  as  the  Festival  of  the  H0I3' 
Innocents.  The  association  of  Stephen  with  Christ  is  in  the 
manner  of  his  death.  That  of  John  is  probably  due  to  his  near- 
ness to  Christ  during  His  ministry  and  the  distinctive  teaching  in 
his  Gospel  concerning  the  Incarnation.  The  innocency  of  the 
child  victims  of  Herod's  jealousy,  so  similar  to  Christ's  faultless- 
ness,  probably  led  the  Earlj'  Church,  deeply  honoring  martyrdom 
of  every  kind,  to  connect  their  death  with  the  festival  of  the 
Master's  birth. 

We  have  already  said  that  Epiphany  so  far  as  name  is  con- 
cerned, was  earlier  in  its  origin  than  Christmas.  It  was  less  spe- 
cifically devoted  to  Christ's  birth,  however,  than  to  marking  in 
general  His  manifestation  to  men.  The  baptism  by  John,  and 
the  appearance  in  the  home  at  Cana  of  Galilee  were  themes  in  its 
celebration  as  well  as  the  assuming  of  the  flesh.  Only  after  the 
fourth  century  was  it  coupled  with  the  Visit  of  the  Magi  and  the 
Manifestation  of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles.  Theophaneia,  Bethpan- 
eia,  are  early  titles  showing  its  first  significance.  Our  Gospel 
Lessons  for  the  season  still  show  its  various  applications.  The 
length  of  the  season  of  Epiphany  varies,  and  first  shows  the  in- 
fluence of  the  "Queen  of  Festivals,"  Easter,  around  which  is 
grouped  the  second  cycle  of  our  year. 

We  have  already  said  that  the  celebration  of  Easter  is  of 
Apostolic  origin.  It  would  be  only  natural  that  the  Jewish  con- 
verts to  the  faith  in  the  first  year  of  Apostolic  preaching,  should 
give  a  peculiar  significance  to  their  great  Paschal  feast,  whenever 


THE    ECCLESIASTICAL    CALENDAR.  21 

it  would  occur.  They  would  recall  Christ's  teaching  concerning 
Himself  as  the  true  Lamb  of  God,  and  with  the  eating  of  unleav- 
ened bread,  they  would  connect  the  crucifixion,  and  the  resur- 
rection. Of  course  the  date  of  this  connnemoration  would  be 
that  of  the  Jewish  Pascha,  i.  e.,  the  14th  Nisan.  Nisan  was  a 
lunar  month,  beginning  with  the  moon  following  the  Vernal 
Equinox.  With  the  Gentile  converts,  however,  the  Jewish  Pass- 
over had  little  or  no  significance.  They  had  not  even  adopted 
the  keeping  of  the  Sabbath,  but  observed  instead  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  distinctively  the  Lord's  Day.  The  Resurrection  rather 
than  the  Crucifixion  was  most  emphatically  preached  to  the  non- 
Jewish  converts,  and  their  whole  religious  life  made  only  Sunday 
suitable  for  the  commemoration  of  the  festival  of  Christ's  coming 
from  the  grave.  The  result  was  that  the  Roman  Church  adopted 
the  custom  of  making  Easter  a  movable  festival,  seeking  to  mark 
it  only  on  Sunday,  and  caring  only  to  have  a  time  approximately 
corresponding  to  the  day  of  the  month  on  which  Christ  rose  from 
the  dead.  B)^  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  the  influence  of 
the  Italian  Church  had  become  suflicient  to  make  a  marked  con- 
flict between  the  days  on  which  Easter  v/as  celebrated.  The  first 
colloquy  on  the  subject  was  between  Polycarp  of  Smyrna  and 
Anicetus,  bishop  of  Rome.  Poh'carp  declared  that  it  was  the 
custom  of  John  to  observe  the  14th  of  Nisan,  but  Anicetus  re- 
fused to  be  convinced.  Tradition  was  invoked  that  Peter  and 
Paul  might  offer  authority  to  the  Roman  party.  A  bitter  con- 
troversy was  carried  on  for  more  than  a  century,  until  finally  at 
the  Council  of  Nicea,  the  matter  was  settled  by  passing  the  rule 
novk'  in  force  for  determining  the  date  of  the  celebration  of  Easter. 
That  rule  is,  that  Easter  shall  occur  on  the  first  Sunday,  follow- 
ing the  first  full  moon  on,  or  next  after  the  21st  of  March. 
When  this  is  Sunda}^  the  following  Sunda}'  shall  be  taken. 

This  Nicean  legislation  simply  compromises  by  determining 
that  the  Sunday  nearest  to  the  14th  of  Nisan  shall  be  Easter. 
At  least  that  would  be  the  result  if  the  beginning  of  Nisan  is  ac- 
curately determined.  For  this  month  would  begin  with  the  new 
moon  following  the  Vernal  Equinox,  i.  e.,  the  21st  of  March, 
and  the  14th  was  the  da)'  of  the  full  moon.  The  followers  of  the 
Jewish  custom  had  already  been  contemptuously  called  Quarto- 
decimanians,  and  after  the  Nicean  Council,  any  one  holding  to 
the  fixed  festival,  was  excommunicated.     It  is  none  the  less  true 


22  MEMOIRS. 

however,    that  so  far  as  Apostolic   authority  is  concerned,   its 
weight  is  in  favor  of  the  14th  of  Nisan. 

Any  date  fixed  in  a  lunar  month  would  yet  be  movable  in 
the  solar  year,  and  hence  in  a  civil  year  which  corresponded  in 
length  with  the  sun's  annual  revolution.  The  requirement  of  a 
certain  day  in  the  week  would  add  a  second  mutation.  In  the 
years  immediately  following  the  Nicean  Council  the  Bishop  of 
Alexandria  was  deputed  to  announce  to  the  other  bishops  the 
date  on  which  Easter  would  occur,  and  the  bishops  through  their 
metropolitans  would  inform  the  whole  Church.  This  plan  was 
soon  found  inadequate  however,  and  the  mathematicians  set  them- 
selves to  formulate  tables  by  which  the  date  of  the  moon  follow- 
ing the  Vernal  Equinox  could  be  found,  and  the  day  of  the  week 
could  be  determined.  The  Metonic  cycle  of  nineteen  j^ears  for 
determining  the  date  of  the  moon's  phases  had  already  been  in 
use  for  centuries.  A  "solar"  cycle  for  twentj'-eight  years  was 
also  known,  by  which  the  succession  of  the  days  of  the  week 
could  be  found.  Victorinus  of  Aquitain  combined  these  two 
numbers  as  factors  in  a  period  of  532  years,  to  which  the  name 
of  the  Victorian  cycle  has  been  applied.  The  factors  in  this  unit 
are  indicated  in  our  Calendars  by  the  Golden  Number  and  the 
Dominical  or  Sunday  letter.  The  first  is  obtained  by  dividing 
the  number  of  the  year  plus  one  by  19.  If  there  is  no  remain- 
der, the  Golden  Number  is  19.  Any  remainder  from  the  division 
is  the  Golden  Number  for  the  year  divided.  The  Dominical  let- 
ter is  the  capital  set  opposite  Sunday.  The  ist,  2nd,  3rd,  4th, 
5th,  6th  and  7th  of  January  are  named  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F  and  G. 
If  the  I  St  of  January  is  Sunday,  A  is  the  Dominical  letter;  if  the 
3rd  is  Sunday,  the  letter  is  C;  and  so  on.  The  table  of  the  Vic- 
torian Cycle  was  used  for  determining  the  date  of  Easter  until 
the  time  of  the  papal  reign  of  Gregory  XIII,  without  correction, 
although  the  Venerable  Bede  had  noted  that  the  Vernal  Equinox 
no  longer  fell  on  the  21st  of  March.  Owing  to  the  various  errors 
in  the  ancient  Julian  year  and  in  the  Victorian  cycle,  a  day  was 
lost  every  130  years.  In  1582,  the  actual  date  of  the  Vernal 
Equinox  was  March  nth.  To  correct  this  error,  Gregory  or- 
dered the  5th  of  October  to  be  called  the  15th.  The  Catholic 
countries  adopted  the  revision  at  once;  the  Protestant  govern- 
ments later,  England  making  a  correction  of  eleven  days  in  1752. 
The  Greek  Church  has  not  yet  adopted  the  correction,  so  that 


THE    ECCLESIASTICAL    YEAR.  23 

there  is  a  divergence  of  twelve  days  between  the  dating  of  their 
events  in  their  own  "Old  Style"  and  our  "New  Style."  Neces- 
sary corrections  in  the  Victorian  cycle  have  made  it  so  complex 
that  it  can  no  longer  be  generally  employed  in  determining  Eas- 
ter. Hence  tables  are  published  giving  the  actual  date  of  its  oc- 
currence during  a  period  of  years.*  A  very  good  article  on  the 
formulae  for  the  Golden  number  and  the  Dominical  letter  can  be 
found  in  the  Ejicyclopedia  Britannica  under  "Calendar." 

By  the  time  the  Nicean  Council  had  decreed  the  date  of  the 
occurrence  of  Easter,  many  of  the  elements  of  its  cycle  had  be- 
come established  in  the  customs  of  the  Church.  The  custom  of 
fasting  in  the  days  preceding  the  festival  is  very  early,  although 
it  was  first  practiced  only  during  the  forty  hours  during  which 
Christ's  soul  was  separated  from  His  body.  Yet  it  was  not  long 
until  the  tendencies  toward  asceticism  led  to  the  extension  of  this 
preparatory  season  over  a  period  of  forty  days.  Origen  makes 
mention  of  this  length  of  time  as  proper  for  the  preceding  of  Eas- 
ter. This  period  of  course  grew  out  of  the  time  of  the  Master's 
temptation  in  the  wilderness.  The  number  of  weeks  covered  by 
a  fast  of  forty  days  was  effected  by  the  estimate  in  w^hich  the 
days  of  the  week  were  held  by  various  parts  of  the  Church. 
Sundays  were  universally  excluded  from  the  list  of  fast  days. 
Parts  of  the  Church  also  excluded  Saturdays  and  Thursdays. 
Such  omissions  would  extend  the  forty  days  to  the  ninth  week 
before  Easter,  and  would  account  for  the  cycle  beginning  with 
Septuagesima  Sunday,  although  the  names  of  the  Sundays  before 
Lent  are  derived  by  analog}^  with  Quadragesima.  In  the  West- 
ern Church,  Gregory  the  Great  brought  uniformity  by  enacting 
that  Lent  should  consist  of  the  forty-six  days  preceding  Easter, 
Sundays  being  excepted  from  fasting.  Thus  it  takes  its  begin- 
ning on  Wednesday  of  the  seventh  week  before  Easter. 

Ash  Wednesday  takes  its  name  from  a  custom  of  the  Roman 
Church  of  burning  the  palm  branches  consecrated  at  the  previous 
Palm  Sunday  and  with  the  ashes  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  on 
the  forehead  of  those  kneeling  before  the  altar  on  this  day.  The 
ancient  name  is  Caput  Jejunii.  In  the  Lutheran  Church,  the  day 
is  marked  simply  as  the  beginning  of  the  Lenten  season. 

The  English  word  Lent  is  from  the  old  word  for  Spring,  this 
season  of  the  Church  Year  being  distinguished  as  the  Lenten 
*   Cf.   Church  Book. 


24  MEMOIRS. 

Fast.  The  names  of  the  first  five  Sundays  are  taken  from  the 
initial  words  of  the  Latin  Introits  for  each  day;  i.  e.,  Invocavit, 
Reminiscere,  Oculi,  Lcetare  and  Judica.  Palm  Sunday  takes  its 
name  from  the  custom  of  bearing  branches  in  the  processionals. 
By  Gregory  it  is  called  Dominica  in  ramis  palinanim,  by  Am- 
brose, Dominica  in  ramis  olivarum.  By  St.  Jerome  it  is  entitled 
Indulgence  Day  from  the  custom  of  the  Emperors  of  setting  free 
prisoners  and  closing  the  courts  of  justice  during  the  week  be- 
ginning with  this  Sunday.  Very  early  in  the  history  of  the 
Church,  this  week  received  the  name  of  the  Great  Week  or  the 
Holy  Week,  and  was  marked  by  special  religious  observ'ances 
and  by  the  closing  of  places  of  business. 

Maundy  Thursday  has  its  popular  name  either  from  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  Latin  title  '^Dies  MandaW  or  from  the  custom  of 
delivering  gifts  to  the  poor  in  baskets  (maunds).  The  Lord's 
command,  "Do  this"  of  course  led  to  the  name  Mandati.  Other 
titles,  arising  from  the  Lord's  teaching  in  the  Upper  Room  are, 
Feria  mysterioruni,  Lavipedium  and  MeyaXi;  Pei/ras. 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  marking  of  the  da)^  of  the 
Lord's  death  by  a  suitable  memorial  is  one  of  the  earliest  customs 
of  Christendom.  The  Jewish  converts  in  selecting  the  14th  of 
Nisan  as  their  Easter,  gave  the  crucifixion  the  first  place  as  com- 
pared with  the  resurrection.  At  first  in  the  Western  Church, 
both  the  crucifixion  and  the  resurrection  were  connected  with  the 
Sunday  celebration  of  the  Pascha,  but  after  the  time  of  Leo  I, 
the  two  events  are  definitely  separated,  and  Friday  marked  as 
the  Paraskeue  or  Dies  Dominicce  passionis.  Saturday  following, 
called  by  the  Jev/s,  An  high  Da}^,  is  known  to  the  Christians  as 
The  Great  Sabbath.  It  has  been  marked  only  by  the  Easter 
vigils. 

The  name  Easter  is  derived  by  Venerable  Bede  from  the 
name  qf  a  Pagan  goddess  Eostre  or  Ostera,  Vvhose  festival  oc- 
curred about  the  time  of  the  Vernal  Equinox.  Later  philologists 
derive  the  name  from  the  Saxon  "urstan,"  to  rise,  "urstand," 
the  resurrection.  The  ancient  name  was  ''Pascha  Domi7iic(B  res- 
urrectionis,''  and  later  simply  ''Dies  PaschcRy  From  the  purely 
Church  standpoint,  it  is  and  always  has  been  the  greatest  of  the 
Church  festivals. 

The  forty  days  following  Easter  belong  to  the  Easter  cycle 
and  are  characterized  by  the  prolongation  of  the  Easter  festivi- 


THE    ECCLESIASTICAL    CALENDAR.  25 

ties.  Fasting  was  not  permitted,  and  the  most  joyous  celebra- 
tions of  the  Church  and  family  were  set  for  this  period.  The 
Sundays  take  their  names  from  the  Introits. 

Thursday,  the  fortieth  day  after  Easter  is  set  apart  for  the 
marking  of  the  Lord's  ascension.  Holy  Thursday  is  the  name 
usuall}'  applied  to  it  in  the  old  Calendars,  though  it  is  not  shown 
to  be  very  early  marked  by  the  Church.  Chrysostom  is  the  first 
authority  for  its  observance,  he  having  a  homily  for  the  day. 
Augustine  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa  mark  it  in  a  similar  manner. 

Pentecost,  the  fiftieth  day  after  Easter,  is  one  of  the  earliest 
festivals,  being  probably  contemporary  with  Easter  in  its  first  ob- 
servance. Its  Christian  observance  is  simply  a  transformation  of 
the  Jewish  Harvest  Feast,  with  a  new  significance  due  to  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  this  day.  Pentecost  is  of  course 
the  earliest  name.  Our  English  title  of  Whit-Sunday  is  usually 
derived  from  the  custom  of  the  catechumens  appearing  in  white 
robes  on  this  daj^  their  baptism  having  occurred  at  the  vigil  im- 
mediately preceding.  Other  derivations  are  "Whitsun  Day" 
from  the  German  "Pfingsten  Tag,"  and  Wit  Sunday,  the  day  of 
the  pouring  forth  of  wisdom,  from  the  old  English  word  for  wis- 
dom. Wit.  In  the  earlj-  Church,  the  remaining  Sundays  of  the 
year  were  attached  to  Pentecost,  and  this  custom  still  obtains  in 
the  Greek  Church,  where  Trinity  Sunday  is  not  observed. 

Trinity  Sunday  is  the  latest  of  the  great  festivals  to  be 
placed  in  the  Calendar.  There  was  no  occasion  for  its  observ- 
ance until  after  the  Arian  controversj^,  the  Sunday  following 
Pentecost  being  simply  the  octave  of  that  feast,  and  specially  set 
apart  as  the  Day  of  all  the  Martyrs.  In  some  parts  of  the 
Church,  the  Sunday  before  Advent  was  connected  with  the  Trin- 
ity. The  Synod  of  Aries,  1260,  ofiicially  gave  it  its  present 
place  in  the  Calendar,  choosing  the  Sunday  following  Pentecost, 
because  after  the  sending  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  man  had  for  the 
first  time  full  knowledge  of  the  Trinity. 

Our  custom  of  naming  the  remaining  Sundays  of  the  year 
"Sundays  after  Trinity"  is  not  so  much  the  forming  of  along 
Trinity  cycle,  as  it  is  the  making  of  a  second  principal  division 
of  the  Church  Year.  The  first  division  with  its  three  great  feasts 
and  their  cycles  is  the  Semester  Do^nini,  ending  with  Trinity  Sun- 
day. The  second  half  is  the  Semester  EeclesicB.  In  the  first,  we 
mark  the  history  of  the  life  of  Christ  from  its  Advent  to  the  send- 


26  MEMOIRS. 

iiig  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  in  the  second,  we  have  man's  appropria- 
tion of  redemption.  In  this,  the  lessons  mark  the  Call  to  the 
Kingdom  of  God,  the  Righteousness  of  the  Kingdom  of  God,  and 
the  Final  Consummation  of  the  Christians'  lyife.     (Spaeth.) 

In  the  Greek  Church  on  the  other  hand,  the  entire  5^ear  is 
divided  into  cycles  grouped  around  the  great  festivals  commem- 
orative of  the  ministry  of  Christ.  Their  conception  of  the  Church 
Year  can  best  be  shown  bj^  tables.  They  are  quoted  from  Neale's 
Holy  Eastern  Church. 

Festivals  are  divided  into  three  classes: 

A.  Great. 

1 .  Easter. 

2.  The  following  twelve: 
Christmas,   Dec.  25th. 
Epiphan}^  Jan.  6th. 

Hypapante,  Feb.   2nd.      (Meeting  of  our    Lord  with 

Simeon  and  Anna.) 
Annunciation,  Mar.  25th. 
Palm  Sunday. 
Pentecost. 

Transfiguration,  Aug.  6th. 
Repose  of  the  Mother  of  God,  Aug.  15th. 
Nativity  of  the  Mother  of  God,  Sept.  Sth. 
Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Sept.  14th. 
Presentation  of  the  Mother  of  God,  Nov.  21st. 

3.  Festivals  Adodekata.      (Fewer  than  12.) 
The  Circumcision,  Jan.  ist. 

Nativity  of  S.  John  the  Baptist. 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul. 
Decollation  of  John  the  Baptist. 

B.  Middle. 

1.  Festivals  in  which  the  office  is  not  entirely  of  the 

commemoration,  but  has  the  addition  of  a  canon 
in  lauds  in  honor  of  the  Mother  of  God;  such  as 
Jan.  30,  SS.  Basil,  Gregory,  and  Chrysostom. 
May  6th,  St.  John,  the  Divine. 

2.  Those   in   which   the    Polyeleos   (135th    and    136th 

Psalms)  occur  in  the  lauds.  For  the  minor  apos- 
tles, the  God-bearing  Fathers,  (Simon  Stylites), 
and  the  more  famous  Metropolitans. 


THE    ECCI.ESIASTICAL    CAI^ENDAR.  27 

C.     Little. 

1.  Those  having  the  Great  Doxology. 

2.  Those  without  the  Great  Doxology. 

The  great  Fasts  of  the  Greek  Church  are  as  follows: 

The  Lenten  Fast,  Monday  after  Quinquagesima  to  Easter. 

The  Fast  of  the  Apostles,  Monday  a,fter  Trinity  to  June  29. 

The  Fast  of  the  Mother  of  God.     Aug.  ist  to  14th. 

The  Fast  of  the  Nativity.  Nov.  15th  to  Dec.  25th. 
The  first  of  these  Fasts,  the  Lenten,  is  of  exceeding  rigor. 
"Not  only  is  meat  forbidden,  but  fish,  cheese,  butter,  oil,  milk, 
and  all  preparations  of  it.  The  Fast  continues  on  Sunday,  though 
a  little  oil  is  permitted.  General  indulgences  are  never  granted." 
"In  all  226  days  of  the  year  are  observed  with  scrupulous  fidelity 
as  Fasts.  In  the  Lenten  Fast,  poor  men  throw  away  their  only 
loaf  of  bread,  if  a  drop  of  oil  or  forbidden  food  happens  to  fall 
upon  it." 

N.  R.  Melhorn. 
Philadelphia^  Pa. 


28 


MEMOIRS. 


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LUTHER'S   IvlTURGICAIv  WRITINGS. 


As  would  be  expected,  he  who,  under  God's  hand,  purified  the 
faith  of  the  Church,  also  laid  down  the  principles  for  a  purified 
worship  in  the  reformed  Church.  The  fundamental  principles 
of  liturgical  reform  are  found  in  the  writings  of  Luther,  and  it 
is  upon  these  principles  that  every  Evangelical  Liturgy  is  based. 
There  are  but  three  great  liturgical  writings  from  the  hand  of 
Luther,  in  fact  only  two  which  provide  an  order  of  worship,  the 
Formula  Misses,  1523,  and  the  Deutsche  Messe,  1526;  but  with 
these  must  also  be  mentioned  the  tract  "Von  Ordenung  Gottes- 
dienst  in  der  Gemeyne,"  of  1523,  and  his  letter  to  the  chapter 
of  All  Saint's  Church  at  Wittenberg,  of  August  19,  1523. 

All  through  his  writings  from  the  year  15 16  to  the  year 
1545  we  find,  again  and  again,  reference  made  to  the  worship  of 
the  Church;  some  deal  with  the  matter  fully  and  other  writings 
again  barely  touch  it.  It  is  therefore  a  difiicult  matter  to  refer 
to  every  reference  of  liturgical  importance.  We  will  content 
ourself  with  the  most  important. 

Wlien  Luther,  in  the  year  1517,  wrote  the  sixty-second 
Thesis,  "The  real  and  true  treasure  of  the  Church  is  the  most 
holy  Gospel  of  the  glory  and  grace  of  God,"  he  was  the  David 
who  gave  the  Goliath  of  the  old  order  of  worship  its  death 
wound.  The  very  center  of  the  infamous  system  of  Rome  lay  in 
its  worship  in  the  Mass.  From  early  infancy  all  the  religious 
siu'roundings  of  the  people  were  bound  up  in  this  worship,  and 
to  destroy  it  was  a  herculean  task.  Luther  knew  this,  and  in 
his  treatise  on  the  Babylonian  Captivity  (1520)  declares  that  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  by  far  the  most  iniquitous  captivity  and 
which  has  drawn  with  it  an  endless  chain  of  further  abuses.  He 
knows  he  has  to  contend  with  an  evil  which  has  been  firmly  in- 
trenched for  centuries,  which  has  received  universal  approval  and 
which  cannot  be  overthrown  without  changing  almost  the  entire 

(xxix) 


30  MEMOIRS. 

present  organization  of  the  Church  and  introducing  a  different 
mode  of  conducting  worship.  At  first  his  entire  attention  was 
given  to  the  preaching  and  teaching  of  a  purified  doctrine.  But 
in  this  teaching  he  laid  down  the 

PRINCIPI^ES    OF    DIVINE   WORSHIP. 

In  the  Sermon  von  der  Messe  (1520)  Luther  says,  "If  a 
man  is  to  have  any  deaHngs  with  God  and  to  receive  anything 
from  Him,  it  must  come  to  pass  in  such  a  way  that  the  first  step 
is  not  taken  by  man  but  that  God  alone,  without  any  petition  on 
the  part  of  man,  must  take  the  initiative  and  give  to  man  a  prom- 
ise. This  Word  of  God  is  the  first  thing,  and  upon  it  are  built 
all  the  words,  works,  and  thoughts  of  man."  Here  the  first 
principle  of  worship  is  laid  down.  Again  and  again  this  princi- 
ple is  repeated.  In  the  Ordnung  des  Gottesdienstes  he  declares 
emphatically,  "The  Christian  congregation  should  never  assem- 
ble, except  the  Word  be  preached  and  prayer  be  offered,  even 
though  it  be  very  brief.  Therefore  when  the  Word  of  God  is 
not  preached,  it  were  better  there  should  be  neither  singing,  nor 
reading,  nor  meeting."  In  1524,  in  writing  against  Carlstadt  he 
gives  preeminence  to  the  Word.  Upon  this  depends  primarily 
for  him  the  entire  genuine  process  of  intercourse  between  man 
and  God,  and  thus  also  distinctively  salvation  itself,  as  tendered 
from  above,  and  not  as  an  achievement  to  be  attained  by  efforts 
originating  within  ourselves. 

In  1522  he  declares  that  in  everything  bearing  upon  the  plan 
of  salvation  and  the  relation  of  the  soul  to  God,  absolutely  "noth- 
ing dare  be  added' '  to  the  Word  of  Scripture,  and  yet  the  Divine 
worship  appointed  by  God  in  His  Word  has  also  an  external, 
earthly,  local  embodiment  which  is,  just  because  of  its  unessen- 
tial character,  variable  and  left  to  the  choice  of  Christian  liberty. 
Beyond  the  Scriptures  nothing  must  be  appointed,  or,  if  anything 
be  appointed,  it  must  be  regarded  as  voluntary  and  not  necessary; 
all  things  which  Christ  has  not  appointed  are  voluntary  and  un- 
necessary, and  therefore  not  injurious.  Here  he  lays  down  the 
principle  of  liberty  in  worship.  This  principle  he  follows  out 
again  and  again  in  all  of  his  writings. 

This  principle  is  treated  of  more  fully  in  his  Address  to  the 
Christian  Nobility  (1520)  where  he  says  this  liberty  must  not  be 
abused.     Many  want  to  be  free,  and  as  Christians  only  in  despis- 


i^uther's  liturgicai.  writings.  31 

ing  ceremonies,  traditions  and  human  laws:  whereas  the  opposing 
party  seek  to  attain  salvation  only  by  observance.  The  Christian 
must  in  his  conduct  concerning  outward  ceremonies  always  have 
in  view  two  different  classes  of  men.  One  the  hardened  ceremo- 
nialist,  the  other  the  weak  in  faith.  To  deal  with  the  former  we 
must  do  just  the  opposite  and  the  latter  we  must  bear  with  until 
they  are  properly  instructed.  Wlien  Carlstadt  in  his  dictatorial 
manner  sought  to  enforce  certain  laws  in  worship,  L,uther  op- 
posed him  forcibly.  "We  are,"  says  he,  "free  and  Christian 
and  can  therefore  elevate  the  sacrament  or  not  elevate  it,  howev- 
er, wherever,  whenever  and  as  long  as  we  please."  For  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  opposing  Carlstadt  he  retained  the  custom  at 
Wittenberg.  He  took  the  same  stand  on  other  ceremonies.  In 
his  sermon  Wider  die  Himmlischen  propheten  (i 524-1 525)  he 
says  again,  "we  have  Christian  liberty  to  observe  the  Mosaic  laws, 
but  that  all  this  should  be  accommodated  to  the  people  amongst 
whom  we  live." 

In  his  Address  to  the  Christian  Nobility  he  also  lays  down 
the  principle  on  which  he  bases  his  reasons  for  not  abolishing  cer- 
emonies. "We  cannot  live  on  earth  without  them,"  he  declares. 
"Hot,  impetuous  youth  requires  bonds,  every  one  needs  chastise- 
ment." He  illustrates  this  by  referring  to  the  fact  that  Christian 
poverty  incurs  danger  in  the  midst  of  wealth,  fidelity  and  faith 
in  the  rush  of  business,  humility  in  enjoyment  of  the  hour,  so 
also  righteousness  of  faith  is  endangered  in  the  multiplicity  of 
ceremonies.  Nevertheless,  we  must  live  and  move,  as  in  the 
midst  of  wealth,  business,  etc.,  so  also  amid  ceremonies,  i.  e.,  in 
constant  danger.  And  now  he  declares  there  will  be  a  time  when 
such  ceremonies  are  no  longer  necessary.  They  are  as  the  scaf- 
folding which  artisans  and  mechanics  use  in  erecting  a  building. 
When  the  building  is  completed  the  scaffolding  is  laid  aside;  so 
when  the  Christian  has  reached  a  perfect  faith  ceremonies  are  no 
longer  necessary. 

He  lays  down  the  principle  that  worship  should  be  for  the 
sake  of  helping  one  another.  In  the  Sermon  von  der  Messe,  he 
says,  "We  may  not  be  at  all  times  the  same;  therefore  the  Mass 
has  been  instituted,  that  we  may  assemble  with  one  another  and 
together  offer  this  sacrifice."  Here,  he  says,  one  stirs  up,  moves, 
inflames  the  other  to  earnestly  press  near  to  God,  and  we  receive 
the  things  for  which  we  ask.     The  pastor  does  not  utter  the  ap- 


62  MEMOIRS. 

pointed  words  by  himself,  but  he  is  our  mouthpiece  and  we  all 
unitedly  speak  from  the  heart  with  him. 

REASONS   FOR   A   CHANGE   IN   WORSHIP. 

We  might  mention  four  reasons  for  a  change  in  worship  ne- 
cessitated by  the  change  in  doctrine.*  The  first  is  found  in  the 
supreme  normative  authority  of  the  Word.  According  to  the 
Roman  practice  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  was  a  good  work  and 
justified  the  sinner.  There  was  therefore  no  room  for  the  Word, 
and  the  Word,  of  necessity,  was  crowded  out.  The  Word  must 
have  the  first  place  in  worship,  according  to  lyUther,  for  it  is  the 
faith  of  the  individual  that  justifies  him.  As  early  as  1516  lyU- 
ther  declares  that  the  hearing  of  the  Word  is  a  far  greater  neces- 
sity than  hearing  the  Mass.  In  his  Sermon  von  der  Messe,  he 
says,  "The  central  place  of  the  worship  and  the  sacrament  is  ac- 
corded to  the  Word.  The  Word  is  the  principal  part  of  the 
Mass."  The  outward  observance  without  the  Word  is  of  no  ac- 
count to  LfUther,  and  in  all  his  liturgical  writings  this  is  one  of 
the  chief  reasons  for  changing  the  form  of  worship.  The  Word 
must  be  given  the  preeminence. 

The  second  reason  was  one  growing  out  of  the  first.  Wor- 
ship is  the  approach  of  the  individual  soul  to  God,  therefore  the 
basis  of  worship  is  not  on  Divine  appointment  as  Rome  held,  but 
on  the  activity  of  the  worshippers'  faith.  The  mediation  of  an 
ofiiciating  priest  is  not  necessary.  The  individual  must  go  before 
God  himself;  he  must  pray,  confess  and  give  thanks  for  himself. 
The  conclusion  from  this  is  inevitable:  if  the  individual  must  go 
before  God  himself,  there  is  no  need  of  a  mediating  priesthood. 
In  the  Sermon  von  der  Messe  Luther  says,  "The  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass  is  effected,  not  through  the  priest,  but  through  faith  of 
every  Christian  believer.  All  are  real  parsons  who  believe  Christ 
is  a  minister  for  them  before  God,  and  who  offer  their  prayers, 
their  praise,  their  wants,  and  themselves,  and  then  receive  the 
sacrament  and  testament  bodily  and  spiritually.  All  are  priests, 
man  and  woman,  young  and  old,  learned  or  laity,  there  is  here 
no  difference,  unless  it  be  in  the  measure  of  faith."  He  declares 
the  same  thing  in  his  tract  on  the  Abrogation  of  the  Private 
Mass. 

In  the  Babylonian  Captivity  he  says,  '  'The  minister  differs 

*  See  Chi-istian  Worship,  Its  Principles  and  Forms.     Chap.  VI. 


LUTHER' vS  LITURGICAL  WRITINGS.  33 

nothing  from  the  laity  except  in  administrating  the  Word  and 
Sacraments,"  and  again,  "Baptized  persons  are  all  priests." 
Here,  too,  he  defines  the  office  of  the  diaconate,  which  is  not  for 
reading  the  lections,  but  to  distribute  the  alms  of  the  Church  to 
the  poor. 

The  abrogation  of  the  priesthood  is  the  abrogation  of  the 
sacrifices  and  therefore  he  would  change  the  worship  because  of 
that  abomination  of  Rome,  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  Worship 
nuist  be  participated  in  by  the  people.  There  can  be  no  proper 
celebration  of  the  communion  except  there  be  communicants  who 
actually  receive  the  sacrament,  "for  the  sacrament  is  a  commun- 
ion of  all  saints,  hence  its  name  Comjminio,  that  is,  communion, 
and  in  Latin  Comimtnicare  means  to  receive  the  Sacrament,  or  as 
we  say  in  German,  to  go  to  the  vSacrament.  It  means  that  Christ 
and  His  saints  are  spiritually,  all  one  body."  "To  make  a  sac- 
rifice out  of  this  is  to  change  the  very  substance  of  the  sacrament 
and  institution  of  Christ." 

To  purifj'  worship  the  idea  of  sacrifice  in  the  Mass  had  to  be 
overthrown.  And  the  purified  Mass  to  lyUther  is  reall}-  a  part  of 
the  Gospel,  in  fact,  a  summary  of  the  latter,  and  all  sermons 
should  be  nothing  else  but  the  exposition  of  the  Mass.  The 
Mass  is  more  thoroughly  Christian  under  any  circumstance  the 
more  nearly  it  resembles  the  first  celebration,  which  was  eminent- 
ly simple  without  any  pomp  and  ceremonies. 

Luther's  fourth  reason  for  changing  the  worship  is  found  in 
the  true  teaching  in  regard  to  the  Eucharist.  He  says  it  is  not 
an  officium  of  man,  but  a  beneficium  for  man.  Christ  is  not  sac- 
rificed in  the  Eucharist:  He  is  given  and  applied.  The  worship- 
per is  not  a  donor  in  the  Eucharistic  Service,  but  is  the  recipient 
of  the  Divine  gift.  The  benefits  of  the  Sacrament  are  not  given 
except  through  remembrance  of  Christ  and  faith  in  these  words, 
"Given  and  shed  for  you  and  for  many  for  the  remission  of  sins." 
This  led  to  a  complete  change  in  the  entire  Communion  Service. 
It  was  this  doctrine  that  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
Mass  and  the  introduction  of  an  Evangelical  Mass. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  root  of  all  the  reasons  for  a  change  in 
worship  lay  in  the  purified  doctrine  of  the  Word,  and  we  might 
sum  up  all  of  Luther's  conclusions  by  declaring  that  all  changes 
were  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  present  the  Word  purely  to 
the  hearts  and  minds  of  the  worshippers. 


34  MEMOIRS. 

EXTERNAL    ORDINANCES. 

Luther,  although  retaining  ceremonies,  shows  somewhat  of 
a  contemptuous  indifference  to  all  ordinances.  This  indifference 
grows  as  he  grows  older,  and  in  his  later  writings  he  is  very  out- 
spoken for  the  destruction  of  all  outward  observances,  although 
he  does  not  in  every  case  deem  this  advisable  on  account  of  the 
weak. 

In  1520  in  his  sermon  "Von  Guten  Werken,"  he  says  the 
Christian  is  free  from  all  external  ordinances.  Even  the  out- 
ward observance  of  Sunday,  for  bodily  rest,  is  for  him  not 
expressly  commanded.  All  days  are  holy  days.  All  days  are 
working  days.  And  here  he  presents  the  idea  too,  that  the  spe- 
cial observances  are  only  for  the  sake  of  the  immature  laity  and 
working  people,  in  order  that  they  may  come  and  hear  the  Word 
of  God. 

lyUther  acknowledges  the  importance  of  external  customs  or 
modes  of  administrations.  But  for  him  they  have  no  sanctifying 
power  and  have  not  been  instituted  by  God,  as  he  says  they  "are 
outwardly  necessary  and  useful,  are  proper  and  becoming,  and 
produce  an  orderly  discipline  and  Church  economy."  They  are 
the  orderly  and  approved  forms  in  which  the  dispensing  and  ad- 
ministration of  the  means  of  grace  in  the  congregation,  prayer, 
etc.,  are  to  be  clothed.  He  also  enumerates  the  chief  external 
customs  as,  the  appointed  order  of  Divine  worship,  the  celebra- 
tion of  particular  days  and  hours,  the  use  of  the  altar,  priestly 
vestments,  etc.,  and  further,  for  example,  as  the  observance  of 
fasting,  as  a  religious  ceremony,  by  the  congregation  at  large. 
But  all  these  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  essential  or  binding  on  the 
congregation . 

Often  does  the  Reformer  lay  particular  stress  on  the  fact  that 
freedom  is  allowed  in  these  questions  of  priestly  robes  and 
ordinances,  and  in  the  Babylonian  Captivity  he  afl&rms  that  the 
Church  has  no  right  to  impose  laws  and  take  captive  our  liberty. 
Nor  has  the  Church  a  right  to  impose  fasts,  prayers,  and  ordi- 
nances. "Neither  Pope  nor  Bishop,  nor  any  man  has  the  right 
to  impose  a  single  syllable  upon  a  Christian  man,  unless  it  be 
with  his  consent." 

The  Pastor  or  Bishop  is  not  allowed  to  appoint  these  observ- 
ances, the  Church  must.  Necessity  itself  requires  that  they 
should  be  diverse  and  suited  to  the  different  classes  of  people,  but 


i^uther's  liturgical  writings.  35 

once  the  Church  does  lay  down  ordinances,  individual  believers 
should  submit  as  long  as  they  are  wholesome.  And  yet,  if  the 
weak  will  not  submit,  there  must  be  no  compulsion  to  make  them 
do  so,  for  all  things  which  adorn  with  the  ceremonies,  as  vest- 
ments, postures,  fasts,  festivals — are  secular  matters,  under  the 
supervision  of  reason. 

That  ceremonies  are  useful  L,uther  admits  in  a  letter  to  John 
Sutel  (1531).  He  says  "Ceremonies  are  not  necessary  to  salva- 
tion but  they  are  useful  to  move  slow  minds.  Concerning  the 
ceremonies  of  the  Mass  which  are  altars,  vestments,  candles,  etc., 
if  they  are  not  deposed,  they  are  able  to  be  observed,  just  as  we 
do  at  Wittenberg.  For  children  and  fools  they  are  necessary,  for 
whom  they  are  to  be  observed."  In  1523  he  writes  that  it 
is  not  possible  to  live  in  the  Church  of  God  without  ceremonies, 
but  he  makes  no  plea  for  uniformity  in  this.  In  an  earlier  letter 
written  to  John  Sutel  (1524)  he  declares  that  it  is  not  necessary 
all  should  be  one  in  ceremonies,  but  that  they  should  be  one  in 
faith  and  the  Word.  Let  the  ceremonies  be  varied  so  the  indi- 
vidual subjectivity  can  speak  its  own  religion.  And  in  1530  to 
the  Elector  John  he  says  in  substance  the  same  thing.  In  1545 
he  writes  to  Prince  George  of  Anhalt,  "I  am  not  able  to  give  the 
advice  that  every  place,  everywhere  there  should  be  uniform  cer- 
emonies." In  this  letter  he  takes  a  more  advanced  step  and  says, 
"I  am  im}jatient  of  even  necessary  ceremonies,  but  hostile  to 
those  which  are  not  necessary,  for  it  is  easy  for  ceremonies  to 
grow  into  laws  and  once  established  as  laws,  they  soon  become 
snares  for  the  conscience." 

When  we  turn  to  the  chief  liturgical  writings  of  Luther  we 
find  practically  the  same  thoughts  expressed  there.  In  his  Fovyn- 
ula  Misscc  he  says,  "External  rites,  even  though  we  cannot  do 
without  them,  as  we  cannot  do  without  food  or  drink,  neverthe- 
less do  not  commend  us  to  God Vestments  are  permitted 

to  be  used  in  liberty,  providing  pomp  and  luxury  be  absent.  For 
neither  are  you  more  acceptable  if  you  consecrate  in  vestments, 
nor  less  acceptable  if  you  consecrate  without  vestments.  For 
vestments  do  not  commend  us  to  God." 

In  his  German  Mass  he  speaks  very  particularly  of  the  rea- 
son for  having  a  form  of  worship,  and  also  for  all  having  one 
form.  "We  should  in  love,  as  Paul  teaches,  endeavor  to  be  of 
one  mind,  and  in  the  best  way  possible  to  be  of  like  fonns  and 


36  MEMOIRS. 

ceremonies,  just  as  all  Christians  have  one  baptism,  one  sacra- 
ment, and  to  no  person  is  given  of  God  a  special  one.  .  .  .  Yet 
I  will  not  ask  those  who  already  have  their  good  order  of  Service, 
or  who  through  God's  grace  can  make  a  better  one,  to  let  it  go 
and  yield  to  us It  would  be  excellent  if  in  every  princi- 
pality Divine  Service  were  conducted  in  the  same  form,  and  the 
surrounding  towns  and  villages  directly  shared  with  a  city." 

"We  institute  such  Orders  not  for  the  sake  of  those  who  al- 
ready are  Christians,  for  they  need  none  of  these  things,  for 
which  also  one  does  not  live;  but  they  only  live  for  the  sake  of 
us,  who  are  not  Christians,  that  they  may  make  us  Christians.  .  . 
We  must  have  such  Orders  for  the  sake  of  those  who  are  yet  to 
become  Christians  or  to  become  stronger.  .  .  .  But  most  of  all  it 
is  done  on  account  of  the  simple  and  the  young,  who  are  to  be 
and  must  be  exercised  daily  and  educated  in  the  Scriptures  and 
God's  W^ord  .  .  .  for  the  sake  of  such  we  must  read,  write,  sing, 
preach,  and  poetize,  and,  if  it  would  be  helpful  and  advantageous 
thereto,  I  would  let  all  the  bells  ring,  and  all  the  organs  play  and 
everything  sound  that  can  sound." 

In  this  connexion  let  us  also  see  what  lyUther  thought  of  the 
Church  Festivals  which  also  belong  to  the  outward  observances. 
In  his  Von  Ordnung  Gottesdienst  he  would  abolish  the  festivals 
of  all  the  saints — in  fact,  all  but  five  festivals  are  abolished;  the 
Purification  of  the  Virgin,  the  Annunciation,  the  Nativity  of  our 
Lord,  and  the  Festivals  of  John  the  Baptist  and  Paul  remain. 
On  account  of  the  idolatrous  worship  he  wished  "that  every  fes- 
tival be  abolished,  and  that  the  Sabbath  alone  be  retained." 

In  the  Formula  Missce  he  adds  to  this  list  the  Circumcision 
of  Christ,  Epiphany,  Easter  and  Pentecost.  In  the  German 
Mass  he  adds  Michaelmas,  and  allows  the  fasts  of  Palm  Sunday 
and  Holy  Week  to  remain,  and  also  observes  Good  Friday  as  a 
holy-day.  Therefore  we  have  retained  the  following  festivals: 
The  Nativity,  Circumcision  of  Christ,  Epiphany,  Conversion  of 
Paul,  Purification  of  the  Virgin,  the  Annunciation,  Day  of  John 
the  Baptist,  Easter,  Holy  Week,  Good  Friday,  Pentecost  and 
Michaelmas. 

THE    ORDER    OF    WORSHIP. 

We  have  now  reached  the  point  where  we  can  consider  the 
Order  of  worship  as  it  was  arranged  and  prepared  by  L,uther. 


LUTHER'S   LITURGICAL  WRITINGS.  37 

These  Orders  give  a  concensus  of  all  his  liturgical  writings  and 
are  the  practical  embodiment  of  all  his  principles  of  worship. 

In  his  letter  to  the  chapter  of  All  Saints  at  Wittenberg 
(1523)  he  gives  his  first  outline  of  a  renovated  Service.  In  this 
writing  he  demands,  in  the  first  place,  that  all  who  are  not  fit 
persons  to  conduct  the  Mass  be  excluded,  for  the  Mass  is  not  a 
sacrifice  or  work.  In  the  second  place  all  mercenary  INIasses  and 
vigils  are  to  be  abolished  and  no  consideration  is  to  be  taken  of 
the  weak  in  this.  In  the  third  place,  the  morning  and  evening 
hours  as  the  Completorium  are  to  remain,  but  are  to  be  purged. 
And  in  the  place  of  the  Masses  at  the  morning  hours,  while  using 
the  old  form  of  worship,  a  lesson  is  to  be  read  after  the  Te  Deuvt 
Laudaimis  from  the  Old  Testament,  with  an  exhortation  and  in- 
terpretation. In  the  evening  this  lesson  is  to  be  from  the  New 
Testament  before  the  Magnificat .  In  the  fourth  place,  presents, 
which  were  given  to  those  present  at  Masses  and  vigils,  may  now 
be  given  to  those  present  at  the  lections.  In  the  fifth  place,  the 
minor  chorus  is  to  be  abolished  as  it  leads  to  idolatrous  worship. 

"The  letter  contains  Luther's  entire  system  in  epitome.  It 
expresses  with  distinctness,  and  seeks  to  make  a  practical  appli- 
cation of  each  of  the  great  evangelical  principles  which  has  come 
to  him  through  years  of  devout  study  of  the  Divine  Word,  and 
had  been  tested  by  his  own  experience."* 

The  first  distinctively  liturgical  writing  in  which  Luther  pro- 
vides forms  for  conducting  worship  was  the  tract  "Von  der  Ord- 
nung  des  Gottesdienst  in  der  Gemeine"  (1523).  As  Jakoby 
says,  "This  writing  prepares  the  way  for  the  Formula  MisscB  and 
is  the  forerunner  of  that."  It  provides  especially  for  the  daily 
worship  and  makes  little  change  in  the  Sunday  Services. 

VON    DER    ORDNUNG   DES   GOTTESDIENST   IN    DER   GEMEINE. 

The  principle  on  which  he  bases  his  right  to  prepare  such  a 
tract  is  stated  in  the  preface.  Divine  worship  has  a  noble  Chris- 
tian origin,  so  has  the  office  of  preaching.  But  as  the  office  of 
preaching  has  been  corrupted,  so  has  the  worship.  Therefore  as 
the  office  of  preaching  is  being  brought  again  to  its  true  position, 
so  also  must  be  Divine  worship. 

We  will  briefly  sketch  this  writing.  There  are  three  great 
abuses  in  Divine  worship.     The  first  that  the  Word  of  God  has 

*    Christian  Worship,     p.    154. 


38  MEMOIRS. 

been  silenced.  The  second,  that  many  unchristian  fables  and  lies 
came  in  in  consequence.  The  third  that  such  service  is  to  be 
performed  as  a  work  with  which  to  secure  God's  grace  and  salva- 
tion. 

To  reform  these  abuses  the  first  thing  to  know  (and  here  is 
the  keystone  to  I^uther's  idea  of  worship)  is  that  "the  Christian 
congregation  should  never  assemble  except  the  Word  of  God  is 
preached  .  .  .  .  for  where  God's  Word  is  not  preached  it  were 
better  neither  to  sing,  nor  to  read,  nor  to  assemble." 

As  for  the  worship  itself.  Christians  should  assemble  every 
morning,  when  a  lesson  is  to  be  read.  Then  follows  an  explana- 
tion. This  lesson  should  be  from  the  Old  Testament,  one  book 
at  a  time.  After  the  reading  and  explanation  have  lasted  a  half 
an  hour  or  longer  then  come  prayers  and  praise,  for  which  a 
Psalm  or  Responsory  or  Antiphon  may  be  used.  In  the  evening 
the  people  should  assemble  again  when  the  same  order  is  to  be 
observed,  but  the  lesson  should  be  from  the  New  Testament. 
Another  service  may  be  held  after  dinner. 

On  Sunday  the  Mass  and  Vespers  are  sung  as  formerly  but. 
at  both  Services  the  Word  must  be  preached,  on  the  Gospel  in  the 
morning,  and  upon  the  Epistle  or  some  Book,  in  the  evening. 
The  daily  Masses  are  abolished,  but  if  some  one  desires  the  Sac- 
rament a  Mass  may  be  held.  The  singing  of  the  Sunday  Masses 
remains,  but  the  pastor  shall  regulate  it  and  see  to  it  that  the 
Word  is  read  and  explained.  The  Antiphons,  Responsories  and 
Collects,  the  legends  of  saints  and  the  cross  are  to  be  omitted  un- 
til they  are  purified.  The  chief  thing  in  all  is  that  the  Word 
may  be  preached — "It  were  better  all  be  abandoned  rather  than 
the  Word,  and  there  is  nothing  better  than  the  Word." 

In  this  writing  Luther  does  not  take  the  advanced  step 
which  we  would  expect  him  to  do.  He  makes  haste  slowly  and 
lays  the  foundation  for  greater  changes  in  the  future.  Jakoby 
draws  the  following  conclusions  from  the  study  of  all  parts  of 
this  Order  as  a  summary  of  its  teachings:  i.)  "The  Service  is 
to  be  purified,  not  abolished.  2.)  The  Word  of  God  is  the  cen- 
tral point  of  the  Service.  3.)  The  true  understanding  is  received 
through  the  medium  of  the  expounded  Scriptures.  4.)  He  dis- 
tinguishes what  the  objective  norm  of  the  Word  opposes. 
5.)  The  appropriation  of  the  Word  demands  a  multiplicity  of 
necessary  services,  to  prepare  for  the  Sunday  and  weekly  Ser- 


LUTHER'S   LITURGICAL   WRITINGS.  39 

vices.  6.)  These  last  show  only  a  small  number  of  Churchly 
Orders  for  they  are  devoted  to  the  Service  of  God's  Word  and 
worship  and  continually  draw  from  them.  7.)  The  celebration 
of  the  lyord's  Supper  is  limited  to  Sunday,  if  there  is  not  a  par- 
ticular wish  to  cause  its  celebration  on  another  day.  8.)  Saints 
days  are  not  permitted.* 

It  was  in  December,  1523,  when  the  greatest  of  Luther's  li- 
turgical writings  appeared  addressed  to  Nicholas  Hausman,  Pas- 
tor of  the  people  of  Zwickau  at  the  Church  of  the  Swan.  It  was 
entitled 

FORMULA    MISS^ 

et  cominunionis  pro  ecclesia  Wittenbergensi.  This  writing  provides 
for  a  lyatin  Evangelical  Mass,  as  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  a  Mass 
in  the  vernacular. 

That  IvUther  was  a  Reformer  and  not  an  innovator  appears 
very  manifest  in  this  writing.  The  changes  he  made  were  very 
gradual  for,  as  he  says  in  the  introduction  to  the  Formula  Missce 
"I  always  hesitated  and  feared  on  account  of  persons  weak  in 
faith,  from  whom  the  old  and  familiar  mode  of  addressing  God 
cannot  suddenly  be  taken  away  in  favor  of  a  new  and  untried 
mode. ' '  But  now  many  minds  have  been  prepared  by  an  evan- 
gelical Gospel  for  an  evangelical  Service,  the  time  has  come  to 
"treat  of  a  godly  form  for  saying  Mass  (as  they  call  it)  and  for 
administrating  Communion."  His  work  is  only  to  purify  what 
is  in  use  and  not  to  abolish  it. 

Following  this  introduction  Luther  gives  an  interesting  study 
of  the  development  and  growth  of  the  Service  in  the  ancient 
Church.  He  traces  the  corruptions  which  have  entered  the  Ser- 
vice, culminating  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  As  this  writing  is 
not  a  doctrinal  treatise  he  avoids  all  reference  to  the  Mass  as  a 
good  work  treating  it  only  as  a  sacrament,  and  indicating  the  rite 
according  to  which  he  thinks  it  ought  to  be  used. 

THE  SERVICE. 

First.  The  Introits  are  allowed  to  remain,  although  the  en- 
tire Psalm  is  preferred.  Second.  The  Kyrie  Eleison  remains, 
with  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  following  it.  These  may  be  omitted 
as  the  pastor  desires.     Third.     The   Collect   remains,  but  only 

•  Lilurgik  der  Rfformaloren.     p.   275. 


40  MEMOIRS. 

one,  and  after  that  follows  the  Epistle.  He  hopes  to  see  the 
Epistles  changed  for  there  is  too  little  faith  in  them.  Fourth, 
The  Gradual  of  two  verses  together  with  the  Hallelujah,  or  either 
may  be  smig.  And  here  IvUther  makes  the  statement  that  "it  is 
not  right  to  distinguish  Lent  and  Holy  Week  or  Good  Friday  by 
rites  which  differ  from  other  festivals."  Fifth.  Sequences  and 
Proses  are  abolished.  Those  about  the  Holy  Spirit:  Sancti  Spir- 
itus  and  Veni  Sancti  Spiritus  may  be  used.  Sixth.  The  Gospel^ 
in  which  candles  and  incense  are  permitted.  Seventh.  The  Ni- 
ce7ie  Creed  may  be  used  after  which  comes  preaching  in  the  ver- 
nacular. It  makes  no  difference  whether  preaching  comes  here 
or  before  the  introduction  of  the  Mass.  Eighth.  KW.  offertories 
which  sound  of  oblation,  together  with  the  entire  Canon  are 
abolished. 

The  Conimu7iio7i .  i . )  During  the  Creed  or  after  the  sermon 
the  bread  and  wine  are  prepared  for  the  blessing  by  the  accus- 
tomed rite.  Pure,  unmixed  wine  is  recommended.  2.)  The 
Preface.  After  the  preparation  of  the  elements  the  following  is 
the  order:  The  Lord  be  with  you.  Response:  And  with  thy 
spirit.  Lift  up  your  hearts.  Response:  We  lift  them  up  unto 
the  Lord.  Let  us  give  thanks  to  our  Lord  God.  Response:  "It 
is  meet  and  just.  It  is  truly  meet  and  just,  right  and  salutary 
that  we  always  and  everywhere  give  thanks  unto  Thee,  Holy 
God,  Father  Omnipotent,  Eternal  God,  through  Jesus  Christ  our 
Lord . "  3 . )  The  Consecration  is  preceded  by  a  brief  pause.  Then 
the  words  of  Christ  used  in  the  institution  are  repeated.  4.)  The 
Sanctus  follows,  and  during  the  Benedictus  the  bread  and  cup  are 
elevated  on  account  of  the  weak  and  with  an  evangelical  signifi- 
cance. 5.)  The  Lord' s  Prayer  follows,  and  immediately  after  it 
comes  the  Pax  Domini  with  the  pastor  facing  the  people.  6.) 
During  the  distribution  the  Agnus  Dei  is  sung.  7.)  It  is  per- 
mitted to  chant  the  Communion,  but  the  closing  prayer  is  changed. 
The  Benedicamus  Domino  together  with  the  Alleluia  follows, 
8.)  The  Be7iediction,  either  the  Aaronic  or  the  96th  Psalm  con- 
cludes the  Service.  The  administration  of  the  elements  is  left  to 
the  option  of  the  pastor.  He  may  bless  both  consecutively,  or 
bless  the  bread  and  after  its  distribution  the  cup. 

Other  directions  follow  in  reference  to  the  examination  of 
communicants  so  that  the  unworthy  are  not  admitted.  Luther 
advises  that  all  should  stand  in  one  place,  for  on  this  account  the 


i^uther's  i^iturgicai,  writings.  41 

altar  and  chancel  were  devised.  Private  confessions  are  allowed 
also,  and  the  Communion  is  to  be  in  both  forms.  Hymns  in  the 
vernacular  are  to  be  used  and  as  many  as  possible,  as  there  is  a 
lack  in  spiritual  hymns,  he  suggests  two  or  three. 

MATINS  AND  VESPERS 
remain  for  other  festival  days,  but  the  Mass  is  left  for  Sunday. 
The  only  revision  would  be  to  limit  the  number  of  Psalms  to  three 
for  each  Service  and  but  one  or  two  Responsories.  The  lessons 
are  from  the  entire  Scriptures  divided  into  parts.  In  addition  to 
this,  daily  lessons,  one  for  the  morning  in  the  New  or  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  another  for  the  evening  in  the  Old  Testament,  are  ap- 
pointed. 

This  Formula  Missce  is  nothing  more  than  a  revision  of  the 
Roman  Mass  ritual.  Jakoby*  characterizes  it  as  follows:  "It  is 
not  a  liturgical  construction  that  here  holds  our  attention,  much 
more  a  liturgical  rebuilding,  which  proceeds  from  the  criticism  of 
given  materials.  In  this  Luther  lays  down  the  rule  of  Evangel- 
ical belief.  He  distinguishes  in  the  worship  of  the  Roman 
Church  three  separate  parts:  the  one  he  destroys,  the  second  he 
tolerates,  of  the  third  he  approves.  He  destroys  that  which 
hung  together  with  the  sacrifice,  which  appears  to  him  as  an 
abomination;  he  tolerates  that  which  has  not  sprung  from  an 
evangelical  spirit,  but  in  its  ground- thought  does  not  antagonize 
it;  he  tolerates  the  abuses,  which  dangers  can  be  overcome  b}^  the 
pastor;  he  approves  the  venerable  traditions,  which  represented 
the  Christian  consciousness  when  the  spirit  of  the  Apostles  was 
very  little  estranged.  He  laid  down  three  principles,  of  which 
the  one  was  the  ethical,  the  second  the  psychologic- aesthetic,  the 
last  the  political  side  of  the  worship.  He  moves  for  the  freedom 
of  worship,  he  will  not  have  it  as  a  godly  decree,  but  he  looks 
upon  it  as  the  outcome  of  the  Christian  knowledge;  he  censures 
the  overloading  of  the  worship  with  prayers  and  songs,  which 
cause  weariness  and  satiety;  he  laid  down,  finallj^  the  remaining 
constituent  parts  of  the  worship,  the  changing  elements,  over  the 
insertion  or  withdrawal  of  which  the  bishop  is  to  decide." 

DIE    DEUTSCHE    MESSE. 

lyUther's  last  purely  liturgical  writing  appeared  in  1526  under 
the  title  "Die  Deutsche  Messe  und  Ordnung  des  Gottesdienstes." 

*  Liturgik  der  Refortnatorcn.     p.    270. 


42  MEMOIRS. 

Its  great  importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  states  the  great  prin- 
ciples of  evangelical  worship  more  clearly  than  the  Formula  Mis- 
sce  and  is  far  more  independent  of  the  Roman  ritual.  This  brings 
the  sermon  to  its  proper  place  as  the  principal  factor  in  evangel- 
ical Divine  worship. 

In  every  Lutheran  or  Evangelical  Kirch  en  ordnung,  either 
the  Formula  Misses  or  the  German  Mass  was  the  basis.  Where 
there  was  the  greater  attachment  to  the  Roman  ritual,  the  former 
was  used,  and  where  there  was  the  greater  independence,  the  lat- 
ter. The  chief  element  of  the  German  Mass  lies  in  its  liberty. 
In  publishing  it  Luther  had  no  desire  to  change  the  Formula 
Missce,  but  he  wishes  the  two  to  go  together  hand  in  hand.  The 
purpose  in  sending  forth  another  form  of  Service  was  to  help  the 
uneducated  laity  who  could  not  understand  Latin.  He  had  in 
view  a  third  form  which  was  only  to  be  used  by  Christians  and 
not  to  be  celebrated  publicl3^  This  form  would  be  very  simple, 
"no  need  of  elaborate  singing.  Here  also  baptism  and  the  sac- 
rament might  be  celebrated  in  a  short,  good  form,  and  everything 
be  directed  to  the  Word,  and  to  prayer,  and  to  love."  Luther 
never  published  such  a  form,  but  following  his  directions  Count 
Von  Zinzendorf  set  forth  a  Service  for  the  Moravians. 

In  the  introduction  to  the  German  Mass  Luther  says  the 
first  thing  necessary  in  German  worship  is  a  good,  simple,  plain, 
easy  catechism.  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  instruct  in  the  Word 
and  properly  prepare  for  Divine  Services. 

PREACHING. 

The  principal  part  of  worship  is  preaching  and  teaching 
God's  Word.  That  it  may  be  preached  often  on  Sundays,  the 
Epistles  and  Gospels  remain,  and  there  are  three  sermons.  Ear- 
ly at  six  o'clock,  mostly  for  the  sake  of  servants,  one  preaches 
on  the  Epistles.  Then  an  Antiphon,  and  the  Te  Deum  Lauda- 
vius  or  the  Benedictus,  with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Collects  and  Ben- 
edicamus  Domino.  At  the  Mass  at  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  one 
preaches  on  the  Gospel.  In  the  afternoon  at  Vespers,  before  the 
Magnificat,  one  preaches  on  the  Old  Testament  in  regular  order. 
The  Gospels  and  Epistles  are  retained,  although  there  is  liberty 
to  preach  consecutively  on  the  entire  Books  of  the  Evangel- 
ists. 


xuther's  liturgical  writings.  43 

the  daily  services. 

Here  the  laity,  if  they  desire  more  preaching  than  the  Sun- 
day Services  afford,  can  get  it.  Mondaj^s  and  Tuesdays  are 
devoted  to  the  catechism.  Wednesday  a  German  lecture  on 
Matthew.  Thursday  and  Friday,  the  days'  lessons  on  the  Epis- 
tles, and  Saturday  the  Evangelist  John  is  studied.  All  of  these 
services  with  the  exception  of  Saturday  are  early  services, 

THE    DAILY    SERVICES    FOR    SCHOOLS. 

'Every  morning  before  the  lesson  for  the  day  some  Psalms 
are  sung  in  Latin.  Afterward  two  or  three  read  a  chapter  in 
Latin  from  the  New  Testament.  Then  another  reads  the  same 
chapter  in  German.  Then,  with  an  Antiphon,  they  proceed  to 
the  German  lecture.  After  this  a  German  song,  then  the  Lord's 
Prayer  is  repeated  by  one  silently.  A  Collect  follows  and  the 
service  closes  with  the  Benedicamus  Dommo. 

In  the  evening  some  Vesper  Psalms  are  sung  in  Latin  with 
an  Antiphon  and  hymn.  Then,  as  in  the  morning,  the  Scrip- 
tures are  read,  but  from  the  Old  Testament  instead  of  the  New. 
The  Magnificat  in  the  Latin,  with  an  Antiphon  or  hymn  follows, 
then  the  Lord's  Prayer  silently,  and  the  Collects  with  the  Bene- 
dica7mis. 

THE    SUNDAY  SERVICES. 

Vestments,  altars  and  lights  are  allowed  to  remain,  but  the 
altar  has  not  the  same  significance  as  it  had  and  the  priest  must 
always  turn  himself  to  the  people,  as  without  doubt  Christ  did  at 
the  Last  Supper. 

A  spiritual  song  or  a  German  Psalm  in  primo  tono  opens  the 
Service.  Then  the  Kyrie  in  the  same  tone  thrice.  Then  the 
priest  reads  a  Collect  in  F  of  the  natural  scale,  in  u7iisono,  with 
his  face  to  the  altar.  Then  the  Epistle  in  octavo  tono,  with  his 
face  turned  to  the  people.  A  German  Hymn  follows.  The  Gos- 
pel in  quinto  tono  is  then  read  with  the  face  toward  the  people. 
The  CreedioViov^'s,  sung  in  German,  "Wir  glauben  all  an  einen 
Gott."  Then  comes  the  Sermon  on  the  Gospel  for  the  Sunday. 
After  the  sermon  follows  a  paraphrase  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
an  Exhortation  to  those  about  to  partake  of  the  sacrament.  This 
paraphrase  and  exhortation  may  be  used  in  the  pulpit  after  the 
sermon  or  from  the  altar  as  the  pastor  desires. 


44 


MEMOIRS. 


THE    COMMUNION. 

The  consecration  and  administratio7i  are  as  follows:  the 
Words  of  l7istitutio7i,  "Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  etc.  lyUther  here 
as  in  the  Formula  Missce  prefers  to  administer  the  bread  before 
blessing  the  cup.  While  the  bread  is  being  administered  the 
congregation  sings  the  German  Sanchis  or  the  hymn  "Gott  sei 
Gelobt,"  or  "Jesus  Christus  unser  Heiland."  After  this  the  cup 
is  blessed  and  the  remainder  of  the  above  songs  or  the  Agnus  Dei 
is  sung.  The  elevation  of  the  host  is  retained.  Luther  never 
abolished  this  ceremony  but  after  most  of  the  Churches  had  given 
it  up,  he  allowed  it  to  fall  into  disuse.  Then  follows  the  Collect 
of  thanksgiving,  and  then  the  Benediction. 

The  German  Mass  brings  the  Word  to  the  front  and  is  the 
Service  for  the  common  people.  The  sermon  is  the  chief  part  of 
the  Service  and  the  Communion  order  is  very  simple  and  brief. 
Placing  the  Formula  Misses  and  the  German  Mass  side  by  side  we 
see  the  fundamental  principles  are  the  same,  but  the  execution  of 
the  latter  is  much  more  free: 


FORMULA    MISS^. 

Introit 

Kyrie 

Gloria  in  Excelsis 

Collect 

Epistle 

Gradual  or  Hallelujah 

Gospel 

Creed 

Sermon 

Preface 

Consecration 

Sanctus 

Elevation — Benedictus 

Lord's  Prayer 

Pax  Domini 

Communion — Agnus  Dei 


GERMAN    MASS. 

Song  or  German  Psalm 
Kyrie 

Collect 

Epistle 

German  Hymn 

Gospel 

Creed 

Sermon 

Paraphrase   of  Lord's^Prayer 

and  Exhortation 
Consecration 

Elevation 


German  Sanctus,  during  dis- 
tribution of  bread 

Agnus  Dei,  during  distribu- 
tion of  wine 


LUTHER'S  LITURGICAL  WRITINGS.  45 

Benedicamus  Domini  Collect  of  Thanksgiving 

Benediction  Benediction 

LUTHER'S    TAUFBUECHLEIN. 

This  paper  would  not  be  complete  without  some  reference  to 
Luther's  "Taufbiichlein"  which  takes  the  highest  position 
among  the  various  orders  of  baptism.* 

It  appeared  first  in  1523  and  was  a  translation  of  Romish 
lyiturgies  then  in  use.  I^uther  made  selections  from  various 
lyiturgies  and  permitted  many  ceremonies  that  obscured  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  Sacrament. 

In  1526  his  second  "Taufbiichlein"  appeared  in  which  the 
distinctively  Romish  features  did  not  appear.  This  served  as  a 
foundation  on  which  almost  all  other  forms  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacrament  were  built.  And,  in  fact,  no  I^iturgy,  since 
then  has  been  successful  which  did  not  take  its  rise  from  I^uther's 
formula.  In  this  he  carried  out  the  same  principles  of  conserva- 
tism which  is  seen  in  his  other  forms,  aiming  to  reform  the  order 
and  not  to  introduce  a  new  order.  We  will  not  enter  fully  into 
the  discussion  of  this  work,  for  it  is  beyond  the  object  of  this 
paper. 

At  the  present  time  when  there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to 
lay  great  stress  on  ceremonials,  forms  of  Service,  facing  the  altar, 
etc.,  there  can  be  no  more  stimulating  study  than  to  return  to 
the  writings  of  Luther  and  learn  the  principles  from  which  the 
great  Reformer  worked.  His  principle  of  liberty  in  the  Church 
is  the  only  principle  for  an  evangelical  faith  and  the  only  princi- 
ple which  will  abide. 

When  the  cry,  so  often  heard  in  our  day.  is  raised  "Back  to 
the  faith  of  the  Apostles,"  we  say  "Yea."  But  in  the  worship 
of  God  in  His  sanctuary  we  say,  "Back  to  Luther  who  so  suc- 
cessfully carried  out  the  principles  of  the  Apostles  in  all  his  litur- 
gical writings. ' ' 

Earnest  Anton  Trabert. 
Uniontown,  Pa. 


*  Condensed  from  Memoirs.     Vol.  Ill,  p.  121. 


THE   PERICOPES. 


The  main  Service  of  the  Church,  (Hauptgottesdienst, — Com- 
vmnio)  is  generally  divided  by  liturgical  scholars  into  two  dis- 
tinct groups,  that  of  the  Word,  (Wortgruppe)  and  that  of  the 
Sacrament.  The  former  culminates  in  the  reading  of  certain 
Scripture  lessons,  the  Creed  and  the  exposition  of  the  Word  in 
the  sermon  that  follows  it.  We  do  not  propose  to  take  up  in  this 
paper  the  homiletical  question  whether  the  lessons  appointed  for 
public  reading  on  the  different  Sundays  and  festivals  of  the 
Church  Year  are  to  form  the  regular  texts  for  the  sermon.  We 
simply  deal  with  the  liturgical  aspect  of  a  certain  set  of  lessons 
to  be  used  in  the  Service  itself. 

From  the  earliest  times  we  can  trace  the  practice  of  reading 
the  Word  of  God  in  the  public  Service  of  God's  people.  Moses 
took  the  book  of  the  covenant  and  read  it  in  the  audience  of  the 
people.  (Exodus  24:  27).  Ezra,  the  priest,  brought  the  Law 
before  the  congregation  both  of  men  and  w'omen,  and  all  that 
could  hear  with  understanding  .  .  .  and  he  read  therein  .  .  and 
the  ears  of  all  the  people  were  attentive  unto  the  Book  of  the 
Law.  (Nehemiah  8:  2ff).  The  book  of  the  Acts  tells  us  that 
"the  reading  of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets"  was  the  rule  in  the 
synagogues  of  those  days,  (13:  15);  that  "the  voices  of  the 
Prophets  are  read  every  Sabbath  day,"  (v.  27);  that  "Moses  of 
old  time  hath  in  every  city  them  that  preach  him,  being  read  in 
the  synagogues  every  Sabbath  day,"  (15:  21).  When  the  Lord, 
in  Nazareth,  "went  into  the  synagogue  on  the  Sabbath  day,  and 
stood  up  for  to  read,  there  was  delivered  to  Him  the  book  of  the 
Prophet  Esaias."      (Luke  4:  16,  17). 

At  the  time  of  Christ,  then,  and  His  Apostles,  the  reading 
of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  was  the  universal  custom  in  the 
Jewish  synagogue.  The  exact  time  when  the  reading  of  the 
Prophets  was  added  to  that  of  the  Law,  can  hardly  be  determined. 

(xlvii) 


48  MEMOIRS. 

Some  say,  it  was  at  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (died  164 
before  Christ),  when  the  reading  of  the  Thorah  was  forbidden. 
Certain  it  is,  that  the  reading  of  prophetical  passages  was 
most  appropriate  in  the  synagogues  where  thousands  of  Jews, 
scattered  abroad,  worshipped  God  far  from  the  Temple  Service  in 
Jerusalem.  Thus  their  eyes  were  directed  to  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah  who  should  replace  the  old  Temple  Service  by  its  New 
Testament  fulfillment.  As  the  reading  of  Moses  and  the  Proph- 
ets in  the  synagogue  was  not  continuous,  but  in  sections  ap- 
pointed for  the  different  Sabbath  days,  we  have  practically  in  the 
service  of  the  synagogue  already  a  system  of  Pericopes,  that  is  of 
selected  Scripture  passages  for  public  reading,  called  Parashes 
and  Haphthars. 

It  was  in  the  nature  of  things  that  this  practice  was  carried 
over  into  the  earliest  Christian  Churches.  The  reading  of  the 
Word  of  God  was  first  confined  to  Old  Testament  readings,  as 
long  as  there  was  not  yet  a  canonical  literature  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. Gradually  the  reading  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  was 
added  to  the  Old  Testament  passages,  and  finally  the  latter  were 
in  most  cases  supplanted  by  the  former.  As  long  as  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testament  lessons  were  used  side  by  side,  the  arrange- 
ment was  one  of  a  gradual  climax  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
order:  I^aw,  Prophets,  Epistles,  Gospel.  ''Ut  ex  7ninoribics  a7ii- 
mus  aiidientiutn  ad  majora  sentienda  proficfut,  et  gradatim  ab  into 
ad  stimma  contendat .' '  (Durantus  II,  18,  5.)  The  Apostolic 
Constitutions  appoint  the  following  order  of  lessons:  First,  Pen- 
tateuch, Joshua,  Judges,  Kings,  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
Esther.  Second,  Job,  Solomon,  the  sixteen  Prophets.  Third, 
Acts,  and  Pauline  Epistles.     Fourth,  Gospels. 

While  the  regular  reading  of  the  Old  Testament  lessons  was 
gradually  discontinued  in  most  churches,  it  held  its  place  in  the 
Armenian  and  some  Syriac  Liturgies,  and  in  the  Western  Church 
in  the  Ambrosian,  the  Mozarabic  and  the  Galilean  Iviturgies. 
But  the  general  rule  was:  Two  lessons  in  the  Service  of  the  Mass, 
Apostolus  and  Evangelium,  Epistle  and  Gospel. 

During  the  first  three  or  four  centuries,  however,  as  long  as 
the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  had  not  been  finally  estab- 
lished by  the  Church,  we  find  among  the  passages  for  public 
reading  in  the  Service,  also  selections  from  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers,  such  as  the  Pastor  Hermae,  Apokalypse  of  Peter,  Clem- 


THE    PERICOPES.  49 

ent  of  Rome,  (First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians),  Cyprian,  Chry- 
sostom,  Origeu,  and  others.  The  decrees 'of  the  Councils  of 
Laodicea,  about  362,  Hippo,  393,  and  Carthage,  397,  finally  de- 
termined the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament,  and  ordered  that 
"Prceter  Scripturas  Sacras  nihil  in  Ecclesia  legatiir  sub  7wmine 
Divinarum  Scriphirarum.''  (That  besides  the  Holy  Scriptures 
nothing  should  be  read  in  the  Church  under  the  name  of  Divine 
Scriptures).  The  reading  of  martyrs'  stories,  {Martynim  Histo- 
rice)  was  distinctly  forbidden  by  Pope  Gelasius,  who  died  in  496, 
and  by  the  ConciVmm  Tridlamini,  680. 

In  the  beginning,  the  Scripture  reading  in  public  Service  of 
the  Church  was  the  so-called  Lectio  Contijiua,  continuous  read- 
ing. Sometimes  the  selection  of  the  passage  was  left  to  the 
leader  of  the  Servdce.  From  three  to  four  pages  were  generally 
considered  as  the  measure  of  an  ordinary  lesson.  The  leader  of 
the  Choir  would  indicate  the  end  of  the  lesson  with  the  words 
"Z'w  autem,''  the  reader  being  obliged  to  continue  ''Domine  mis- 
erere nobis,''  the  Choir  responding  with  ''Deo  Gratias.'"  While 
this  might  impress  us  as  rather  an  unceremonious  and  impromptu 
way  of  stopping  the  lesson,  it  was  undoubtedly  more  dignified 
than  the  manner  in  which  Charlemagne  is  said  to  have  brought 
the  lesson  to  an  end,  by  hissing  (!). 

As  the  Church  Year  gradually  began  to  take  shape  in  the 
practice  of  the  Church,  first  with  the  observance  of  certain  festi- 
val days  and  seasons,  such  as  Good  Friday,  Easter,  Pentecost,  it 
was  natural,  that  special  passages  suited  to  those  days  and  sea- 
sons, should  be  selected  and  read  with  more  or  less  regularity. 
This,  in  the  course  of  time,  led  to  the  desire  to  have  fixed  les- 
sons also  for  the  common  Sundays  of  the  Church  Year,  and  thus 
the  system  of  Pericopes,  that  is  of  certain  selected,  fixed  lessons 
throughout  the  Church  Year  established  itself. 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  common  tradition  that  Je- 
rome, at  the  request  of  Pope  Damasus,  (who  died  a.  384)  pre- 
pared the  first  catalogue  of  regular  lessons  for  the  whole  Church 
Year,  the  so-called  Comes  Hieronymi.  It  was  first  adopted  in 
Rome,  and  gradually  worked  its  waj'^  into  the  Service  of  the 
Western  Church.  Up  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne  its  general 
introduction  was,  however,  a  rather  slow  process,  meeting  with 
considerable  difficulties  in  some  of  the  most  prominent  churches. 
Augustinus,  (St.  Austin),  the  missionary  of  England  who  was 


50  MEMOIRS. 

sent  there  by  Gregory  the  Great,  in  596,  and  afterwards  became 
the  first  incumbent  of  the  see  of  Canterbury,  (died  607)  raises 
the  question,  *"0^r,  C7i7n  7ina  sit  fides,  sunt  ecdesiarum  consuetu- 
dines  tavi  diversa;?  et  altera  constietiLdo  ijtissarum  est  in  Romana 
Ecclesia,  atqiie  altera  in  Galliarum  ecclesiis  tenehirT''  Gregory 
himself  had  indeed  done  his  very  best  to  adapt  himself  in  his  li- 
turgical work  to  the  order  of  the  Comes  of  Jerome.  Micrologus, 
a  Gallican  priest,  testifies  on  this  point,  as  follows:  Y'Hiijiis  libri 
ordinevi  S.  Gregorijis  diligentissime  observavit,  sive  dum  Evangeliis 
et  lectionibiis  missales  orationes  in  sacramentario  adaptaret,  sive  dum 
AutipJwnas  ex  efiisde^n  Evangeliis  q^iam  pluribits  diebns  in  An- 
tiphojiario  articularet.'''  But  even  after  Gregor^^'s  influence  Wal- 
afried  Strabo,  (died  849)  writes,  %' ^ Lectiones  Apostolicas  et  Ev an- 
gelicas qui  ante  cclebrationeni  sacrificii  instituerit,  non  adeo  cerium 
est:  creditur  tamen  a  primis  sticcessoribus  Apostolorum  eandem  dis- 
pcnsationem  factam  esse  ea  prcrcipue  catisa,  quia  in  Evangeliis  ea- 
dem  sacrificia  celebrari  jjibentur  ( ! )  et  in  Apostolo,  qualiter  celebrari 
debeant,  docetury 

The  Roman  order  finally  obtained  in  France,  especially 
through  the  exertions  of  Charlemagne,  while,  after  nearly  one 
thousand  years  of  conflict,  Pope  Alexander  the  sixth  had  to  ac- 
quiesce in  the  Ambrosian  order  of  Milan,  as  distinct  from  that  of 
Rome.  It  had  held  its  ground  even  against  the  vigorous  and  un- 
scrupulous measures  of  Charlemagne  to  exterminate  it,  which 
L,andulph  describes  in  this  manner,  %^'Omnes  libros  Ambrosii  titulo 
sigillatos,  quos  vcl pretio,  vel  dono,  vel  vi  habere  potuit,  alios  combii- 


*  Since  there  is  one  faith,  why  is  it,  that  there  are  such  different  customs  in 
the  Churches?  One  form  of  Masses  in  the  Roman  Church,  and  another  in  the  Gal- 
lican Churches? 

t  St.  Gregory  has  most  carefully  preserved  the  order  of  this  book  (the  Comes) 
either  when  he  adapted  the  prayers  of  the  Mass  to  the  Gospels  and  lessons,  in  the 
Missal,  or  when,  in  the  Antiphonary,  he  appointed  the  Antiphons  from  the  same 
Gospels  for  as  many  days  as  possible. 

+  It  is  not  quite  certain  who  arranged  the  Epistle  and  Gospel  lessons  before 
the  celebration  of  the  sacrifice  ("Mass).  But  it  is  believed,  that  this  appointment 
was  made  by  the  first  successors  of  the  Apostles,  especially  for  this  reason,  that, 
while  in  the  Gospels  those  sacrifices  are  commanded  to  be  celebrated,  in  the  Epistles 
we  are  taught,  how  they  ought  to  be  celebrated. 

§  All  the  Books  signed  with  the  name  of  Ambrosius,  which  he  could  obtain 
either  by  purchase  or  by  donation,  or  by  force,  he  disposed  of,  either  by  burning 
them  or  carrying  them  away  across  the  mountains,  as  it  were,  into  exile. 


THE    PERICOPES.  51 

rens,  alios  trans  monies,  quasi  in  exilio  secum  detulity  The 
Homiliarius  of  Charlemagne  has  probably  done  more  than  any- 
thing else  toward  the  general  introduction  of  Jerome's  system  of 
Pericopes  in  the  Western  Church.  The  earliest  printed  edition 
of  this  Homiliarius,  Speyer  1482,  contains  many  additions  and 
enlargements  of  later  times  particularly  additions  of  Saints'  Days 
which  were  unknown  at  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  In  recent 
times,  however,  an  ancient  manuscript  of  the  Homiliarius,  of  the 
Carolingian  era,  which  reaches  as  far  as  the  end  of  Holy  Week, 
has  been  discovered  among  the  manuscripts  of  the  Grandducal 
library  in  Carlsruhe,  Baden.* 

We  might  expect  that  the  conservative  spirit  of  L,utheranism 
was  from  the  very  outset,  favorable  to  the  retention  of  the  ancient 
Pericopes  in  the  regular  main  Service  of  the  Church.  lyUther's 
Church  Postil  (1521-1527)  did  perhaps  as  much  in  his  time  to 
perpetuate  the  use  of  the  Pericopes,  as  the  Homiliarius  had  done 
in  the  days  of  Charlemagne.  But  Luther  freely  criticized  the 
selection  made  in  the  ancient  system,  and  the  lyUtheran  Agenda 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  we  will  presently  see,  are  by  no 
means  unanimous  in  their  adoption  and  recommendation  of  the 
Pericopes  as  the  regular  lessons  in  the  Service.  lyUther's  Von 
Ordenung  Gottis  Dienst  ynn  der  Gemeyne.  Wittemberg,  1523, 
recommends  as  texts  for  the  sermon,  f'Des  Morgens  das  ge- 
woehnlich  Evangelion,  des  Abends  die  Epistel,  oder  stehe  bei 
dem  Prediger,  ob  er  auch  ein  Buch  fuer  sich  nehme  oder  zwei." 
The  Forrnida  Missce,  of  the  same  3'ear,  after  describing  the  main 
Service  up  to  the  reading  of  the  Collect,  continues  as  follows: 
X'^' Post  haiic  lectio  Epistolce.  Veriun  nondum  tenipus  est  et  hie  7io- 
vandi,  quando  nulla  hnpia  legitur.  Alioqui  cum  raro  ece  partes 
ex  Epistolis  Pauli  legantur,  in  quibus  fides  docetur,  sed potissim,um 

*  See  VViegand,  Das  Homiliarium  Karls  des  Grossen,  auf  seine  urspruengliche 
Gestalt  hin  untersucht.  Leipzig,  1897.  Studien  zur  Geschichte  der  Theologie  und 
Kirche.       i.  Band.     2.  Heft. 

t  At  the  morning  Service  the  usual  Gospel,  at  the  evening  Service  the  Epistle, 
or  it  may  be  left  to  the  pastor,  if  he  chooses  to  take  up  a  whole  book  or  two. 

X  After  this  the  Epistle  lesson.  For  the  time  has  not  yet  come  to  make  any 
innovation  on  this  point,  as  long  as  nothing  is  being  read  that  would  be  ungodly 
{i»ipia).  Though  those  parts  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul  are  rarely  read,  in  which  the 
faith  is  being  taught,  but  mostly  moralizing  and  parjenetical  passages.  The  man 
who  arranged  the  Epistles  seems  therefore  to  have  been  a  remarkably  unlearned  and 
superstitious  devotee  of  works  {opcrutn  ponderaior),  while  the  Service  required  that 


52  MEMOIRS. 

morales  et  exhortatorice .  Ut  ordinator  ille  Epistolar^im  videahir 
ftiisse  insigniter  indoctus  et  superstitiosiis  operiini  pondcrator,  ojji- 
cium  requirebat  eas  potius  pro  maj ore  parte  ordi7iare^  qidbus  fides  in 
Christtmi  docetur.  Idem  certe  in  Evangeliis  spectavit  sepius,  qids- 
quis  fuerit  lectionum  istarum  autor. ' '  From  this  passage  it  ap- 
pears that  L/Uther's  principal  objection  to  the  Pericopes  was  that 
the  Epistles,  particularly,  did  not  pay  sufficient  attention  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  faith,  that  their  contents  were  too  much  of  the 
paraenetical,  moralizing  character.  In  his  German  Mass  of  1526 
lyUther  says  on  this  point:  *"Dass  wir  aber  die  Episteln  und 
Evangelia  nach  der  Zeit  des  Jahrs  geteilt,  wie  bisher  gewohnet, 
halten,  ist  die  Ursach,  wir  wissen  nichts  Sonderlichs  in  soldier 
Weise  zu  tadeln.  So  ists  mit  Wittenberg  gethan  zu  dieser  Zeit, 
dass  viel  da  sind,  die  predigen  lernen  sollen  an  den  Orten,  da 
solche  Teilung  der  Episteln  und  Evangelia  noch  geht  und  viel- 
leicht  bleibt.  Weil  man  denn  mag  denselbigen  damit  nuetze  sein 
und  dienen,  ohn  unser  Nachteil,  lassen  wir's  so  geschehen,  damit 
wir  aber  nicht  die  tadeln  wollen,  so  die  ganzen  Buecher  der 
Evangelisten  vor  sich  nehmen."  This  shows  that  during  the 
three  years  since  the  publication  of  the  Formida  Missts  lyUther 
had  become  less  critical  toward  the  Pericopes,  though  the  homi- 
letical  aspect  of  the  question  concerning  the  continuation  of  the 
Pericopes,  evidently  predominates  over  the  liturgical  considera- 
tion of  using  the  old  lessons  as  a  stereotype  part  of  the  Service. 

Among  the  lyUtheran  Agenda  which  are  in  favor  of  retaining 
the  Pericopes,  the  following  maybe  mentioned:  Brunswick,  1528, 
by  Johannes  Bugenhagen,  which  greatly  influenced  man}^  North 
German  Orders.  Wittenberg,  1533.  fDarnach  liest  der  Pries- 
ter  ein  Deutsch  Collect  zum  Altar  gewandt,  und  singt  die  Epistel 


rather  such  lessons  should  chiefly  be  appointed,  in  which  the  faith  of  Christ  is  being 
taught.  Whoever  may  have  been  the  author  of  those  lessons,  he  has  certainly  in 
the  Gospels  also  aimed  at  the  same  thing. 

*  We  retain  the  usual  Epistles  and  Gospels  arranged  for  the  Church  Year,  for 
this  reason,  that  we  have  no  particular  fault  to  find  with  this  order.  This  is  our 
practice  in  Wittenberg  at  the  present  time,  because  there  are  many,  who  must  learn 
to  preach  in  such  places  where  this  arrangement  of  Epistles  and  Gospels  is  still  re- 
tained and  possibly  may  abide  for  ever.  As  we  may  be  of  use  to  those  men,  with- 
out any  disadvantage  to  ourselves,  we  let  it  pass,  without  however,  blaming  those 
who  take  up  whole  books  of  the  Evangelists. 

t  After  this  the  Pastor  reads  a  German  Collect,  turning  to  the  Altar,  and  sings 
the  Epistle,  facing  the  people. 


THE    PERICOPES.  53 

zum  Volk  gewendet. "  Saxon  Order,  1539,  by  Just  Jonas,  one 
of  the  most  extensively  used  Agenda  of  our  Church.  Mark 
Brandenburg,  1540,  *"Darauf  die  Epistel,  nach  Gelegenheit  der 
Zeit  und  Festa  .  .  lateinisch  gesungen,  folgend  soil  man  dem 
Volk  die  gesungene  Epistel  deutsch  lesen  ....  Darnach  das 
Evangelion  mit  vorgehender  gebuerlicher  Benediction  lyateinisch 
gesungen,  darauf  das  gesungen  Evangelion  dem  Volk  Deutsch 
mit  heller  Stimm  vorgelesen."  The  usage  of  the  Swedish  Lu- 
theran Church  was  determined  by  the  Council  of  Upsala,  1593, 
in  favor  of  the  Pericopes.  For  the  Churches  of  Denmark,  Nor- 
way and  Iceland  the  same  result  had  been  reached  long  before 
that  time  through  the  influence  of  Bugenhagen. 

Full  lists  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  of  the  Church  Year 
appear  at  a  very  early  time  in  the  editions  of  Luther's  German 
New  Testament.  The  first  editions  of  the  years  1522  and  1523, 
it  is  true,  are  still  without  them,  but  since  1524,  when  they  are 
found  in  three  different  editions,  they  form  a  frequent  addition 
to  the  text  of  the  German  New  Testament.  Ranke,  (Der  Fort- 
bestand  des  herkoemmlichen  Pericopenkreises,  Gotha,  1859)  pub- 
lishes such  a  list  of  the  year  1528,  from  an  edition  of  the  German 
Testament,  printed  by  order  of  Philipp  von  Hessen,  in  large  type, 
for  the  use  of  the  churches,  and  which  is  ordered  to  be  bought 
by  all  congregations.  This  fact  goes  far  to  show  the  tendency 
in  the  first  decade  of  the  Reformation  era  to  retain  the  old  lessons 
in  the  public  Service  of  the  congregation.  This  appears  also  a. 
1 53 1  from  a  statement  in  the  Apology,  Art.  XXIV  De  Missa. 
''Servantur  usitatce  cerenionice  publiccs,  ORDO  LECTIONUM, 
orationinn,   vestitiis  et  alia  similia .'' '' \ 

On  the  other  hand  some  of  our  most  prominent  Agenda  rec- 
ommend the  Lectio  Continua  in  the  main  Service,  or  propose  a 
sort  of  compromise  measure.  Among  them  the  following  deserve 
special  attention:  Prussia,  1525,  by  the  Bishops  Geo.  v.  Polenz 
and  Erhard  v.  Quels.  :|:"Zur  Epistel  soil  der  Priester  ein  halb 
oder  ganz  Capitel  aus  dem  Neuen  Testament,  in  Paulo  anzufahen, 


*  Afterwards  the  Epistle  appointed  for  the  day,  sung  in  Latin  and  afterwards 
read  in  German  to  the  people.     (The  same  with  the  Gospel.) 

t  See  Mueller's  edition.     Page  248. 

X  For  the  Epistle  lesson  the  Pastor  shall  read  a  whole  chapter  or  one-half  from 
the  New  Testament,  beginning  with  Paul,  through  all  the  Epistles  and  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  facing  the  people,  reading  distinctly  in  German,  without  accent,  (that  is, 


54  MEMOIRS. 

durch  alle  Episteln  der  Aposteln  und  Acta  Apostolorum  .  .  .  ge- 
gen  detn  Volk  verstaendlich  und  Deutsch  lesen  und  prononciren 
ohne  Accent,  damit  die  Worte  so  viel  besser  vernommen  werden 
von  den  Umstaendern.  .  .  ,  Darauf  soil  der  Diener  oder  Priester 
ein  ganz  oder  halb  Capitel  des  Evangelions  lesen,  anzufahen  vom 
Matthaeo  bis  zum  Bnde  Johannis,  mit  der  Form  .  .  .  wie  bei  der 
Epistel  gemeldt  ist."  lyikewise  Riga,  1530,  which  is  based  upon 
Prussia,  1525.  Brandenburg-Niirnberg,  1533,  *"Nach  dem 
Gebet  soil  man  lesen  ein  Capitel  aus  den  Episteln  der  Aposteln, 
Pauli,  Petri,  oder  Johannis,  etc.  Teutsch,  das  soil  er  also  an- 
fahen:    Eure    Liebe  vernehme  mit  Fleiss,   das  erst   Capitel  der 

Epistel    des   heiligen  Pauli,  zun   Roemern   geschrieben 

Darnach  soil  er  aber  lesen  ein  Capitel  aus  dem  Evangelio  oder 
Geschichten  der  Apostel."  The  so-called  small  Wiirttemberg 
KO  of  1536,  composed  by  Schnepf  and  approved  by  Brentius, 
recommends  the  following  arrangement:  First,  select  passages  for 
the  treatment  of  the  principal  doctrines.  Second,  the  customary 
Gospels  so  well  known  to  the  common  people.  Third,  bj'  and  by 
in  towns  or  large  boroughs,  a  whole  Evangelist, — all  these  as 
texts  for  the  sermon.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  the  provision 
that  every  Sunday  or  festival  day,  at  the  second  tolling  of  the 
bell,  the  pastor  or  diaconus  should  ascend  the  pulpit,  and  read  a 
chapter,  beginning  with  Matthew  and  so  on  through  the  whole 
New  Testament.  "So  wollen  wir,  .dass  alle  Sonntag  und  Feier- 
tag  der  Pfarrer  oder  sein  Heifer,  so  er  einen  hat,  auf  die  Kanzel 
steige,  und  mit  guten,  verstaendlichen  Worten  allda  ein  Capitel 
lese,  also,  dass  er  vorn  anfahe  in  dem  Evangelisten  Matthaeo, 
und  also  fuer  und  fuer,  bis  zu  End  des  Neuen  Testaments  dar- 
nach fange  er  wiederum  vorne  an."  The  KO  of  Schwabisch- 
Hall,  1543,  composed  by  Brentius,  which  otherwise  provides  for 
a  much  fuller  liturgical  Service  than  Wiirttemberg,  1536,  has  no 
reference  to  the  Epistle  at  all,  and  says,  after  the  Gradual,  Hal- 
lelujah or  Sequenz,  "then  the  text  of  the  Gospel  on  which  the 
sermon  is  to  be  based."  "Darnach  der  Text  des  Evangelions 
darvon  man  predigen  will."     Pfalz-Neuburg,  1542,  chiefly  the 


not  intoning),  that  the  words  may  be  the  better  understood Afterwards  the 

Deacon  or  Priest  shall  read  a  chapter,  or  one-half,  of  the  Gospel,  beginning  with 
Matthew  to  the  end  of  John,  the  same  way  as  the  Epistle. 

*  After  the  Collect  shall  be  read  a  chapter  from  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  Peter  or 
John,  in  German Afterwards  a  chapter  from  the  Gospel  or  the  Acts. 


THE    PERICOPES.  55 

work  of  Osiander,  introduces  the  reading  of  the  Epistle  at  the 
proper  place,  after  the  Collect,  and  adds  the  following  provision: 
''In  order  that  the  people,  and  the  pastors  themselves,  may  all 
the  more  be  benefited  thereby,  they  shall  read  the  Epistles  of 
Paul,  Peter,  John,  and  the  Acts,  all  in  their  order,  one  after  the 
other  .  ,  .  except  on  high  festivals  which  have  their  own  les- 
sons. The  reading  of  the  Gospel  is  to  be  after  the  same  manner, 
which  is  here  appointed  for  the  Epistle." 

This  tendency,  however,  to  give  preference  to  the  Lectio 
Contimia  in  the  main  Service,  and  to  dispense  with  the  reading 
of  the  old  Pericopes,  did  not  become  the  final  and  general  prac- 
tice of  the  Lutheran  Church.  Gradually,  ev^en  in  those  districts 
where  the  Lectio  Contimia  had  been  favored  for  a  time,  a  reaction 
set  in  in  favor  of  the  ancient  lessons.  The  continuous  reading  of 
Scripture  was  more  and  more  assigned  to  the  Week  day  Matins 
and  Vespers,  and  for  the  main  Service  of  Sundays  and  festivals 
the  retention  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  became  the  common 
characteristic  feature  of  the  Lutheran  Service.  The  controversies 
between  Westphal  and  Calvin  in  the  sixteenth,  and,  between 
Carpzov  and  the  Pietists  in  the  eighteenth  century,*  strongly 
testify  to  this  fact,  though  we  may  not  be  willing  to  accept,  at 
this  present  day,  all  the  arguments  then  advanced  in  defence  of 
the  old  order. 

We  have  yet  to  present  as  briefly  as  possible,  some  important 
and  difficult  questions  which  have  in  recent  times  engaged  the 
attention  of  prominent  scholars  on  this  subject.  The  points  at 
issue  are  these:  Plow  can  we  account  for  the  differences  existing 
between  the  system  of  Pericopes  which  is  in  common  use  with 
the  Lutheran  Church,  and  that  which  is  found  in  the  Roman 
Missal  ?  Which  of  the  two  comes  nearer  the  old  order?  And 
how  far  are  we  able  to  ascertain  the  original  order  of  the  Comes 
of  Jerome  ?  f 

The  differences  between  our  Lutheran  Order  and  that  of  the 


*  See  Carpzov,  De  Pericopis  tton  tentere  abrogandis.     1758. 

t  See  R.  V.  Liliencron,  Die  altkirchlichen  Unterlagen  der  Lutherischen  Litur- 
gie,  Siona,  1897.  pp.  41-48.  Chorordnung  fuer  die  Sonn-und-Fest-Tage  des 
Evangelischen  Kirchenjahres,  entworfen  und  erlaeutert  von  Rochus  Freiherr  von 
Liliencron.  Guetersloh.  C.  Bertelsmann.  1900.  K.  Giesecke,  Sind  wir  verpflich- 
tet  unser  Pcricopensystem  auf  Grund  des  Roemischen  zu  revidieren?  Siona.  1900. 
P.  170  ff.     1'.  201  ff. 


56  MEMOIRS. 

Missale  Romamim  appear  chiefly  at  the  following  points:  The 
Sundays  in  Advent;  the  sixth  Sunday  after  Epiphany  and  the 
second  Sunday  in  lycnt,  (^Reviiniscere);  and  the  whole  line  of  the 
Trinity  Sundays,  v.  Liliencron  has  shown  conclusively  that  the 
differences  are  not  due  to  any  innovations  which  the  lyUtheran 
reformers  would  have  introduced,  in  conscious  and  intentional 
opposition  to  the  practice  of  the  Roman  Order.  The  Lutheran 
Church  took  the  Pericopes  essentially  as  she  found  them  in  the 
German  Missals  and  Antiphonaries  of  the  fifteenth  century,  with- 
out being  aware  of  the  possibility  of  discrepancies  between  the 
Order  of  these  German  Missals  and  the  Roman  Order.  The 
authoritative  Missale  Romanum  appeared  in  1570  b}'  order  of 
the  Council  of  Trent.  The  very  date  of  its  publication  is  suf- 
ficient to  prove  that  the  differences  did  not  originate  with  the 
Lutherans.  The  question,  however,  arises,  which  of  the  two  is 
nearer  the  original  Order,  the  Luthera'n  or  that  of  the  Missale f 
V.  Liliencron  believes,  the  Missale.  He  holds  that  in  its  arrange- 
ment the  Roman  Church  restored  the  correct  ancient  Order,  and 
that,  therefore,  b}^  the  law  of  logical  and  historical  consistency, 
we  ought  to  feel  ourselves  constrained  to  revise  our  present  Order 
of  Pericopes,  so  as  to  bring  it  into  full  accord  with  the  Order  of 
the  Missale.  In  his  own  Chorordnung,  however,  v.  Liliencron 
does  not  carry  out  such  an  extreme  and  radical  theory.  Again 
and  again  he  decides  in  favor  of  the  accepted  Lutheran  Order 
over  against  the  Missale.  Giesecke  takes  issue  with  Liliencron 
on  the  question  of  the  correctness  of  the  Missale.  He  comes  to 
the  conclusion  that  we  need  not  think  of  revising  our  own  Order 
so  as  to  bring  it  into  harmony  wdth  the  Missale.  He  maintains 
that  our  Lutheran  system  of  Pericopes  represents  the  old  Order 
as  far  back  as  the  close  of  the  eighth  century,  in  a  remarkably 
pure  and  complete  form.  So  far  from  recommending  our  own 
accommodation  to  the  Missale  he  urges  that  the  Missale  adopt 
our  Order. 

Let  us  briefly  consider  the  points  of  difference  in  detail. 

I.      THE    SUNDAYS    IN    ADVENT. 

Here  the  Missale  Roviamim  has  for  the  first  Sunday  the  same 
Epistle  which  we  have,  but  for  the  Gospel  Luke  21:  25-33,  with 
the  exception  of  the  three  closing  verses,  our  Gospel  for  the 
second  Sunday  in  Advent.     On  the  second  Sunday  in  Advent  the 


THE    PERICOPES.  57 

Jl/issalc  has  again  our  Epistle  for  that  da}^  but  its  Gospel  lesson 
is  our  Gospel  for  the  third  Sunday.  For  the  third  Sunday  in 
Advent  the  Missa/e  has  our  Epistle  and  Gospel  lessons  of  the 
fourth.  On  the  fourth  Sunday  in  Advent  the  Missale  has  the 
Epistle  of  our  third,  (i  Cor.  4:  1-5),  and  for  the  Gospel,  Euke  3: 
1-6.  Our  lessons,  according  to  Giesecke,  for  all  the  Sundays  in 
Advent  are  all  supported  by  the  oldest  lectionaries,  and  our  four 
Gospels  by  the  testimony  of  the  HomUiariiun  of  Charlemagne. 
V.  Eiliencron  also  adopts  them  all,  with  the  one  exception  that  on 
the  third  Sunday  in  Advent  he  inserts  the  Missale' s  Gospel  of 
the  Fourth  (Euke  3:  1-6).  He  will  not  for  a  moment  listen  to  a 
proposition  to  throw  out  our  Gospel  for  the  first  Advent  Sunday, 
on  which  so  man}^  of  the  finest  Lutheran  Advent  hymns  are " 
based. 

For  the  Christmas  octave,  (New  Year's  Day)  the  Missale, 
with  some  of  the  old  lectionaries,  repeats  the  Epistle  for  Christ- 
mas, Tit.  2:  11-14,  while  our  Epistle,  which  is  also  approved  by 
v.  Eiliencron,  is  based  on  the  Comes  (Edit.  Pamelius),  and  some 
older  Lectionaries. 

2.       SIXTH    SUNDAY    AFTER    EPIPHANY    AND    SECOND 
SUNDAY    IN    LENT. 

The  older  lectionaries  generally  stop  in  their  provision  for 
the  Epiphany  Sunda3^s  with  the  fourth,  (^Homiliariuni) ,  or  with 
the  fifth,  for  which  the  Comes  (Edit.  Pamelius)  gives  the  beau- 
tiful and  most  appropriate  Gospel,  Matt.  11 :  25-30.  (Also  found 
in  the  Edition  of  the  German  New  Testament  of  1528).  Instead 
of  this  we  have,  in  accord  with  the  Missale  and  some  old  lection- 
aries, Matt.  13,  24-30  which  evidently  found  its  place  at  this 
point  in  connection  with  the  week  day  lessons,  containing  a  num- 
ber of  parables  representing  the  character  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 
Our  lessons  for  the  sixth  Sunday  after  Epiphany  were  inserted 
from  the  Missa  de  Transfignratione ,  and,  certainly  a  more  appro- 
priate Gospel  selection  for  the  last  Sunday  of  the  Epiphany  sea- 
son could  not  be  imagined,  v.  Liliencron  also  agrees  to  this  and 
retains  it.  This  arrangement  is  generally  ascribed  to  Lutheran 
influence,  (Veit  Dietrich?)  though  Luther  in  his  Kirchenpostille 
ignores  it.  This  Gospel  passage  is  appointed  in  the  Homiliariian 
and  the  Missale  for  the  second  Sundav  in  Lent.     But  here  again 


58  MEMOIRS. 

our  Gospel,  Matt.  15:  21-28,  is  supported  by  the  oldest  lectiona- 
ries,  and  again  v.  Liliencron  accepts  it. 

3.       TRINITY    SUNDAYS. 

What  is  now  our  Trinity  Sunday,  or  the  Festival  of  the  Ho- 
ly Trinity,  was  originally,  in  the  Order  of  the  Church  Year,  sim- 
ply the  Octave  of  Pentecost,  first  Sunday  after  Pentecost.  Only 
about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  this  Sunday  grad- 
ually changed  its  character  from  the  first  Sunday  after  Pentecost 
to  the  Festival  of  Trinity.  For  the  latter  the  lessons  of  the  Mis- 
sale  are  Rom.  11,  33-36,  and  Matt.  28,  18-20.  The  Trinity 
Epistle  of  the  Missale  has  been  adopted  in  our  Order,  in  place  of 
the  older  Epistle,  Revelation  4:  1-8,  which  is  retained  in  the 
Anglican  Church.  But  our  Gospel,  John  3:  1-15,  is  undoubted- 
ly the  old  Gospel  lesson  for  the  Octave  of  Pentecost,  as  testified 
by  the  Comes,  v.  Liliencron  also  accepts  it,  though  he  calls  it, 
wrongly,  as  we  think,  "the  Gospel  of  the  later  Order." 

Our  first  Sunday  after  Trinity  uses  here  the  Epistle  of  the 
first  Sunday  after  Pentecost  in  the  Missale  and  inserts  for  the 
Gospel  lesson  the  popular  story  of  Dives  and  Lazarus. 

Our  fourth  Sunday  after  Trinity  uses  for  the  Gospel  lesson 
one  of  the  lessons  for  the  Pentecost  Octave,  Luke  6:  36-42,  shift- 
ing the  Gospels  of  all  the  following  Sundays  after  Trinity  down 
to  the  twenty-fourth.  But  as  the  Epistles  were  left  in  their 
place,  the  whole  De  Tempore  provision  for  each  Sunday  was  dis- 
arranged, as  V.  Liliencron  holds.  As  this  disorder  affects  also 
the  other  De  Tempore  parts,  v.  Liliencron  insists  that  every  thing 
here  ought  to  be  rearranged  on  the  basis  of  the  Missale  Romajium. 
Giesecke,  however,  maintains  that  the  disorder  is  by  no  means  so 
great,  and  decidedly  opposes  the  idea  of  a  reconstruction  after 
the  model  of  the  Missale. 

If  we  could  even  approximately  ascertain  the  original  Order 
of  Jerome's  Comes,  all  the.se  difficulties  would  easily  settle  them- 
selves, and  it  would  at  once  appear,  which  of  the  two  Orders,  the 
Lutheran  or  that  of  the  Missale,  is  nearer  to  the  original.  But 
the  Comes  of  Jerome  is  known  to  us  only  in  the  form  of  a  frag- 
ment, or  even  of  a  ruin,  as  some  liturgists  view  it.  The  two 
main  sources  for  our  knowledge  of  the  Comes  are  the  editions  of 
Pamelius  and  Baluzius.  Jacob  Paraelius  was  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian,  born    at   Bruegge,    1536,   died,    1587.     In   1571,  one 


THE    PERICOPES.  59 

year  after  the  appearance  of  the  Missale  Romannm,  he  published 
the  Comes  of  Jerome  from  a  manuscript  of  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Donatianus  in  Bruegge,  comparing  also  some  other  MSS.  of 
Cologne.  ''Divi  Hieronymi  Comitcm  sive  Lectionarium,  icti  re- 
centiores  7mnciipaiit,  e  Bibliotheka  et  Sacrario  EcclesicB  nostrtE 
Cathedralis  Bnigcnsis  ad  D.  Donatiani  descripsimus ,  delude  ad 
veteres  codices  aliquot  Colonicnses  per  Dji.  Hittorpium  collaiione 
facta  restituimiis  etc."  This  codex  is  generally  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  century.  It  has  no  appointments 
for  week  days  except  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  and  very  few 
Saints'  days.     Nebe  thinks  that  it  is  of  Gallican  origin. 

Stephan  Baluzius,  1 630-1 71 8,  was  a  French  Jesuit,  since 
1667  librarian  of  the  valuable  Colbert  library,  and  afterwards 
Rector  of  the  Royal  College.  In  1677  he  published  the  Comes 
of  Theotinchus,  belonging  to  the  time  of  Louis  the  Pious,  (lyud- 
wig  d.  Fromme)  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  In  this 
codex  the  Trinity  season  is  divided  into  sections  named  after  the 
Natale  Apostoloriun,  (June  29);  St.  L,orenz  day,  (August  10)  and 
Cyprian's  day,  (September  16);  while  in  the  Codex  of  Pamelius 
these  Sundays  are  simply  mentioned  as  Sundays  post  Octavam 
Pe7itecostes . 

Those  who  would  like  to  have  a  convenient  summary  of  the 
oldest  sources  for  the  Churchly  system  of  Pericopes  are  referred 
to  the  following  comparative  table  which  shows  side  by  side,  the 
lessons  for  the  Church  Year  as  found  in  the  Homiliariian,  in 
Pamelius  and  Baluzius.  A  study  of  this  table  will  convince  the 
impartial  reader  that  Giesecke  is  not  far  from  the  truth  when  he 
claims  for  the  Pericopes  as  found  in  our  Lutheran  Order  the 
oldest  and  most  correct  historical  arrangement. 

LIST  OF  LESSONS  AS  CONTAINED  IN  THE  HOMILIARIUM  OF 

CHARLEMAGNE    AND    THE    TWO    EDITIONS    OF    THE 

COMES  OF  JEROME,  PAMELIUS  AND  BALUZIUS. 

(From  Nebe''s  Pericopes.     Vol,  /,  pp.  100-102.) 


SUNDAY 

HOMILIARIUM 

PAMELIUS 

BALUZIUS 

1 

Advent 

Matt.   21,  1  sqq. 

Rom.  13,   11  sqq. 
Matt.    21,    1   sq(i. 

2 

Advent 

Luke  21,  25  sqq. 

Uoin.   15,  4   sqq. 
Luke  21,  25  sqq. 

3 

Advent 

Matt.  9.  2  sqq. 

1  Cor.  4,   1  sqq. 
Luke  11.  2   s<iq. 

1  Cor.  4,  1-15 
John    1,    19-28 

60 


MEMOIRS. 


SUNDAY 
4  Advent 

Vigils 

Christmas 


HOMILIARIUM 

John  1.  19  sqq. 
Mark  1,  1  sqq 

Matt.  1,  18  sqq. 
Luke  2,   1  sqq. 
Luke  2,  15  sqq. 


John  1,  1  sqq. 


St.  Stephen  Matt.  23,  34  sqq. 

Sun.   aft.   Christmas  Luke  2,  33  sqq. 


Circumcision 
Vigils 
Epiphany 
Octave 


Luke  2,    21 

Matt.  2,  19  sqq. 

Matt.   2,   1   sqq. 

John  1,  29  sqq. 
Matt.  3,   1   sqq. 


1st  S.  after  Bpiph.  Luke  2,  41  sqq. 
2d  S.  after  Bpiph.  John  2,  1  sqq. 
3d  S.  after  Bp.  Matt.  8,  1  sqq. 


4th  S.  after  Bp. 
5th  S.  after  Bp. 
Septuagesima 
Sexagesima 
Quinquagesima 
1st  S.  in  Lent 
2d  S.  in  Lent. 
3d  S.  in  Lent 
4th  S.  in  Lent. 
5th  S.  in  Lent 
Palm   S. 
Holy  Thursday 
Good  Friday 

Vigils 


Matt.  8,  23  sqq. 
Matt.  11,  25  sqq. 
Matt.  20,  1  sqq. 
Luke  8,   4  sqq. 
Luke  18,  31  sqq. 
Matt.  4,  1  sqq. 
Matt.   15,   21  sqq. 
Luke  11,  14  sqq. 
Johu  6,  1  sq(i. 
John  8,  46  sqq. 
Matt.  21,  1  sqq. 
Johu  13,  1  sqq. 

Matt.  28,  1  sqq. 


pame;i,ius 

Phil.  4,  3  sqq. 
John  1,  19  sqq. 

Isa.  62,  1  sqq. 
Rom.   1,   1  sqq. 
Matt.  1,  18,   sqq. 


(1)  Isa.  9,  2  sqq. 
Titus  2,  11  sqq. 
Luke  2,  1  sqq. 

(2)  Isa.  61,  1  sqq. 
Titus  3,  4  sqq. 
Luke  2,  15  sqq. 

(3)  Heb.  1,  1  sqq. 
John  1,  1  sqq. 

Acts  6,  8  sqq. 
Matt.  23,  34 


Gal.  3,  23  sqq. 
Luke  2,  21  sqq. 
Kom.  3,  19  sqq. 
Matt.  2,  19  sqq. 
Isa.  60,  1  sqq. 
Matt.  2,  1  sqq. 
Isa.  12,  1  sqq. 
Isa.   61,    1   sqq. 
John  1,  29  sqq. 
Rom.  12,   1  sqq. 
Luke  2,   41   sqq. 
Rom.  12,  6  sqq. 
Johu  2,  1  sqq. 
Rom.   12,   17  sqq. 
Matt.   8,  1  sqq. 
Rom.  13,  8  sqq. 
Matt.  8,  23  sqq. 
Col.  3,  12  sqq. 
Matt.  11,  25  sqq. 

1  Cor.  9,  24  sqq. 
Matt.  20,  1  sqq. 

2  Cor.  11,  19  sqq. 
Luke  8,  4  sqq. 

1  Cor.  13,   1  sqq. 
Luke  18,   31   sqq. 

2  Cor.  6,  1  sqq. 
Matt.  4,  1  sqq. 

1  Thess.  4, 1  sqq. 
Matt.  15,  21  sqq. 
Bphes.   5,    1    sqq. 
Luke  11,   14  sqq. 
Gal.  4,  22  sqq. 
John  6,  1  sqq. 
Hebr.   9,    11   sqq. 
John  8,  46  sqq. 
Phil.  2,  5-11 
Matt.  26,  2  sqq. 
1  Cor.  11,  20  sqq. 
John  13,  1  sqq. 
Hosea  5,   15  sqq. 
Bxod.    12,   1   sqq. 
John  18,  1  sqq. 
Col.   3,   1  sqq. 
Matt.  28,  1  sqq. 


BAI.TJZX0S 

Phil.   4,   3-7 
John   1,    19-28 

Rom.  1,  1-6 
Isa.   62,  1-4 
Matt.  1.  18-21 
Titus  2,    11-15 
Isa.   9,  2-7 
Luke  2,  1-14 

(1)  Titus  3,  4-7 
Isa.  61,  1-9. 
Luke  2,    15-20 

(2>  Heb.  1,  1-12 
Isa.  52,  6-10 
Johu  1,  1-14 


Acts  6,  8-7,  59 
Matt.   23,   34-39 

Gal.   4,  1-7 
Luke  2,   33-40 

Titus  2,   11-15 
Luke  2,  21-32 
Titus  3,  4-7. 
Matt,  a,  ]9-a3. 
Isa.   60,  1-6 
Matt.  2,   1-12 
Isa.  12,  1-15 
John  1,  29-S4 

Rom.  12,  1-5 
Luke   2,    41-52 
Rom.  12,  6-16 
John  2,  1-11 
Rom.    12,    17-21 
Matt.   8,   1-13 
Rom.   13,  8-10 
Matt.  8,   23-27 
Col.  3,  12-17 
Matt.   11,   25-30 

1  Cor.  9,  24-10,  4 
Matt.   20,   1-16 

2  Cor.  11, 10-12,  9 
Luke  8,   4-15 

1  Cor.  13,  1-13 
Luke    IS,    31-43 

2  Cor.  6,  1-10 
Matt.  4,   1-11 

1   Thess.   4,    1-7 
Matt.    15,   21-28 
Bphes.   5,   1-9 
Luke   11,    14-28 
Gal.  4,   22-5,   1 
John   6,    1-14 
Heb.  9,   11-15 
John  8,  46-59 
Phil.   2,   5-11 
Matt.  26,  2-27,  66 
1   Cor.    11,   20-32 
John  13,   1-32 
Hosea    5,    15-6,  6 
Bxod.    12,    1-11 
John   18,  1-19,   42 
Col.  3,   1-4 
Matt,   28,   1-7 


THE    PERICOPES. 


61 


SUNDAY 
Easter 

Easter  Monday 
Octave 

2(1  S.  after  Easter 
3(1  S.  after  Easter 
4th  S.  after  Easter 
5th  S.  after  Easter 
Ascension  Day 
S.  after  Ascension 
Vigils 


Whitsunday 
Oct.  Pent. 


HOMILIARIUM  PAMEWUS  BAI^UZIUS 


Maris  16,  1  sqq. 
Lulie  24,  13  sqq. 
John  20,  19  sqq. 
John  10,  12  sqq. 
John  16,  16  sqq. 
John  16,  5  sqq. 
John  16,  23  sqq. 
John  17,  1  sqq. 
John  15,  26  sqq. 
John  14,   15  sqq. 


John  14,  23  sqq. 
John  3,  16  sqii. 
John  3.  1  sqq. 
Jolin   15,   26  sqq. 


D.    2.    p.    P.    (2(1    S.  Lulie  16,  19  sqq. 
after    Pentecost) 

D.    3.    p.    P.    (3d    S.  Luke  14,  16  sqq. 
after    Pentecost) 


D.  4.  p.   P. 
D.  5.   p.   P. 
D.  6.   p.   P. 
D.  7.  p.   P. 
D.  8.   p.    P. 
D.  9.   p.   P. 
D.  10.  p.   P. 
D.    11.    p.   P. 
I».  12.   p.   P. 
I).    13.    p.    P. 
D.   14.  p.  P. 
D.  15.   p.   T. 
D.   16.  p.  T. 
D.    17.   p.   T. 
D.   18.    p.    T. 


Luke  15,  1  sqq. 
Luke  6,  36  sqq. 
Luke  5,  1  sqq. 
Matt.  5,  20  sqq. 
Mark  8,  1  sqq. 
Matt.  7,    15  sqq. 
Luke  16,  1  sqq. 
Luke  19,  41  sqq. 
Luke   18,   9  sqq. 
Mark  7,   31   sqq. 
Luke  10,  23  sqq. 
Luke  17,   11   sqq. 
Matt.  6,  24  sqq. 
Luke  7,  11  sqq. 
Luke  14,  1  sqq. 


1  Cor.  5,  7  sqq. 
Mark  16,  1  sqq. 
Acts  10,  36  sqq. 
Luke  24,  13  sqq, 
1  John  5,  4  sqq, 
John  20,  19  sqq, 
1  Pet.  2,  21  sqq, 
John  10,  12  sqq 
1  Pet.  2,  11  sqq 
John  16,  16  sqq 
James  1,  17  sqq. 
John  16,  5  sqq. 
James  1,  22  sqq. 
John  16,  23  sqq 
Acts  1,  1  sqq. 
Mark  16,  14  sqq 
1  Pet.  4,  8  sqq 
John  15,  26  sqq 
Gen.     1,     1     sq(i, 

22,  1   sqq. 
Exod.  14,  24  sqq. 
Deut.  31,  22  sqq. 
Isa.  4,  1  sqq. 

Baruch   3,    9 

Acts  19,   1  sqq. 

John   14,   15   sqq. 

Acts  2,   1  s(iq. 

John   14,   23  s(iq. 

Rev.   4,  1   sqq. 

Acts  5,  29  sq{i. 

John  3,  1  sqq. 

1  John  4,  16  sqq. 

Luke   16.  19  sqq. 

1  John  3,  13  sqq. 

Luke  14,   16  sqq. 

1  Pet.  5,  6  sqq. 

Luke  15,   1  sqq. 

Rom.   8,   18  sqq. 

Luke  6,  36  sqq. 

1  Pet.  3,  8  sqq. 

Luke  5,   1  sqq. 

Rom.   6,   3  sqq. 

Matt.    5,    20   sqq. 

Rom.  6,   19  sqq. 

Mark   8,   1  sqq. 

Rom.  8,  12  sqq. 
Matt.  7,  15  sqq. 
1  Cor.  10,  6  sqq. 
Luke  16,  1  sqq. 
1  Cor.  12,  2  sqq. 
Luke  19,  41  sqq. 

1  Cor.  15,   1   sqq. 
Luke  18,   9  sq(i. 

2  Cor.  3,  4  sqq. 
Mark  7,  31  sqq. 
Gal.   3,    16   sqq. 
Luke   10,  23  sqq. 
Gal.    5,    16   sqq. 
Luke  17,    11  siiq. 
Gal.   5,   25   sqq. 
Matt.    6,   24    sqq. 
Ephes.  3,  13  sqq. 
Luke  7,   11   S(iq. 
Ei)hes.  4,  1  sqii. 
Luke  14,  1  sqq. 


1  Cor.  5,  7-8 
Mark  16,    1-7 
Acts  10,  36-43 
Luke  24,  13-35 
1   John  5,    1-10 
John  20,  24-31 
1  Pet.  2,  21-25 
John   10,   12-16 
1  Pet.  2,  11-19 
John  16,  16-22 
James   1,   17-21 
John  16,   5-14 
James   1,    22-27 
John    16,    23-30 
Acts    1,    1-11 
Mark   16,    14-20 
1  Pet.  4,  8-11 
John  15,  26-16,  4 
Gen.  22,  1-19 

Deut.    32,    22-30 
Isa.   4.   1-6 
Baruch  3,  9-38 
Acts  19,  1-8 
John  14,  15-21 

Acts  2.   1-11 
John  14,  23-31 
Rev.  4,  1-9 
John  3,  1-15 

1  John  4,   16-21 
Luke    16,    19-31 
1  John  3,   13-18 
Matt.   5,  20-24 
1  Pet.  5,  6-11 
Luke    15,    1-10 
Rom.   8,    18-23 
Luke  6,  36-42 
1   Pet.   3,   8-15 
Luke  5,    1-11 
Matt.  7,  15-21 


Rom.  8,  1-6 
Luke   16,    1-9 
Rom.  8,   12-17 
Luke    10,    25-37 
1  Cor.  15,  39-46 
Luke  18,   9-14 


2  Cor.  5,  1-10 
Mark  7,  31-37 
Luke  10,  23-37 

Gal.   — 
Luke  17,  11-19. 
Gal.  5,  16-24 
Matt.   6,  24-33 


62 


MEMOIRS. 


SUNDAY 
D.  19.  p.  T. 
D.  20.  p.  T. 
D.  21.  p.  T. 
D.  22.  p.  T. 
D.  23.  p.  T. 
D.  24.  p.  T. 
D.  25.  p.  T. 
D.  26.  p.  T. 


HOMII,IARIUM 
Matt.  22,   34  sqq. 
Matt.  9,   1  sqq. 

Matt.  22,  1  sqq. 
John  4,  47  sqq. 
Matt.  18,  23  sqq. 
Matt.  22,  15  sqq. 
Matt.  9,  18  sqq. 
John  6,  5  sqq. 


PAMELIUS 

1  Cor.  1,  4  sqq. 
Matt.  22,  34  sqq. 
Bphes.  4,  23  sqq. 
Matt.  9,  1  sqq. 
Ephes.  5,  15  sqq. 
Matt.   22,    1   sqq. 
Ephes.  6,  10  sqq. 
John  4,   47   sqq. 
Phil.   1,  3  sqq. 
Matt.   18,  23  sqq. 
Phil.  3,  17  sqq. 
Matt.  22,   15  sqq. 
Rom.   11,  25  sqq. 
Mark  12,  28  sqq. 
Jer.    23,    5   sqq. 
John  6,  5  sqq. 


BALUZIUS 

Gal.   5,  2.5-6,  10 
Luke  7,  11-16 
Ephes.  4,  1-6 
Luke  14,  1-11 

1   Cor.    1,    1-8 
Matt.   22,   23-33 
Bphes.  4,   23-28 
Matt.  9,   1-S 
Ephes.   5,   15-21 
Matt.   18,   23-35 


A.  Spaeth. 


Mt.  Airy,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


LITURGICAL  DEVELOPMENT 
IN   THE   PERIOD   OF  THE   REFORMATION. 


At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  reformatory 
tendencies,  which  afterwards  divided  Christendom,  were  included 
within  "the  Holy  Catholic  Church"  owning  allegiance  to  the 
Roman  pontiff.  The  ferment  was  not  confined  to  the  Teutonic 
nations.  It  may  be  said  that  the  earlier  movement  in  Spain  pre- 
vented the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Pope  and  gave  the  note  of 
the  counter- reformation.  There  was  a  considerable  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  Ser\'ice  of  the  Church,  and  the  writers  on  the 
Roman  side  acknowledge  that  abuses  had  crept  in.  A  reformed 
Breviary  was  proposed  but  not  adopted.  The  issue  of  these 
movements  in  "the  Roman  Church  was  the  attainment  of  a  higher 
degree  of  uniformity  through  the  reformed  Breviary  and  Missal 
which  the  Council  of  Trent  authorized  the  Pope  to  publish. 
A  second  main  issue  was  the  doctrine  of  sacrifice.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  doctrine  of  a  propitiatory  offering  in  the 
Mass  was  recognized  before  this  period  and  was  a  legitimate  de- 
velopment of  teachings  and  tendencies  prevalent  in  the  Church 
since  the  third  century.  This  is  not  the  place  to  account  for  this, 
or  to  estimate  its  relation  to  the  Gospel.  But  that  this  theory 
was  not  accepted  by  all,  may  be  seen  from  the  various  theories  of 
the  sacrifice  in  the  Mass  which  were  urged  by  the  Conservatives 
in  the  compromise-propositions  during  the  Reformation  period. 
For  a  more  particular  account  of  them  I  may  refer  to  my  articles 
on  The  Three  hiterinis  in  the  Lutheran  Church  Review  and  on 
The  Liturgy  in  the  Lutheran  Cydopcedia.  The  Reformers  re- 
jected the  theory  of  a  sacrifice  in  the  Mass,  and  thereby  cut  away 
the  root  of  the  false  theories  and  actual  abuses  of  which  all  com- 
plained. The  Conservatives — those  fair-minded  men  who  fain 
would  have  preserved  a  fidelity  to  the  Scriptures  and  conscience 

(Ixiii) 


64  MEMOIRS. 

without  breaking  with  the  visible  Church,  and  therefore  sought 
a  formula  which  both  Romanists  and  Reformers  could  subscribe, — 
urged  many  theories  of  sacrifice.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  the 
earlier  period  these  are  more  liberal,  more  Lutheran;  while  in  the 
later  they  become  more  uncompromising.  Even  in  the  Council 
of  Trent  a  few  voices  urged  the  vanishing  criticism,  arguing  that 
if  the  Lord  offered  Himself  in  the  Supper,  there  was  nothing  left 
to  do  upon  the  Cross.  But  the  Council  cut  away  the  more  mod- 
erate views  and  established  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Ro- 
man Service,  namely,  that  the  Mass  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  for 
the  quick  and  the  dead,  and  may  be  offered  to  God  to  obtain 
various  temporal  blessings. 

The  period  of  the  Reformation,  therefore,  is  a  period  of  de- 
velopment of  the  Roman  liturgy.  It  issued  in  the  extrusion  of 
various  forms  and  doctrines  of  the  Mass;  in  a  vigorous  uniformi- 
ty; and  in  the  fixation  of  the  sacrificial  theory. 

The  Protestants  were  at  one  in  rejection  of  this  theory. 
Pope  Leo  XIII  touches  the  very  nerve  of  Protestantism  when 
(from  his  standpoint)  he  denies  the  validity  of  the  Orders  of  the 
English  Church,  because  no  one  of  its  priests  has  been  ordained 
to  be  a  sacrificing  p7'iest.  The  result  of  this  rejection  of  the  doc- 
trine that  the  Mass  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice,  is  a  new  conception 
of  the  Divine  Service,  a  conception  practically  new  to  the  Church 
after  a  mistaken  theory  had  obtained  for  many  centuries.  The 
worship  of  the  Church  no  longer  was  regarded  as  something  done 
for  the  people  by  a  priesthood;  and  which  even  might  be  done 
for  them  in  their  absence.  But  here  a  new  division  arose  among 
the  Protestants  themselves.  On  the  one  hand.  Christian  worship 
was  regarded  as  something  done  simply  by  the  people.  Freed 
from  the  compulsion  of  the  Church,  these  accepted  the  Scriptures 
as  a  new  law.  The  Church  was  held  to  be  bound  by  the  exam- 
ple of  the  Church  in  the  New  Testament  time.  As  the  New 
Testament  Church  did,  so  must  the  Churches  do  forever,  no  more, 
no  less.  And  of  consequence,  there  grew  up  (just  as  had  been 
the  case  in  the  post- Apostolic  period)  a  notion  of  the  binding 
authority  of  the  Old  Testament  law.  The  people  had  part  in  the 
Service.  In  some  places  a  ministry  was  superfluous.  Sermons 
were  demanded.  And  no  songs  were  admitted  but  those  of  Holy 
Scripture  itself.  Hymns  of  human  composition  were  forbidden. 
The  Church  was  thrown  back  upon  Holy  Writ  itself  for  all  the 


LITURGICAL  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  REFORMATION  PERIOD.     65 

material  of  worship.  (See  Encydopadia  Dritannica  on  Hymns. ^ 
But  there  was  another  line  of  development.  The  use  of  the 
vernacular  was  insisted  on,  of  course.  But,  besides,  the  other 
tongues  were  employed  which  were  representative  of  the  history 
of  the  Church.  While  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  were  read  in  Ger- 
man, they  might  be  first  read  in  I^atin  too;  and  if  the  Creed  and 
the  sacred  songs  were  translated  and  versified  for  the  people's 
use,  they  were  also  sung  in  I^atin;  the  Greek  Kyrie  could  not  be 
taken  from  the  people;  and  Ame?i  and  Hosamia  were  sacred  lega- 
cies from  the  Hebrews.  This  was  not  through  impotence,  or  for 
music's  sake  only,  but  it  was  a  recognition  of  the  Divine  element 
in  the  historical  development  of  the  Church.  The  same  principle 
rescued  the  framework  and  purer  constituents  of  the  Western 
liturgy,  to  which,  not  the  first  century  only,  but  all  Christian 
centuries,  had  contributed.  The  people  had  their  part  in  the 
Service.  To  give  them  this  the  Old  Testament  Psalms  were 
rejuvenated  in  German  versions;  which  were  not  translations 
either  prose  or  in  verse,  but  fresh  outpourings  of  Christian  faith, 
as,  for  example,  the  version  of  the  forty-sixth  Psalm  in  Bin'  fesie 
Burg.  So  the  Liturgical  Songs  were  turned  into  rhymed  Ger- 
man hymns.  Some  of  these  were  happy,  some  were  not.  But 
they  answered  to  a  principle.  Not  only  were  they  in  rhyme,  in- 
stead of  in  the  parallelisms  of  Hebrew  poetry,  so  that  the  people 
could  remember  and  sing  them  more  easily;  but  the  necessary 
Christianization  of  the  Old  Testament  Psalms,  which  all  of  us 
attempt  by  ignoring  some  things  they  say  and  injecting  a  fuller 
meaning  than  their  inspired  authors  could  conceive,  and  which 
the  Church  attempted  in  former  ages  b)^  means  of  Antiphons  be- 
fore and  after,  and  which  other  Protestants  helplessly  resigned, 
the  Lutheran  Reformation  successfully  accomplished  by  means  of 
a  new  and  Christian  psalmody,  in  native  German  forms,  fresh, 
and  of  inexhaustible  volume.  Here  the  people  found  their  part 
in  the  Service.  But  the  Service  was  not  merely  sacrificial;  be- 
fore all  things  it  was  sacramental.  This  was  its  fundamental 
character,  and  the  songs  of  the  people  only  answered  to  the  gift 
of  God  it  brought.  The  ministry  instituted  by  God  were  stew- 
ards of  His  mysteries.  They  absolved.  They  ministered  His 
saving  Word.  They  are  the  hands  and  lips  whereby  Christ  gives 
His  Body  and  Blood,  His  forgiveness.  Himself. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  the  liturgical  development  of  the 


66  MEMOIRS. 

Reformation  period  was  complete.  No  development  of  a  living 
organism  can  have  been  complete  long  ago.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  has  adhered  to  its  rule  of  uniformity  and  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  propitiatory  sacrifice;  but  there  have  been  attempts  to 
render  the  Service  in  the  vernacular,  to  read  the  Gospels  and 
Epistles  in  it,  and  to  admit  songs  of  the  people.  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted also  that  the  lyUtheran  development  of  the  liturgy  was  not 
complete  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  relegation  to  a  second 
place  of  the  principle  of  uniformity,  the  assertion  of  the  sacra- 
mental principle  and  the  rejection  of  the  propitiatory,  and  the 
claim  of  the  people  to  spontaneous  utterance,  were  established. 
But  external  events  arrested  the  free  criticism  of  the  forms  of 
worship.  Certain  temporary  elements  of  expression  hardened 
and  were  made  a  fetish.  This  was  seen  when,  in  the  next  cen- 
tury, after  the  devastations  of  war  and  the  excitement  of  con- 
troversy, old  forms  out  of  which  the  life  had  departed,  were  re- 
stored. It  would  not  be  true  to  the  spirit  of  the  Reformation  to 
reinstall  the  exact  Service  of  the  German  Churches  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  Common  Service  of  our  Churches  is  as  Lu- 
theran as  it  was  and  more  Lutheran  than  it  would  be  to-day. 

Edward  T.   Horn. 
Readi7ig,  Pa. 


THE  LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION  OF  THE 
SEVENTEENTH   AND   EIGHTEENTH    CENTURIES. 


"For  all  the  destructive  processes  which  later  on  made  them- 
selves felt  in  the  Lutheran  churches  of  Germany  the  historic 
beginnings  and  elucidation  must  be  sought  in  the  period  of  res- 
toration which  followed  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  extended 
into  the  first  decades  of  the  eighteenth  century."  With  these 
words  Kliefoth  begins  his  dissertation  on  the  Destruction  of  the 
Lutheran  Orders  of  Service.  That  prolonged  contest  had  brought 
disaster  not  only  to  the  national,  but  also  to  the  religious  life  of 
Germany.  "The  whole  land  had  been  tortured,  torn  to  pieces, 
wrecked  and  brayed  as  in  a  mortar."*  The  war  had  not  been 
carried  on  hy  disciplined  armies,  but  by  adventurous  hordes, 
which  swept  over  the  country  in  search  of  plunder,  burnt  its 
towns  and  villages,  and  turned  entire  provinces  into  deserts. 
Hundreds  of  churches  and  schools  were  closed.  Two-thirds  of 
the  native  population  disappeared,  only  to  give  place  by  degrees 
to  a  new  vagabond  element  brutalized  by  warfare,  unaccustomed 
to  work,  and  with  no  bond  of  blood  and  traditional  customs  to 
hold  it  together.  The  princes  too,  lost  their  German  sympathies 
and  habits,  and  by  frequent  contact  with  the  court  of  France 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  rapidly  imbibed  that  monarch's 
autocratic  and  extravagant  ideas.  "Instead  of  studying  the  gen- 
eral welfare,  they  cruelly  wrang  from  exhausted  states  the  larg- 
est possible  revenue  to  support  a  lavish  and  ridiculous  expendi- 
ture. The  pettiest  princeling  had  his  army,  his  palaces,  his 
multitudes  of  household  officers;  and  most  of  them  pampered 
every  vulgar  appetite  without  respect  either  to  morality  or 
decency,  "t 

Such  were  the  conditions  that  succeeded  the  Thirty  Years' 

*  Carlyle.  t  Encyclopicdia  Britannica. 

(Ixvii) 


68  MEMOIRS. 

War, — conditions  that  gave  rise  to  a  problem  far  more  difl&cult 
of  solution  than  that  which  confronted  the  Reformers  of  the  pre- 
ceding century.  The  latter  entered  upon  their  work  at  a  time  of 
real  hunger  and  thirst  for  the  Gospel.  The  masses,  together 
with  many  of  the  princes,  were  therefore  responsive;  they  re- 
ceived the  Gospel  with  grateful  hearts;  in  the  purified  Orders  of 
Service  which  came  with  the  restored  Gospel,  these  vitalized 
hearts  found  the  appropriate  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  their 
faith  and  love;  and  thus  the  form  itself  became  a  thing  of  life  be- 
cause life  was  breathed  into  it. 

Altogether  different  was  the  problem  at  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  It  was  not  the  problem  of  renovation  but 
of  restoration;  not  the  work  of  purifying  the  Church's  faith  and 
practice,  which  had  already  been  done,  but  the  much  more  diffi- 
cult task  of  again  bringing  the  purified  faith  and  practice  into 
the  consciousness  and  life  of  a  people  demoralized  by  war,  having 
no  real  hunger  and  thirst  for  the  Gospel,  and  therefore  not  re- 
sponsive to  it  as  the  masses  of  the  preceding  century  had  been. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  of  restoration  was  the  reissue 
and  fresh  promulgation  of  the  KOO  (Church  Orders),  many  of 
which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  war,  and  none  of  which  were 
operative.  These,  with  numerous  additions  and  new  provisions, 
were  meant  to  reestablish  order  in  the  churches.  But  the  fatal 
defect  of  these  revised  Orders  was  their  bureaucratic  character. 
The  conceptions  underlying  many  of  their  new  provisions  were 
legalistic  and  often  dogmatically  unsound;  obedience  was  to  be 
effected  not  solely  by  the  power  of  evangelical  truth  as  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  but  rather  by  threats  of  punishment  for  disobedi- 
ence; and  the  result  was  that  the  very  idea  of  the  Church  and  its 
purpose  became  externalized,  grades  and  hierarchical  tendencies 
began  to  manifest  themselves  in  its  ministry,  and,  when  at  last 
the  Church  became  a  mere  department  of  the  civil  government, 
the  latter  not  only  undertook  to  regulate  the  more  external  pa- 
rochial affairs,  but  even  to  prescribe  what  liturgies,  hymn-books 
and  doctrinal  standards  should  be  used. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  all  this  affected  the 
Church's  worship.  The  disciplinary  measures  in  force  indeed 
filled  the  churches;  but  those  who  gathered  in  them  came  rather 
in  obedience  to  custom  and  external  requirement  than  to  satisfy 
an  internal  need.     The  conception  of  the  healthful  relation  that 


LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION,   17TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.     69 

must  subsist  between  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial  had  be- 
come obscured;  with  many  faith  had  degenerated  into  a  matter 
of  the  intellect  rather  than  of  the  heart;  a  false  estimate  was  placed 
upon  the  purety  objective;  undue  stress  was  laid  upon  the  exter- 
nal act;  mere  presence  in  God's  house  and  at  the  Lord's  Table 
was  deemed  sufficient;  and  thus  wonship  itself  became  external- 
ized. The  form  still  remained,  but  it  was  now  a  thing  without 
life,  because  those  who  used  it  no  longer  had  life  to  breathe  into 
it. 

The  reaction  against  a  one-sided,  lifeless  orthodoxy  and  its 
consequent  formalism  came  in  the  Pietistic  movement,  which 
however  soon  proved  to  be  as  intensely  and  one-sidedly  subjective 
as  orthodoxy  had  been  objective.  It  was  the  professed  purpose 
of  Pietism  to  make  the  truth  vital,  and  to  convert  "the  outward 
orthodox  confession  into  an  inner  living  theology  of  the  heart," 
the  evidence  of  which  was  to  be  seen  in  a  godly  life.  To  bring 
about  this  result  it  adopted  new  methods  and  went  new  ways. 
Though  at  first  by  no  means  disposed  to  break  with  the  con- 
fessions, institutions  and  usages  of  the  Church,  it  nevertheless 
deemed  it  necessary  to  supplement  these.  To  the  public  meet- 
ings for  worship,  public  communion,  and  private  confession  and 
absolution,  it  added  private  religious  meetings  in  houses  (^collegia 
pietatis),  private  communion,  and  private  religious  conversation 
in  the  pastor's  study.  Thus  Pietism  endeavored  to  bring  the 
Church  into  the  house,  a  living  Christianity  into  every-day  life, 
so  that  not  onl}^  public  worship  might  again  become  a  worship  in 
spirit  and  in  truth,  but  that  the  whole  walk  and  conversation  of 
each  one  might  be  a  sacrifice  well-pleasing  to  God. 

But  the  very  methods  by  which  the  earlier  Pietism  hoped  to 
revive  spiritual  life  ultimately  proved  destructive  to  the  Church's 
Cultus.  Whilst  Spener  regarded  these  methods  only  as  addition- 
al and  not  as  antagonistic  means,  the  later  Pietism  made  them 
the  chief  means.  Its  idea  of  edification  was  in  its  way  as  narrow 
as  that  held  by  Orthodoxy.  The  latter  made  edification  to  con- 
sist chiefly  in  the  furtherance  of  Christian  knowledge.  Pietism  in 
the  promotion  of  Christian  life,  i.  e.,  of  godliness.  But  Pietism 
conceived  of  godliness  not  in  its  broader  sense  as  it  is  also  related 
to  and  includes  man's  duties  to  the  world  about  him,  but  rather 
as  that  isolated  state  of  being,  devoted  to  pious  contemplations 
and  reflections,  which  finds  its  supreme  delight  in  the  quiet  spir- 


70  MEMOIRS- 

itual  exercises  of  the  closet  and  in  communion  with  God.  Thus 
the  objective  and  sacramental  elements  came  to  be  underestimated 
to  the  same  extent  that  Orthodoxy  had  overestimated  them,  and 
public  worship  became  more  and  more  subjective  and  sacrificial. 
Its  value  and  the  value  of  its  component  parts  were  gauged  alto- 
gether according  to  subjective  results;  the  claim  was  made  that 
spiritual  life  could  be  awakened  only  by  those  who  were  them- 
selves spiritually  alive;  and  edification  was  sought  not  so  much 
in  the  worship  of  the  whole  congregation  as  in  the  exercises  of 
the  small  private  assemblies.  This,  however,  was  virtually  put- 
ting the  awakened  personality  above  the  Means  of  Grace,  the 
ecclesiolcs  i?i  ecdesia  above  the  ccclesia. 

Now  the  destructive  process  began  in  earnest.  The  person- 
al, subjective  element  and  individual  experience  were  struggling 
for  expression.  The  more  the  personal  character  and  the  spirit- 
ual ripeness  of  the  ofiiciating  minister  came  to  be  looked  upon  as 
conditioning  edification — and  indeed  the  saving  eflScacy  of  the 
Word  itself,  the  greater  became  the  antipathy  to  everything  that 
limited  freedom  of  expression,  and  the  higher  was  the  estimate 
placed  upon  those  acts  of  public  worship  that  could  serve  as  a 
channel  for  the  utterance  of  individual  reflections  and  emotions. 
Thus  the  fixed,  liturgical  element  was  made  to  yield  to  the  sub- 
jective element;  extempore  prayer  was  substituted  for  the  Church 
prayer;  the  objective  Church  hymn  gave  way  to  hymns  descrip- 
tive of  the  soul's  changing  conditions,  experiences  and  feelings; 
the  hymn-books  were  arranged  according  to  the  Order  of  Salva- 
tion instead  of  the  Church  Year;  new  melodies  suited  to  the 
emotional  character  of  the  new  hymns  displaced  the  vigorous  old 
Church  tunes;  the  sentimental  aria  and  strains  patterned  after 
the  prevailing  style  in  opera  completely  crowded  out  the  noble 
polyphonic  choir  music  of  the  early  masters;  the  order  of  the 
Christian  Year  was  broken  in  the  choice  of  texts;* — in  a  word, 
what  Pietism  set  out  to  do  finally  resulted  not  in  brmging  about 
again  a  proper  union  between  the  objective  and  the  subjective, 
but  in  the  overthrow  of  the  former  and  the  triumph  of  the  latter. 

*  Thus  Gottfried  Arnold  spoke  of  the  system  of  Pericopes  as  "a  vicious  and 
abominable  mutilation  of  the  Bible;"  and  Spener  himself  declared :  "How  I  wish, 
with  all  my  heart,  that  our  Church  had  never  adopted  the  use  of  the  Pericopes,  but 
had  either  allowed  a  free  choice,  or  else  had  made  the  Epistles  instead  of  the  Gos- 
pels the  chief  texts." 


LITURGICAL.  DETERIORATION,    I7TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.     71 

The  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial  were  divorced,  and  the  sacri- 
ficial alone  remained.  Public  worship  ceased  to  be  a  celebration 
of  redemption,  and  became  only  an  act  of  edification.  From  the 
one  extreme  of  a  frigid  orthodoxy  and  its  resultant  formalism, 
the  pendulum  had  swung  to  the  other  extreme  of  an  emotional 
piety  that  regarded  all  fixed  forms  and  churchly  order  as  a  detri- 
ment to  spiritual  life,  and  a  hinderance  to  its  expression. 

But  far  more  destructive  was  the  influence  of  Rationalism. 
"In  Rationalism,  reason  is  the  sole  arbiter.  What  reason  cannot 
comprehend  and  accept  can  never  form  part  of  the  Rationalist's 
conviction.  His  consciousness  is  homogeneous,  and  his  intellect 
consistent  throughout.  To  him  Scripture  is  like  any  other  book. 
He  accepts  it  only  when  it  agrees  with  his  opinions,  and  then 
only  as  an  illustration  and  afl&rmation,  not  as  an  authority."* 
With  such  a  view  of  Scripture,  it  is  evident  that  Rationalism 
could  have  no  sympathy  with  a  Cultus  that  was  in  every  part  a 
confession  of  the  faith  which  it  rejected.  Whilst  Pietism  re- 
garded the  historic  Service  as  too  objective  and  sacramental,  and 
therefore  broke  with  its  fixed  forms  rather  than  with  its  contents, 
Rationalism  rejected  both  its  forms  and  its  contents.  What  sort 
of  appreciation  for  the  Church  Year  could  a  theology  have  that 
based  its  belief  not  on  the  great  historic  facts  of  redemption,  but 
on  its  own  speculations?  How  could  such  a  religion  of  reason 
permit  the  Service  on  its  sacramental  side  to  remain  what  it 
originally  was  in  the  Lutheran  Church, — a  real  communication 
of  Divine  grace  through  the  audible  and  visible  Word  ?  What 
spiritual  pleasure  could  it  find  in  the  hymns  and  prayers  and 
liturgical  formularies  in  which  the  living  faith  begotten  by 
Word  and  Sacrament  was  once  wont  to  bring  its  sacrifice  of 
thanksgiving  and  praise  ?  Or  how  could  it  even  understand  the 
meaning  of  a  Cultus  with  whose  history  it  did  not  care  to  become 
familiar,  and  that  stood  for  a  past  to  which  it  was  absolutely  in- 
different ? 

I,ike  the  later  Pietism,  so  Rationalism  could  not  tolerate  the 
fixed  and  recurring,  but  was  ever  seeking  something  new,  to  the 
confusion  of  the  congregation  and  the  ever-increasing  destruction 
of  the  Iviturgy.  Under  its  influence  the  Church  edifice  became  a 
mere  lecture-hall,  and  the  minister  a  moral  instructor,  unfettered 
by  anything  traditional  and  fixed,  and  therefore  free  to  say  and 

*  Reinhart. 


72  MEMOIRS. 

do  in  public  worship  what  he  pleased;  the  Church  Year  was  re- 
arranged and  to  a  great  extent  abolished;  the  Chief  Service  was 
mutilated  beyond  recognition;  the  Minor  Sendees  with  their 
scheme  of  Lessons  fell  into  decay;  all  the  most  ancient  and  beau- 
tiful liturgical  parts — Introits,  Kyries,  Creed,  Prefaces,  Litany, 
Canticles,  etc.,  were  consigned  to  oblivion;  the  brief,  sententious 
old  Collects  were  exchanged  for  verbose  and  sentimental  new 
fabrications;  the  Words  of  Institution  and  Distribution,  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  the  Benediction  were  recast;  the  great  Church  hymns 
were  diluted  and  "modernized,"  or  else  gave  wa}^  entirely  to  new 
ones  reflecting  the  moralizing,  sentimentalizing  spirit  of  the  age; 
and  with  the  old  hj^mns  also  disappeared  the  vigorous  and  fresh 
rhythm  of  the  old  melodies,  and  the  very  last  trace  of  a  proper 
churchly  style  in  the  music  of  the  sanctuary.  Even  the  so-called 
"Ministerial  Acts"  became  individual  products,  and  were  "made 
up"  in  a  moralizing  fashion  as  the  occasion  and  circumstances 
seemed  to  demand,  or  were  taken  from  one  or  the  other  of  the 
many  private  Agendas  that  made  their  appearance.*  Thus  what 
Pietism  began,  but  did  not  really  mean  to  do.  Rationalism  fin- 
ished, and  the  destruction  of  the  Church  Service  was  complete. 

*  Thus  SiNTENis  wrote :  "Inasmuch  as  teaching  is  the  chief  vocation  of  an  evan- 
gelical minister,  the  teacher  must  become  prominent  in  every  function  he  is  called 
upon  to  perform.  Hence,  he  must  endeavor  not  only  to  make  his  specific  lectures 
(Lehrvortraege)  as  instructive  as  possible,  but  also  every  so-called  ministerial  act." 
And  again  the  same  writer  says:  "How  unendurable  it  must  become  to  people  of 
culture  to  have  to  listen  to  an  everlasting  sameness  at  the  performance  of  religious 
acts  which  they  should  look  upon  with  respect !  Should  this  unpleasant  feehng  not 
influence  them  unfavorably  even  against  the  acts  themselves,  how  disgusting  it  must 
be  to  a  minister  who  has  come  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  dignity  of  his  call- 
ing (  0»  to  have  to  read  off  the  same  formulary  again  and  again,  and  thus  make  it 
seem  to  him  (!)  as  if  he  were  doing  his  holy  work  in  a  mere  mechanical  and 
thoughtless  manner !" 

Of  private  Agendas  and  Collections  of  Forms  and  Prayers  may  be  mentioned: 
ZOLLIKOFER:  Anreden  unci  Gebete  beim  gemeinschaftl.  und  auch  haeusl.  Gottesd. 
1777- — Seiler:  Versuch  einer  Christl. -evangel.  Liturgie.  \']%2.—Kleine  auser- 
lesene  liturg.  Bibliothek,  6  Bde.  1793. — KoESTER:  Allgem.  Altarlkurgie.  1799. — 
GUTBIER :  Lihirg.  Handbtick  zum  Gebrauch  fuer  Prediger  bei  Jztrchl.  Verrichtung- 
en.  1805.— SiNTENis:  Agende.  1808.— EusCH:  Agende  fuer  evangel.  Christen. 
1821. 

In  Hanover  the  Consistory  in  the  year  1800  granted  pastors  the  right,  "after 
careful  examination  and  consideration,  and  after  consultation  with  the  more  cul- 
tured members  of  their  congregations"  to  propose  and  make  alterations  and  im- 
provements (!)  in  the  Service,  by  omissions  and  additions,  changes  in  the  phraseol- 


LITURGICAL   DETERIORATION,   17TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.    73 

A  few  extracts  from  Agendas  of  this  period  will  serve  to  il- 
lustrate their  general  character: 

ORDER    FOR    BAPTISM.* 

(For  the  baptism  of  a  child  of  well-to-do,  cultured  and  highly 
respected  parents.) 

Exposed  to  danger  man  comes  into  the  world — danger  that 
threatens  alike  the  life  of  child  and  mother:  but  of  this  danger 
and  the  struggle  only  the  mother  is  conscious,  and  the  more  pain- 
fully so,  because  a  life  almost  as  precious  as  her  own,  is  at  stake. 
Thanks  be  to  Thee,  Thou  all-governing  Providence,  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  this  dear  clnld  and  its  noble  mother  in  the  momentous 
hour  of  its  birth!  Thanks  for  the  health  of  both,  and  for  the 
favorable  conditions  under  which  this  child  begins  its  earthly 
career!  Before  its  birth  it  was  looked  for  with  ardent  expecta- 
tion; and  from  the  moment  of  its  appearance  it  became  the  high- 
est joy  of  its  parents,  whilst  innumerable  children  are  received 
by  father  and  mother  with  indifference,  yea,  even  with  disfavor, 
and  are  taken  altogether  no  notice  of  by  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Abundant  provision  had  already  been  made  in  advance  for 
the  needs  of  this  new  arrival,  and  in  all  human  probability  it  will 
in  the  future  not  lack  the  necessaries  and  comforts  of  life,  nor  be 
denied  a  careful  bringing  up  in  mind  and  heart,  whilst  many 
thousands  of  infants  waste  away  in  dire  poverty  or  else  will  be 
obliged  for  a  life-time  to  struggle  with  the  errors,  needs  and  im- 
perfections that  result  from  insufficient  training  of  their  spiritual 
faculties.  May  est  thou,  dear  child,  in  time  to  come,  gratefulh' 
recognize  thy  earthly  good  fortune,  of  which  thou  now  knowest 
as  little  as  of  the  higher  spiritual  happiness  (geistigen  Gliicke)  to 
which  thy  baptism  would  lead  thee;  and  mayest  thou  prove  a 
benefactor  of  others  as  God  is  thine. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  thy  good  parents  to  train  thee  to  become 
a  worthy  recipient  of  temporal  blessings;  and  in  this  they  will 
doubtless  succeed   if  they  will  faithfully  fulfill   the  pious  vows 

ogy,  etc.,  as  local  circumstances  in  each  case  might  require;  also  to  use  "other 
new  Agendas  and  private  collections  of  liturgical  compositions  (  !),  especially  when 
called  on  to  officiate  before  an  audience  of  more  than  average  intelligence,  or  to  per- 
form ministerial  acts  in  houses."  ^ 

*  Evangelische  Kirchen-Agende  fuer  Prediger  welche  an  kcine  LandesUtiirgie 
ausschliesslick  gebunden  sind,  VoN  J.  F.  Schlez,  Grossh.  Hess.  Kirchenrath,  Dr. 
Theol.  Giessen,  1834. 


74  MEMOIRS. 

with  which  they  to-day  also  unite  their  prayers  for  thy  spiritual 
good.  It  must,  however,  then  be  thy  serious  endeavor  to  become 
what  thou  already  unconsciously  art — the  greatest  joy  of  their 
Hfe. 

With  the  parents  of  this  subject,  you,  esteemed  sponsors, 
likewise  enter  into  a  beautiful  covenant  for  its  bringing  up,  inas- 
much as  you  bring  the  dear  child  to  this  holy  act  of  Christian 
consecration,  and  permit  it,  by  means  of  the  symbolical  sprink- 
ling of  water,  to  be  solemnly  received  into  the  congregation  of 
those  who  as  the  confessors  of  Jesus  should  be  cleansed  of  their 
sins.  But,  inasmuch  as  that  faith  which  alone  can  give  real  value 
to  baptism  is  still  wanting  in  this  child,  the  question  is  asked, 
whether  it  is  the  firm  resolve  of  yourself  and  these  dear  parents, 
that  the  ward  entrusted  to  you  of  God,  after  it  has  become  re- 
ceptive, shall  be  carefully  instructed  in  the  Chistian  faith  and 
brought  up  to  be  a  voluntary,  upright  confessor  and  adherent  of 
the  religion  of  Jesus  ? 

Yes. 

You  will  now  also  give  the  child  baptismal  names,  which  will 
ser\'e  constantly  to  remind  it  and  its  parents  of  the  vows  made 
to-day.     How  shall  it  be  named  ? 

N.  N. 

I  therefore  baptize  thee,  dear  N.  N.  to  the  glory  of  God  the 
Father,  of  His  Son  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Laying  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  child  the  Minister  shall  say: 

May  God  preserve  thy  life,  dear  child,  so  that  thou  mayest 
learn  to  know  the  bliss-giving  Christian  faith  into  which  thou 
hast  now  been  baptized,  live  in  accordance  with  it,  and  for  thy- 
self experience  the  truth  of  the  promise:  "He  that  belie veth  and 
is  baptized  shall  be  saved."     Amen. — 

Water,  an  element  required  by  the  whole  of  nature,  has  thus 
been  the  emblem  of  thy  Christian  consecration,  dear  child.  May 
the  religion  of  Jesus  become  the  element  of  thy  entire  moral  life  ! 

V\/'ater  is  the  common  property  of  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the 
high  and  the  low.  Thus  also  the  religion  of  Jesus  is  intended 
for  all:  and  to  thee,  dear  child,  as  we  hope  to  God,  it  will  come 
of  purer  quality  and  in  larger  measure  than  to  countless  others. 

Water,  the  best  means  for  cleansing  the  body,  is  the  most 
fitting  emblem  of  soul-purity.  May  thy  heart  remain  pure  and 
thy  life  unspotted,  thou  still  innocent  angel  ! 


LITURGICAL   DETERIORATION,   17TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.    75 

Water  contains  great  and  refreshing  potencies  for  our  bodies. 
Still  greater  healing-powers  for  the  soul  are  contained  in  the  gen- 
uine Christian  belief.  May  the  religion  of  Jesus  prove  to  thee, 
dear  child,  a  never-failing  source  of  moral  health  ! 

Water  is  related  to  heaven  and  earth,  rises  from  the  latter 
to  the  former,  and  falls  down  from  the  former  upon  the  latter. 
May  thy  whole  life,  dear  child,  be  directed  toward  the  higher, 
heavenly  things !  Mayest  thou  often  lift  thy  heart  toward 
heaven  and  bring  down  for  thyself  the  heavenly  into  the  earthly ! 

Water,  so  often  scorned  by  those  in  health,  is  generally  the 
last  physical  refreshment  of  the  dying.  May  the  religion  of  Je- 
sus be  and  remain  throughout  thy  entire  life  thy  daily  refresh- 
ment !  May  it  be  to  thee  and  to  us  all  a  quickening  draught  in 
life's  sufferings,  until  we  reach  that  better  land,  where  we  shall 
hunger  and  thirst  no  more!     Amen. 

In  the  Agenda  by  Sintenis  we  read  in  the 

ORDER    FOR    PUBLIC    CONFESSION   AND    ABSOLUTION: 

"Let  us  do  as  the  Apostles  did,  and  not  come  to  the  Altar  to  re- 
ceive a  sacrament,  but  to  bring  our  sacrament  (!)  thither,"  viz., 
"the  obligation  to  hold  fast  His  teachings,  which  bring  us  so 
much  happiness,  and  always  and  everywhere  to  show  public 
spirit,  as  He  did." 

In  an  Exhortatio7i  to  newly  confirmed  communicants  found 
in  the  same  Agenda,  the  following  occurs: 

"At  this  Table,  consecrated  to  the  lyord,  let  all  eat  and 
drink  with  profoundest  emotion  !  I^et  this  bread  and  wine  typify 
to  you  the  death  of  Jesus  on  the  cross;  and  let  the  eating  of  this 
bread  and  the  drinking  of  this  wine  symbolize  the  participation 
in  all  the  blessings  of  His  death  !  May  you  be  deeply  moved  by 
the  surpassing  greatness  and  beauty  of  soul  of  which  this  Divine 
One  gave  evidence  when  for  your  salvation  He  permitted  His 
body  to  be  broken  and  His  blood  to  be  shed,  and  died  upon  the 
cross  !  Come  to  Him  then,  as  it  is  natural  for  good  people  to 
do  (!),  wuth  ardent  gratitude;  and  inflamed  by  this,  say:  "Wheth- 
er we  live,  we  live  unto  the  Lord;  and  whether  we  die,  we  die 
unto  the  Lord;  whether  living  or  dying  we  want  to  be  His." 

"To  you,  who  to-da}'-  for  the  first  time  appear  at  the  sim- 
ple ( ! )  yet  very  significant  Table  here  prepared  for  you — to  you 
these  words  are  especially  addressed. 


76  MEMOIRS. 

"Sufficiently  prepared  for  it  for  sometime  past — yesterday 
once  more  prepared  for  it  to  all  superfluity  (!) — you  can  feel 
yourself  highly  honored,  that  you  are  to-day  here  permitted  to 
do  what  heretofore  only  your  parents  and  the  other  actual  mem- 
bers of  the  congregation  were  permitted  to  do.  But  as  you  were 
already  told  yesterday,  you  must  now  also  seek  to  surpass  all  the 
other  communicants  in  devotion  and  feeling  when  you  partake  of 
the  Holy  Supper  !  Surpass  them  too  in  the  fervor  of  your  reso- 
lution to  live  and  die  unto  the  Lord  !  You  to-day  ratify  your 
sacrament  (!),  which  you  made  to  this  end  at  your  confirmation  : 
therefore,  let  the  ratification  be  as  important  to  you  as  was  the 
vow," 

"Young  Christians  !  consider  well  what  is  now  told  you,  and 
let  it  lead  you  to  lay  a  still  more  solid  foundation,  yes,  the  most 
solid  foundation  for  a  truly  Christian  life,  and  therefore  for  your 
true  well-being.  Whether  we  live — into  these  self -addressed 
words  let  your  whole  heart  be  poured — whether  we  live,  we  live 
unto  the  Lord;  and  whether  we  die,  we  die  unto  the  Lord.  He 
lived  and  He  died  for  us,  therefore  let  us  entirely  belong  to  Him 
in  life  and  in  death." 

In  this  same  Agenda  the  Words  of  Institution  are  treated 
thus:  "Let  all  hear  the  invitation  of  Jesus  Himself  to  His  Sup- 
per !  After  this  manner  spake  the  Lord  when  He  took  bread, 
brake  it  praying,  and  distributed  it:  Take,  eat,  this  is  My  "Body, 
which  shall  soon  be  offered  for  your  benefit.  Repeat  this  in  re- 
membrance of  Me  !  Thus  spake  the  Lord  when  He  afterward 
also  prayerfully  passed  the  cup  around:  Take,  drink,  this  is  My 
Blood;  which  shall  soon  be  shed  for  your  benefit.  Repeat  this  in 
remembrance  of  Me  !" 

The  Prayer  of  Thanksgiving  is  as  follows:  "Before  Thee,  the 
Omnipresent  One,  have  these  admirers  of  Jesus  professed  their 
Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  To  Thee,  Omniscient  One,  do  they  ap- 
peal with  all  confidence  and  joy,  that  they  have  done  so  with 
truly  upright  hearts.  Therefore  they  beseech  Thee,  the  All- 
powerful  One,  to  enable  them  to  be  increasingly  faithful.  Not 
as  if  they  would  feel  themselves  weaker  than  they  are(!);  No! 
No!  they  can  do  much  for  themselves,  but— the  spirit  is  willing 
and  the  flesh  is  weak  !  Father  !  support  them  in  their  weakness, 
so  that  when  tempted  to  be  unfaithful  to  Jesus  and  their  vows, 
and  to  depart  from  their  Christian  convictions  and  sentiments, 


LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION,   17TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.    77 

their  moral  nature  may  always  triumph  over  their  carnal  nature. 
Thou  hast  a  thousand  means  to  bring  this  about,  and  certainly 
also  hast  their  hearts  in  Thy  power  in  a  manner  incomprehensi- 
ble to  them.  O  be  Thou  their  stay,  therefore,  when  they  are  in 
danger  of  wavering;  and  should  the  world  by  its  sorrows  endeav- 
or to  separate  them  from  Jesus,  then  cause  the  world  itself  to  dis- 
appear for  them  in  spirit,  and  open  heaven  to  them,  that  they 
may  refresh  themselves  with  the  glory  which  all  those  shall  there 
share,  who  remain  in  fellowship  with  Jesus  to  the  end,  and  who 
suffer  as  He  did  !  .  .  .  .  My  Beloved:  May  God,  through  His 
Son  bless  you  more  and  more  with  holy  thoughts."  (Amen 
wanting. ) 

A  Form,  of  Distribution^  of  this  period  was  as  follows: 

"Bat  this  bread;  may  the  spirit  of  devotion  rest  upon  you 
with  all  its  blessings." 

"Drink  a  little  wine;  moral  power  does  not  reside  in  this 
wine,  but  in  you,  in  the  teachings  of  God,  and  in  God." 

Or: 

"Use  this  bread  in  remembrance  of  Jesus  Christ;  he  that 
hungereth  after  pure  and  noble  virtue  shall  be  filled." 

"Drink  a  little  wine;  he  that  thirsteth  after  pure  and  noble 
virtue  shall  not  long  for  it  in  vain." 

The  following  is  a  sample  of  the  numerous  reconstructions 
of  the  Lord' s  Prayer:  f 

"Most  High  Father;  Let  it  be  our  supreme  purpose  to  glo- 
rify- Thee;  Let  truth  thrive  among  us;  Let  virtue  alread}^  dwell 
here  as  it  does  in  heaven;  Reward  our  industry  with  bread.  And 
our  forgiving  disposition  with  grace;  From  severe  conflicts  pre- 
serve us;  And  finally  let  all  evil  cease;  That  Thou  art  powerful, 
wise  and  good  over  all — let  this  forever  be  our  confidence." 

The  Benediction  was  recast  into  this  form: 

"The  Lord  bless  and  cheer  you  with  the  happiness  of  a 
blameless  heart  and  life." 

"The  Lord  bless  and  cheer  you  with  the  assurance  of  His 
good  pleasure." 


*  In  Hufnagel:  Liturg.  Blaetler. 
t   SiNTENIS. 


78  MEMOIRS. 

"The  Lord  bless  and  cheer  you  with  the  joy-giving  hope  of 

everlasting  life.     Amen."* 

Or: 

"May  God,  our  Father,  protect  and  prosper  us." 

"May  Jesus  Christ  teach  and  guide,  comfort  and  encourage 
us." 

"May  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  ennoble  us.     Amen."t 

Or: 

"The  Lord  bless  us  with  wisdom,  with  a  heart  and  strength 
for  good  works." 

"The  Lord  keep  our  souls  pure,  our  consciences  quiet,  and 
our  hearts  contented. ' ' 

"The  Lord  grant  us  a  modest  portion  of  this  life's  happiness, 
and  at  last  the  higher  joy  of  the  life  eternal.     Amen."| 

To  such  frightful  and  incredible  depths  had  the  Cultus  of 
the  Church  sunk  when  the  work  of  restoration  was  once  more 
begun  in  the  nineteenth  century.  That  movement  is  still  in 
progress,  and  to  the  impulse  it  gave  and  the  literature  it  pro- 
duced, we  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America  are  indebted  for 
the  revival  of  a  Cultus  that,  like  our  faith,  links  us  again  with 
the  purest  and  best  period  of  the  Church's  history. 


*  ScHLEZ:   Kirchen-Agende, 

t   Frosch:   Al/gemeine  Liturgie. 

%  Schleswig-Hulsteinische  Kirchen-Agende  of  1797  CAdler). 


Lit.  —  Ki,ie;poth:  Liturgische  Abhandlungen;  Kostlin: 
Geschichte  des  Christlichen  Gottesdienstes;  Ai,T:  Der  Chrlstliche 
Cultus;  Harnack:  Praktische  Theologie;  Riejtschei.:  Lehrbuch 
der  Liturgik. 

J.  F.  Ohi.. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 


WTURGY  AND   DOCTRINE. 


There  is  a  very  intimate  relation  between  lyiturgy  and  Doctrine. 
Liturgy  is  the  form  that  doctrine  takes  for  the  purposes  of  wor- 
ship. Worship  formularies  are  based  upon  fundamental  doc- 
trines and  are  conditioned  by  them.  The  Liturgy  is,  however, 
something  more  than  a  mere  expression  or  interpretation  of  the 
doctrines  that  underlie  it.  Liturgy  is  related  to  doctrine  rather 
as  an  art  form  is  related  to  its  underlying  conception,  or  even  as 
outward  forms  of  living  things  are  counterparts  of  their  inward 
essential  reality.  The  liturgy  is  informed  by  the  doctrine,  and, 
if  it  be  true  and  pure,  it  must  at  every  point  be  in  harmony  with 
its  inner  doctrinal  and  spiritual  life.  As  the  bloom  and  fruit  of 
a  tree  are  the  expression  of  its  inner  life,  so  a  pure  and  sufl&cient 
liturgy  is  the  natural  bloom  and  proper  fruitage  of  the  living 
doctrine  from  which  it  springs. 

Because  a  true  liturgy  is  a  growth,  a  living  product  and  not 
a  mere  mechanical  construction,  it  is  seen  how  important  a  his- 
torical liturgy  becomes  for  the  preservation  of  true  doctrine.  If 
a  liturg}^  is  broken  away  from  its  historical  sources  and  forms, 
and  made  subservient  to  the  tastes  and  whims  of  individuals  or 
particular  schools  of  thought  and  tendency,  it  endangers  the  very 
foundations  of  the  Church,  which  are  her  great  central  doctrines. 
Even  in  church  architecture  as  a  liturgical  form  there  is  an  in- 
sidious danger  to  pure  doctrine.  For  it  should  be  remembered 
that  architecture  from  a  liturgical  point  of  view  is  not  a  method 
of  constructing  church  buildings  upon  a  merely  aesthetic  principle, 
or  in  accordance  with  a  secular  vogue,  but  it  is  an  embodiment,  as 
fully  as  that  is  possible,  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  our 
Christian  confessions.  The  church  building  should  be  an  im- 
pressive symbol  of  the  Atonement,  involving  the  great  doctrine  of 
the  vicarious  sacrifice  upon  the  cross,  the  reconciliation  wrought 
by  tliat  sacrifice,  the  sacramental  blessings  procured  for  us  on 

(Ixxix) 


80  MEMOIRS. 

account  of  it,  and  the  worship  that  realizes  this  restoration  and 
holy  communion  with  God  and  spiritual  realities.  The  church 
building  that  is  simply  a  grand  auditorium,  that  is  constructed 
for  the  most  part  on  the  lines  of  the  amphitheater  or  concert  hall, 
that  provides  chiefly  for  seeing  and  hearing,  and  that  is  without 
suggestion  of  the  important  sacrificial  element  in  worship,  indeed, 
that  would  not  ordinarily  suggest  any  idea  of  worship  at  all,  such 
a  church  building  is  a  menace  to  true  doctrine,  a  crj^stallized 
peril  that  obscures  the  cardinal  doctrines  of  our  Faith  and  subtly 
leads  in  the  direction  of  rationalism  and  empty  humanitarianism. 
And  the  same  must  be  said  of  church  decoration  as  a  liturgical 
sphere.  This,  too,  must  have  its  close  and  obvious  relation  to 
doctrine.  Here  there  is  a  most  important  field  in  which  the  his- 
torical Christian  symbolism  may  be  made  to  play  an  impressive 
and  effectual  part  in  the  preservation  of  fundamental  orthodox 
teaching. 

In  the  same  way  music,  which  is  perhaps  the  highest  and 
most  essential  liturgical  art  form,  should  be  in  the  most  perfect 
attainable  harmony  with  the  inmost  spirit  of  the  doctrine  that 
apprehends  God  as  He  is  revealed  in  His  Word,  and  that  grasps 
and  interprets  the  reconciliation  of  sinful  man  to  such  a  God 
through  the  gift  and  sacrifice  of  His  Only-begotten  Son,  as  that 
reconciliation  is  realized  and  enjoyed  in  the  act  of  worship.  The 
general  characteristics  of  conservative  liturgical  music  are,  sim- 
plicity, and  subserviency.  It  is  simple.  Like  the  coat  of  the 
Master  it  is  of  one  piece,  and  it  always  clothes  the  Master's 
form.  It  is  a  servant  that  always  bears  the  word,  and  interprets 
and  impresses  the  Word.  It  brings  the  worshipper  humb.ly  and 
penitently  to  God,  and  it  brings  God  joyously  and  blessedly  to 
the  worshipper.  Its  very  tones  tell  of  sin,  and  sacrifice,  and  sal- 
vation. Liturgical  music  is  thus  a  mighty  power  that  holds  us 
close  to  the  central  doctrine  of  our  precious  religious  inheritance. 

So,  also,  the  furniture  of  the  church,  especially  the  furniture 
of  the  chancel  and  its  arrangement,  the  vestments  and  colors 
which  mark  the  seasons  of  the  Christian  year  are  all  closely  iden- 
tified with  specific  fundamental  doctrines.  They,  too,  are  the 
clothing  of  the  Master  in  which  He  walks  before  us  and  with  us. 
They  call  our  attention  to  Him,  and  hold  our  attention  upon  Him 
as  the  "Lamb  of  God  Which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world." 
They  preach  a  perpetual  sermon  upon  the  text:  "God  so  loved 


LITURGY    AND    DOCTRINE.  81 

the  world  that  He  gave  His  Only-begotten  Son,  that  whosoever 
believeth  on  Him  should  not  perish  but  have  everlasting  life," 
All  these  things,  while  they  are  in  themselves  adiaphoristic,  have 
their  significance  in  doctrine,  and  when  separated  from  the  doc- 
trinal meaning  which  they  are  intended  to  interpret  and  illustrate 
become  mere  formalism.  Rightly  understood  they  impart  doc- 
trinal instruction  and  conserve  doctrine.  And  even  when  not 
understood,  while  they  do  not  then  edify,  they  still  keep  the  doc- 
trine and  carry  it  over  to  a  more  intelligent  and  a  more  apprecia- 
tive age. 

But  it  is  in  that  which  we  properly  speak  of  as  the  lyiturgy 
itself,  that  is  in  the  actual  verbal  forms  and  orders  of  worship, 
that  its  relation  and  importance  to  doctrine  are  most  obvious. 

First  of  all,  the  forms  of  the  historical  lyiturgy  are  in  the  very- 
words  of  inspired  Scripture.  They  thus  exhibit  and  continually 
teach  the  doctrines  of  Holy  Scripture.  In  so  far  as  the  Liturgy 
appropriates  the  Word,  therefore,  it  is  one  with  the  Bible  itself  in 
setting  forth  the  true  doctrine.  And  in  the  creedal  forms  which 
enter  into  the  Liturgy  the  Confessions  themselves  are  made  use 
of  for  the  purposes  of  worship.  Thus  the  central  and  chief  doc- 
trines are  not  only  preserved  but  they  become  means  and  channels 
of  the  very  highest  acts  of  worship.  We  may  well  believe  that 
Peter  never  worshipped  the  Lord  with  profounder  adoration  or 
with  mightier  spiritual  exaltation  than  when  he  exclaimed:  "Thou 
art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God,"  and  thus  gave  us  the 
germ  of  all  the  later  Creeds.  Thus  the  Liturgy  in  its  use  of  the 
Apostolic  and  Nicene  Creeds,  at  once  attains  the  highest  point  of 
adoring  worship,  and  witnesses  to  all  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  Faith, 

As  a  matter  of  fact  our  whole  Liturgical  Order  of  Services 
from  beginnir.g  to  end,  and  in  all  its  special  parts  is  positively  and 
emphatically  doctrinal.  It  exhibits  doctrine  in  clear,  thetical 
statements,  in  petitional  assumptions,  in  the  very  attitude  of  the 
worshipper  who  uses  it. 

Take  the  heart  of  the  Liturgy,  which  is  the  Order  for  The 
Holy  Communion.  Even  a  superficial  examination  reveals  the 
fact  that  this  Order  is  the  entire  Apostles'  Creed  wrought  into 
a  form  that  is  appropriate  for  the  highest  act  of  Christian  wor- 
ship, and  in  which  the  central  facts  of  true  worship  come  before 
us  in  the  most  objective  form.     The  Order  for  The  Holy  Com- 


82  MEMOIRS. 

munion  thus  realizes  our  Christian  Faith  in  worship,  so  that  in 
this  Faith  we  really  have  a  holy  communion  with  God,  with 
"Angels  and  Archangels  and  with  all  the  company  of  Heaven." 

And  if  we  take  any  specific  doctrine  and  examine  the  Litur- 
gy with  reference  to  it  we  shall  find  that  such  doctrine  is  not  on- 
ly present  clearly  and  fully,  but  that  it  is  realized  and  used  in 
the  lyiturgy  as  it  can  be  realized  and  used  nowhere  else.  For 
example  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  taught  in  the  Sun- 
day School,  in  the  catechetical  class,  from  the  pulpit,  and  is  wit- 
nessed to  in  the  Word.  But  only  in  the  right  use  of  the  I^iturgy 
is  this  fundamental  doctrine  appropriated  by  the  worshipper;  that 
is,  so  laid  hold  of,  and  made  use  of  in  an  act  of  believing  and  sur- 
rendering worship,  that  it  becomes  a  spiritual  force  and  an  illu- 
minating principle  in  the  thought  and  life.  It  is  so  with  all  the 
doctrines  of  our  Faith.  We  do  not  apprehend  and  assimilate 
their  truth  and  essential  reality  by  a  mere  intellectual  process, 
but  in  and  through  a  believing  act  of  worship  the  heart  lays  hold 
of  the  living  essence  of  spiritual  truth  and  reality,  makes  it  its 
very  own,  and  lives  in  it. 

The  cardinal  doctrine  of  Justification  by  Faith  is  only  a  the- 
ory until  it  is  realized  in  an  act  of  faith,  which  is  really  an  act  of 
worship.     And  this  is  most  fully  provided  for  in  the  L^iturgy. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  historical  Evangelical  I^iturgy  is  a 
mighty  witness  and  a  grand  exponent  and  practical  realization 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Spiritual  Priesthood  of  all  believers.  All 
parts  of  this  L,iturgy  are  for  all  the  people.  The  actual  render- 
ing of  certain  parts  is,  indeed,  assigned  to  certain  persons,  but 
the  whole  Church  speaks  or  is  spoken  to  in  every  part,  and  every 
part  is  for  every  one  and  for  all. 

We  can  not,  therefore,  emphasize  too  forcefully  the  impor- 
tance of  the  lyiturgy,  in  its  widest  range,  to  doctrine.  For  the 
practical  teaching  of  doctrine,  for  the  conservation  of  doctrine  the 
lyiturgy  is  equally  important  with  the  Confessions  and  dogmatic 
systems.  If  we  neglect  any  one  of  these  it  were  perhaps,  even 
better  to  let  the  dogmatic  and  the  confessional  formularies  lie  in 
some  measure  of  disuse  rather  than  give  up  the  constant  and  the 
faithful  use  of  the  I^iturgy.  If  we  keep  and  rightly  use  the 
I,iturgy,  with  all  that  it  includes  and  involves,  we  need  not  be 
afraid  that  the  true  doctrine  will  ever  be  lost.  But  if  we  disre- 
gard or  underestimate   the  value  and  importance  of  liturgical 


WTURGY    AND    DOCTRINE.  83 

worship,  our  doctrines,  no  matter  how  clear,  how  true,  how  fully 
formulated,  will  stand  in  constant  danger,  as  the  history  of  many 
of  the  sects  will  abundantly  prove. 

"With  the  heart  man  believeth  unto  righteousness,"  and  it 
is  the  heart  especially  that  is  concerned  and  deeply  affected  in 
true  worship.  Thus  in  the  proper  use  of  the  Liturgy  there  is  a 
devotional  stud}'  of  the  Word  and  of  Scriptural  doctrine.  In  an 
act  of  worship  the  thoughts  of  the  heart,  which  are  deeper  than 
the  thoughts  of  the  mind,  are  occupied  with  the  great,  inspiring, 
uplifting  themes  of  our  holy  religion.  And  this  is  often  the  only 
regular  and  systematic  study  of  these  important  themes  in  which 
the  great  mass  of  our  people  can  engage. 

If  in  addition  to  this  refreshing  and  edifying  worship  study 
of  spiritual  truth  which  we  have  in  the  use  of  the  Iviturgy  there 
are  inclination  and  opportunity  for  tracing  out  the  Scriptural 
and  Confessional  sources  of  the  various  parts  of  the  Service,  and 
their  relation  to  each  other,  one  may  easily  find  the  chief  con- 
tents of  the  doctrinal  system.  As  a  matter  of  fact  if  the  Confes- 
sions were  lost  we  could  restore  their  substance  from  the  I^iturgy. 
But  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  Liturgy  be  entirely  and  permanently 
abandoned  it  will  be  very  diflScult  to  retain  the  doctrines  in  their 
original  purity  and  living  power. 

D.  H.  Geissinger. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


EARI,Y  AMERICAN   I.UTHERAN   IvlTURGIES. 


Our  subject  has  to  do  with  the  founders  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
in  this  country,  their  methods  of  conducting  public  worship  and 
the  books  provided  for  this  purpose.  As  the  first  Lutheran 
Liturgy  was  prepared  in  1748  and  the  last  one  issued  in  i860,  be- 
fore the  appearance  of  the  excellent  CJnuxh  Book  now  in  use 
among  our  congregations,  our  investigations  will  cover  a  period 
of  over  one  hundred  years. 

The  first  Lutheran  settlers  in  this  new  world  were  of  Swedish, 
Dutch  and  German  extraction.  The  pastors,  who  ministered 
unto  them,  were  of  like  various  nationalities.  They  had  been 
educated  in  different  institutions,  under  diverse  theological  influ- 
ences, came  here  as  strangers  to  each  other,  with  nothing  in  com- 
mon save  their  desire  to  minister  to  the  spiritual  necessities  of 
their  brethren  of  the  household  of  faith  and  build  up  God's 
Kingdom  in  this  western  world.  Their  fields  of  labor  were  wide- 
ly separated.  The  settlements  were  sparce  and  the  people  were 
scattered.  Ever>"thing  was  in  a  chaotic  state.  The  Word  was 
to  be  preached;  congregations  gathered;  spiritual  life  awakened 
and  nurtured.  And  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  each  pastor 
in  doing  his  work  followed  the  religious  customs,  and  used  the 
Church  forms  with  which  he  was  familiar  in  the  land  of  his  na- 
tivity. The  home  congregation  was  the  model  after  which  he 
built.  Until  these  faithful  and  zealous  missionaries  could  form 
each  other's  acquaintance,  meet  for  consultation  and  mature  a 
formula  of  worship,  each  would  pursue  the  even  tenor  of  liis 
way  according  to  his  own  sense  of  dutj'. 

But  they  took  in  the  situation;  they  needed  each  other's 
sympathy.  Although  distance  barred  the  way,  a  common  inter- 
est drew  them  together.  Swede,  Dutchman  and  German  met, 
prayed,  counseled  and  planned  for  the  welfare  of  the  people  o'^-er 
whom  the  Holy  Ghost  had  made  them  overseers.     They  realized 

(Ixxxv) 


86  MEMOIRS. 

the  necessity  of  cooperation,  the  advantages  of  uniformity,  the 
benefits  of  a  common  brotherhood,  the  value  of  a  homogeneous 
Church  development. 

Fortunately  for  the  American  Lutheran  Church  the  fathers 
were  men  gi  excellent  education,  sound  judgment,  good  common 
sense,  who  were  willing  to  lay  aside  their  likes  and  prejudices, 
who,  out  of  love  for  the  Church,  prayed  for  her  peace  and 
wrought  for  the  things  which  contributed  to  her  unity.  As  a 
means  to  this  the  Liturgy  of  1748  was  prepared.  It  was  the  work 
of  Muhlenberg,  Brunholtz  and  Handschuh.  An  extract  taken 
from  the  diary  of  Dr.  Muhlenberg  found  in  Dr.  Mann's  Li/e  of 
the  Patriarch,  p.  184,  gives  an  exceedingly  interesting  account  of 
its  preparation: — 

"April  28th — We  held  a  Conference  in  Providence  and  de- 
liberated about  a  suitable  Liturgy  to  be  used  by  us  and  intro- 
duced into  our  congregations.  Thus  far,  'we  had  used  a  small 
formulary,  but  had  nothing  definite,  in  all  its  parts  harmonious, 
since  we  thought  it  best  to  wait  for  the  arrival  of  more  laborers, 
and  to  acquire  a  better  knowledge  of  the  condition  of  things  in 
this  country.  To  adopt  the  Swedish  Liturgy  did  not  appear  to 
be  advantageous  or  necessary,  since  most  of  the  members  of  our 
congregations  from  the  districts  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Main  con- 
sidered the  singing  of  Collects  as  papal.  Neither  could  we  select 
a  Liturgy  according  to  the  forms  to  which  any  individual  had 
been  accustomed,  since  almost  every  country  town  or  village  had 
its  own.  For  this  reason  we  took  the  Liturgy  of  the  Savoy  con- 
gregation of  London  as  the  basis;  abbreviated  it  or  made  addi- 
tions to  it  as  after  due  consideration  of  the  circumstances  in 
which  we  were  here  placed  seemed  advisable  to  us  and  calculated 
to  edify,  and  adopted  it  tentatively  until  we  had  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  matter,  and  determined  it  with  a  view  of  intro- 
ducing into  our  congregations  the  same  ceremonies,  forms  and 
words." 

In  August  of  that  year  a  meeting  was  called  in  Philadel- 
phia for  the  purpose  of  consultation  in  regard  to  the  formation  of 
a  synodical  body,  and  the  consideration  of  other  important  ques- 
tions. The  Synod  was  organized  and  the  Liturgy  then  in  use 
among  the  congregations  was  discussed  and  unanimously  ap- 
proved. And  so  important  was  the  matter  regarded,  that  the 
pastors  and  delegates  from  the  congregations  solemnly  pledged 


EARLY   AMERICAN   LUTHERAN  LITURGIES.  87 

themselves  to  use  no  other  forms  in  conducting  the  Services  of 
the  Church;  and  J.  Nicholas  Kurtz  who  was  ordained  at  that 
meeting  was  required  to  obligate  himself,  that  "he  would  intro- 
duce no  other  ceremonies  in  public  Services  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Sacraments  but  those  prescribed  by  the  Collegium 
pastonmi.'''' 

A  translation  of  this  interesting  Agende  which  was  in  Ger- 
man and  found  only  in  manuscript  form,  was  made  by  Rev.  Dr. 
C.  W.  Schaeffer,  and  is  given  in  Dr.  Jacobs'  History  of  the  Lzither- 
an  C/uirch,  pp.  269-275.  It  consists  of  the  following  parts: 
I.  The  manner  in  which  public  worship  shall  be  conducted  in  all 
our  congregations.  2.  Baptism  and  what  is  to  be  observed  in  its 
administration.  3.  Proclaiming  the  Bans.  4.  Of  Confession 
and  the  Holy  Communion.     5.  Burial  of  the  dead. 

The  order  of  Morning  Service  is  thus  arranged:  Hymn  of 
Invocation  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  Confession  of  Sins,  Gloria  hi 
Excelsis  (metrical  form),  Collect  with  Salutation  and  Response, 
Epistle,  Hymn,  Gospel,  Creed  (L-uther's  metrical  version).  Gen- 
eral Prayer,  Proclamations  and  Announcements,  Votuvi,  Hj^mn, 
Collection  of  Alms,  Closing  Collect  with  Salutation  and  Response, 
Benediction,  Closing  Verse.  The  order  for  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
given  as  follows:  Preface  with  Salutation,  Sursum  Corda  and 
Sanctus,  Exhortation,  Consecration,  Invitation,  Distribution, 
Benediction,  Benedicavncs,  Thanksgiving  Collect,  Benediction  and 
Closing  Collect. 

What  is  particularly  to  be  noted  in  regard  to  these  Orders  is 
the  rubrics.  The)^  are  positive  and  definite  and  all  in  the  imper- 
ative mode.  The  attitude  of  the  minister  is  defined.  His  every 
movement  is  directed.  The  very  form  of  words  to  be  used  in 
introducing  the  several  parts  is  prescribed.  Nothing  is  left  to 
choice.  The  disjunction  ^^or""  is  employed  in  only  three  in- 
stances. Once,  to  give  direction  to  use  one  or  the  other  of  two 
hymns  chosen,  the  other  to  sing  part  or  whole  of  the  Hymn,  and 
the  third  having  reference  to  the  length  of  the  Sermon.  "It  shall 
be  limited  to  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  or,  at  the  utmost,  to  au 
hour."  In  this  latter  case  together  with  the  last  clause,  this 
might  have  been  omitted  without  detriment  to  either  pastor  or 
people,  on  cold  days,  especially,  since  the  churches  were  not  pro- 
vided with  stoves  or  any  other  means  of  heating. 

Dr.  B.  M.  Schmucker,  who  is  acknowledged  to  have  been  one 


88  MEMOIRS. 

of  the  most  learned  Liturgiologists  of  this  or  any  other  country, 
thus  speaks  of  this  Liturgy:  "It  is  the  old,  well-defined,  conserva- 
tive Service  of  the  Saxon  and  North  German  Liturgies.  It  is, 
indeed,  the  pure,  biblical  parts  of  the  Service  of  the  Western 
Church  for  a  period  of  a  thousand  years  before  the  Reformation, 
with  the  modifications  given  it  by  the  Saxon  Reformers.  It  is 
the  Service  of  widest  acceptance  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Mid- 
dle and  North  Germany,  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden."* 

This  Liturgy  was  never  published.  The  pastors  had  made 
copies  of  it  for  individual  use.  For  a  period  of  thirty-eight  years 
it  was  an  acknowledged  authority  among  Lutheran  congregations 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  In  1782  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania 
ordered  it  published.  This  was  done  in  1786,  but  when  it  ap- 
peared in  printed  form  under  synodical  sanction,  it  had  been 
materially  altered.  These  changes  are  noted.  The  rubrics,  di- 
recting the  minister  when  to  turn  his  face  to  the  altar,  and  to  the 
people  are  omitted.  Any  suitable  hymn  is  allowed  instead  of  the 
invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Gloria  in  Excehis  is  omitted. 
A  voluntary  prayer  or  a  morning  prayer  is  substituted  for  the 
Collect  for  the  Day.  The  announcement  of  the  Gospel  and  Epis- 
tle is  omitted.  The  suitableness  of  the  hymn  to  the  season  of 
the  Church  Year  is  omitted.  The  reading  of  the  Gospel  at  the 
ajtar  is  omitted  and  it  is  read  only  in  the  pulpit.  The  people  are 
no  longer  directed  to  stand  during  the  reading  of  the  Gospel. 
The  Creed  is  omitted.  Other  texts  than  the  Gospel  are  permit- 
ted, at  the  option  of  the  minister.  Another  and  much  longer 
General  Prayer  is  used. 

Referring  to  these  alterations  and  omissions.  Dr.  B.  M. 
Schmucker  remarks: — "Every  one  of  them  is  an  injury  to  the 
pure  Lutheran  type  of  the  old  Service.  The  chaste  liturgical 
taste  of  the  fathers  has  become  vitiated.  The  accord  of  spirit 
with  the  Church  of  the  Reformation  is  dying  out  gradually. 
The  Service  of  the  Church  is  sinking  slowly  toward  the  immeas- 
urable depths  into  which  it  afterwards  fell.  The  order  of  Service 
of  1748  is  beyond  comparison  the  noblest  and  purest  Lutheran 
Service  which  the  Church  in  America  prepared  or  possessed  un- 
til the  publication  of  the  Church  Book.''' 

In  1795  Dr.  Kunze  of  New  York,  in  order  to  make  provision 
for  the  English  portion  of  his  congregation,  published  a  transla- 
*   Church  Review.     Vol.1,  p.  174. 


EARI,Y   AMERICAN   LUTHERAN   LITURGIES.  89 

tion  of  the  Liturgy  of  1786,  in  connection  with  a  book  of  Hymns, 
It  calls  for  no  special  mention.  It  seems  to  have  been  short 
lived,  for,  two  years  afterwards,  Rev.  Strebeck,  who  was  associ- 
ated pastor  with  Dr.  Kunze,  issued  a  work  bearing  the  title: — A 
Collection  of  Evangelical  Hymns,  made  from  different  authors  and 
collections  for  the  Lutheran  Church  in  New  York,  to  which  was 
also  added  the  Liturgy  in  a  much  changed  and  abridged  form. 
Whatever  may  have  been  its  merits  or  demerits,  it  evidently 
failed  to  meet  with  favor,  as  Rev.  Ralph  Williston  who,  after 
the  defection  of  Rev.  Strebeck  to  the  Episcopal  Church,  became 
the  associate  of  Dr.  Kunze,  published  a  Book  of  Hymns  and  Lit- 
urgy of  the  Lutherari  Church.  It  appeared  in  1806,  with  the  ap- 
proval and  recommendation  of  Dr.  Kunze,  President  of  the  Min- 
isterium  of  New  York.  The  Liturgy  is  evidently  an  adaptation 
of  that  of  1786,  and  parts  taken  from  the  Book  of  Coynmon  Prayer, 
From  the  copy  before  us,  we  give  the  order  of  Morning  Service. 
After  singing  a  hymn,  the  minister  (from  the  altar)  addresses 
the  congregation  and  leads  them  in  Confession  of  Sin — then  fol- 
lows the  Salutation  and  Response.  Then  the  minister  prays  ex- 
tempore or  uses  the  short  form  given,  the  congregation  respond- 
ing with  the  Amen.  The  Gospel  and  Epistle  are  read,  a  hymn 
is  sung,  the  minister  offers  an  extempore  prayer  (ending  with  the 
Lord's  Prayer)  in  the  pulpit,  then  the  Sermon.  After  the  Ser- 
mon the  Litany  may  be  used,  or  Te  Deum.  The  hymn  for  the 
conclusion  is  announced  and  the  Service  in  the  pulpit  concluded 
with  the  sentence,  "The  peace  of  God,  which  passeth  all  under- 
standing, keep  your  hearts  and  minds  through  Christ  Jesus." 
Before  the  hymn  is  sung  the  alms  are  collected.  Then  the  min- 
ister goes  again  before  the  altar  and  says:  "The  Lord  be  with 
you;"  and  the  congregation  responds:  "And  with  thy  spirit." 
Then  follows  an  extempore  prayer,  or  a  form  provided,  closing 
wnth  the  Aaronic  benediction,  to  which  is  added:  "In  the  Name 
of  the  Father,"  etc.  In  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
the  order,  with  slight  modifications,  is  substantially  that  given  in 
the  Liturgy  of  1786,  with  the  exception  that  there  is  a  separate 
prayer  for  the  consecration  of  the  elements,  and  in  the  distribu- 
tion the  words:  "Jesus  said,"  etc.  are  used.  With  the  noting  of 
these  changes  nothing  further  need  be  said. 

In  18 1 7  Drs.  Quitman  and  Wackerhagen,  at  the  instance  of 
the  New  York  Synod,  edited  and  published  a  H5'mn  Book  and 


90  MKMOIRS, 

Enlarged  Liturgy  for  the  use  of  Evangelical  L,utlieran  congrega- 
tions. The  liturgical  portion  of  the  work,  like  its  eminent  au- 
thor, is  rationalistic,  liberal  and  un-IyUtheran.  It  possesses  not 
a  single  redeeming  quality  and  its  chief  characteristic  is  that  it 
is  bad  all  the  way  through.  It  gives  variety  in  overflowing  ful- 
ness. Two  forms  of  Confessions  are  provided;  two  other  prayers 
after  the  singing  of  the  first  hymn,  and  eight  general  prayers  are 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  ofiiciating  minister,  wherein  he  may 
address  his  Father  in  Heaven,  in  the  lofty  titles  of  "Supremely 
Exalted  and  Adorable  Jehovah,"  "Infinite  and  Incomprehensible 
Jehovah,"  "Self -existent  and  Infinite  Jehovah."  He  is,  like- 
wise, given  a  long  list  of  benedictions  from  which  to  make  selec- 
tion. A  table  of  Gospels  and  Epistles  is  furnished  him  with  the 
kindly  assurance  (?)  that  "there  is  an  impropriety  in  congrega- 
tions confining  themselves,  year  after  year,  to  these  portions  of 
Scripture."  So,  too,  in  the  invitation  to  the  lyord's  Supper, 
he  is  enjoined  to  say,  "All  who  receive  Him  as  your  Saviour 
and  resolve  to  be  faithful  subjects  to  Him,  5^e  are  welcome  to  this 
feast  of  love."  While  in  the  distribution  he' may  say,  ''Jesus 
said,'"  etc.,  he  is  generously  permitted  to  substitute  any  other 
words  for  these. 

The  Ministerium  of  Pennsylvania  showed  its  dissatisfaction 
with  its  own  and  all  other  existing  Liturgies  by  publishing  in 
1818  another  Agende,  from  which  almost  every  vestige  of  a  re- 
sponsive service  is  eliminated.  Its  order  of  Morning  Service 
opens  with  a  Confession  of  Sin,  but  without  Absolution.  A 
prayer  may  be  substituted  ending  with  the  Kyrie,  then  follows 
the  Salutation,  the  reading  of  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  or  an}'-  suit- 
able selection  of  Scripture,  the  Hymn,  Sermon,  General  Prayer, 
Votum,  Closing  Verse  and  Benediction. 

A  second  form  is  given  beginning  v/ith  a  selection  of  sen- 
tences, among  them  the  Versicles  of  Matins  and  Vespers,  and 
part  of  the  "  Venite  Exultemus."  Then  follows  the  Hymn,  after 
which  the  pastor  is  directed  to  read  at  the  altar,  a  modern  version 
of  the  Te  Dawi;  then  another  Hymn,  Prayer  in  the  pulpit.  Ser- 
mon, Prayer,  Hymn,  Benediction. 

Three  forms  are  presented  for  the  administration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  all  of  which  are  departures  from  the  chaste  an- 
cient forms  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  devoid  of  good  liturgical 
taste.     In  the  distribution  the  offensive  words,  "Jesus  said"  are 


EARI.Y   AMERICAN   LUTHERAN   LITURGIES.  91 

used.  It  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  further  discuss  the  incon- 
gruities of  this  rehgious  Manual. 

In  September,  1833  the  Tennessee  Synod,  then  in  session  at 
Salem  Church,  I^incoln  County,  North  Carolina,  requested  Revs. 
Andrew  Henkel,  Jacob  Killian  and  Jacob  Stirewalt  "to  complete 
a  Liturgy  for  the  use  of  our  own  Church."  In  pursuance  with 
this  action,  as  we  are  informed  in  the  preface  of  the  book,  the 
Rev.  Solomon  Henkel  issued  from  his  press  at  New  Market,  Va., 
1843,  a  Liturgy  or  Book  of  Forms  for  the  use  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church.  It  contains  forms  for  the  performance  of  all 
ministerial  acts,  and  is  mainly  a  translation  of  the  Liturgy  of 
the  Ministerium  of  Pennsylvania  of  1786.  Its  Order  of  Public 
Worship  is  very  brief  and  simple.  It  contains  no  responses 
whatever,  and  only  provides  prayers  for  use  before  and  after  the 
sermon,  and  a  number  of  benedictions.  The  other  portions  of  the 
work  are  eminently  Scriptural  and  in  full  accord  with  Lutheran 
doctrine.  Special  care  is  exercised  to  furnish  suitable  prayers 
for  all  festival  days.  It  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Tennessee 
Synod  and  is  still  used  by  some  of  its  old  members  and  congre- 
gations. 

In  1834  the  New  York  Ministerium  felt  constrained  to  pub- 
lish a  new  Liturgy  for  the  use  of  its  English  congregations.  It 
differed  only  on  a  few  minor  points  from  the  Agende  of  181 8,  and 
was  possibly  only  a  free  translation  of  it.  This  was  approved  by 
the  Pennsylvania  Synod  in  1835  and  at  its  recommendation  the 
General  Synod  adopted  it  at  its  meeting  1837,  and  ordered  it  to 
be  appended  to  its  Hymn  Book. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  had  received  such  endorse- 
ment, the  Liturgy  of  the  New  York  Ministerium  did  not  prove 
satisfactory,  for  in  1839  the  Pennsylvania  Sj^nod  appointed  a 
Committee  to  prepare  a  new  Edition  of  our  Church  Liturgy  in  an 
improved  and  more  complete  form.  In  this  work  it  asked  the 
cooperation  of  all  Synods  using  the  present  Liturgy.  The  New 
York  Ministerium  and  the  Synod  of  Ohio  willingly  acceded  to  the 
request  and  appointed  committees,  so  that  the  preparation  of  the 
proposed  Liturgy  might  be  made  conjointly.  The  Committee 
charged  with  the  matter,  addressed  themselves  at  once  to  the 
work  and  in  1841  reported  the  results  of  their  labors  to  the  Synod 
of  Pennsylvania;  and  so  well  had  the  Committee  met  the  expecta- 
tion of  that  Body,  that  it  ordered  the  Liturgy,  prepared  by  them, 


92  MEMOIRS. 

to  be  published.  It  appeared  in  1842,  signed  by  the  committees 
of  the  respective  Synods  cooperating  in  its  production.  The 
General  Synod,  meeting  in  1843,  heartily  approved  of  this  lyitiu-- 
gy  and  commended  it  in  highest  praise  to  its  German  congrega- 
tions, and  at  the  same  Convention  appointed  a  Committee  "to 
prepare  a  lyiturgy  in  the  English  language,  having  reference  to 
the  German  Liturgy  of  the  Pennsylvania  Synod,  as  the  basis  of 
the  same,  as  well  as  other  liturgical  forms  now  in  use  in  our 
Church."  The  Committee,  consisting  of  Drs.  C.  P.  Krauth,  Sr., 
Benj.  Kurtz,  Wm.  Reynolds,  Ezra  Keller,  J.  G.  Morris  and  C. 
A.  Smith,  in  1845  reported  that  they  had  resolved  to  translate 
the  German  Liturgy  of  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  and  abridge  or 
enlarge  it  as  they  deemed  advisable.  Two  years  hence  the}^  pre- 
sented their  work  in  a  completed  form,  and  claimed  for  it  that  it 
was  more  complete  than  any  other  Liturgy;  that  it  was  purely  an 
American  Lutheran  Liturgy;  that,  if  uniformity  be  desired,  it 
will  be  reached  by  the  adoption  of  these  forms.  Whether  we  at- 
tend German  or  English  Services  we  will  hear  the  pastor,  as  he 
stands  before  the  altar,  utter  the  same  truths,  address  us  in  the 
same  manner  and  pour  out  the  same  prayer  to  the  Hearer  of 
prayer;  that  no  other  Liturgy  could  have  the  same  association 
and  lastly,  as  a  large  number  of  Synods  had  already  adopted  the 
German  Liturgy,  it  did  not  seem  desirable  to  have  an  English 
Liturgy  not  similar  to  it,  but  if  possible,  the  same  in  all  its  pro- 
visions.    It  was  published  in  1847. 

But  withal,  this  Liturgy,  on  which  so  many  different  Com- 
mittees had  wrought,  and  to  which  various  Synodical  Bodies  had 
given  generous  approval  from  its  incipiency  until  it  was  devel- 
oped into  an  English  speaking  medium,  was  almost  identical  with 
that  of  1835  and  was  scarcely  an  improvement  over  the  Liturgy 
of  1 81 8.  It  was  no  responsive  Liturgy  at  all.  There  is  no  pro- 
vision for  the  people's  taking  a  part.  The  minister  did  it  all  and 
his  congregation  stood  silent  before  him. 

The  Service  opens  with  a  Votum  or  an  inspiring  passage  of 
Scripture;  the  minister  then  announces  a  hymn;  after  the  hymn 
is  sung,  he  goes  to  the  altar,  counsels  the  people  to  make  con- 
fession of  sins,  or  reads  one  of  the  general  prayers.  Then  fol- 
lows the  reading  of  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  or  any  suitable  selec- 
tion of  Scripture;  another  hymn  is  announced;  the  minister 
ascends  the  pulpit,  prays,  preaches,  and  prays  again,  gives  out 


EARLY  AMERICAN   LUTHERAN   LITURGIES.  93 

another  hymn  and  dismisses  the  congregation  with  a  benediction. 
For  the  ordering  of  this  Service  there  is  an  abundance  of  materi- 
al provided.  The  minister  has  choice  of  five  Opening  Sentences 
and  eleven  Scriptural  expressions,  three  forms  of  Confession,  six 
prayers  following  Confession,  four  prayers  after  reading  the 
Scriptures,  three  prayers  after  the  Sermon  and  three  forms  of 
benediction.  In  Preparatory  Services  three  forms  are  prescribed; 
the  same  number  for  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  all 
of  a  piece  in  their  objectionable  features.  The  one  redeeming 
feature  of  the  Liturgy  is,  it  is  not  binding.  The  minister  is  left 
free  to  make  his  own  selection.  He  can  use  any  part  or  reject  all 
and  substitute  his  own,  in  harmony  with  directions  of  Luther 
given  in  his  rules  for  ordering  worship,  when  he  says,  "but  the 
Antiphons,  the  Responsories  and  Collects,  the  Legends  of  the 
Saints  and  the  Cross  may,  for  a  time  at  least,  be  omitted  until 
they  have  been  purified,  because  they  contain  a  great  deal  of 
abominable  filth." 

It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  the  publication  of  this  Liturgy 
was  a  disappointment  and  did  not  supply  the  want  of  the  Church. 
Owing  to  its  many  and  grave  defects  it  could  not  satisfy  men  of 
correct  liturgical  tastes,  who  loved  the  pure  forms  of  Lutheran 
worship.  Hence  in  1850  we  find  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  taking 
the  initiative  in  securing  the  cooperation  of  the  Synods  which  had 
participated  in  the  publication  of  the  present  Liturgy,  in  the  prep- 
aration of  a  new  one  in  harmony  with  the  doctrine  and  spirit  of  the 
Lutheran  Church.  This  was  readily  secured .  The  committees  of 
the  Synods  acted  jointly  with  the  encouragement  and  approval  of 
the  General  Synod.  After  five  years  of  patient  examination  and 
painstaking  labor,  they  finished  their  work  and  the  Liturgy  of 
1855  was  published.  Its  advent  was  hailed  with  joy.  It  was  a 
decided  improvement  over  its  immediate  predecessors.  It  elimi- 
nated many  of  their  objectionable  features.  It  supplied  many 
primitive  orders.  It  restored  the  responses.  It  contained  all  the 
essential  features  of  a  true  Lutheran  Service,  not  in  their  natural 
and  proper  order,  it  is  true,  nor  according  to  the  true  principles 
of  liturgical  construction,  but  in  confessedly  Scriptural  purity. 
In  the  order  of  Morning  Service  the  voice  of  the  people  is  heard 
in  the  Gloria  Patri,  the  Excclsis,  the  Amens,  the  Re.sponses,  the 
Sa7idus,  the  Ag-nus  Dei  and  the  Nunc  Dimittis.  The  Creed 
is  made  optional   and  its  reading  is  assigned  to  the  minister. 


94  MKMOIRS. 

Although  it  has  its  defects  it  has  much  to  recommend  it. 
Notwithstanding  the  many  excellencies  of  this  Manual,  it 
was  destined  to  be  soon  replaced  by  another.  The  Pennsylvania 
Synod  had  authorized  the  translation  of  the  German  Liturgy  of 
1855  for  use  of  its  English  speaking  congregations.  The  Com- 
mittee entrusted  with  this  work,  consisting  of  Revs.  Drs.  C.  F. 
Schaeffer,  C.  W.  Schaeffer,  G.  F.  Krotel,  B.  M.  Schmucker  and 
C.  F.  Weldin,  had  been  instructed  to  omit  much  matter,  as  su- 
perfluous, and  "to  make  a  number  of  alterations,  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  a  stricter  conformity  to  the  general  usage  of 
the  ancient  and  purest  I^iturgies  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  in 
a  few  instances,  to  conform  to  the  practice  of  our  English 
churches  in  this  country." 

Thus  they  provided  a  selection  of  Introits  to  be  sung  by  the 
congregation,  substituted  a  new  form  for  Confession  of  Sin,  added 
the  Nicene  Creed  for  occasional  use,  placed  the  General  Prayer 
before  instead  of  after  the  Sermon,  supplied  a  number  of  General 
and  Special  Collects,  and  gave  but  one  form  for  the  performance 
of  Ministerial  Acts. 

While  the  changes  made  by  the  Committee  were  not  numer- 
ous, the}^  were  deemed  important  in  order  that  their  claim  might 
be  successfully  supported,  to  wit:  "that  the  present  work  will  be 
found  to  agree  more  nearly  with  the  ancient  usage  of  the  Luther- 
an Church,  than  any  which  has  yet  been  published  in  the  English 
language  by  any  portion  of  our  church  in  this  country."  It  was 
published  in  this  countr}^  in  1S60.  Its  preparation  and  publica- 
tion were  the  harbinger  of  a  brighter  day.  It  demonstrated  that 
the  leaven  of  a  purer  liturgical  principle  was  working.  It  gave 
evidence  of  a  love  for  the  old  faith  and  an  appreciation  of  vener- 
able forms.  It  breathed  the  pious  longings  for  a  return  to  the 
practices  of  the  fathers.  It  revealed  a  veneration  for  the  songs 
and  prayers  that  were  the  delight  of  the  Lord's  saints  in  all  the 
ages  past,  and  it  led  the  way  to  the  preparation  of  the  CJmrch 
Book  which  has  placed  the  Church  of  to-day  in  communion  with 
the  worshipping  assemblies  of  ancient  days,  and  enables  them  to 
join  their  praises  with  the  angelic  hosts,  chanting  their  hymns  in 
the  courts  of  glory. 

D.   M.   KejmerER. 
Pittsbu  rgh ,   Pa . 


THE   IvlTURGY   OF   THE    ICEEANDIC   CHURCH. 


I.      THE    PRE-REFORMATION   SERVICE. 

Christianity  was  peaceably  introduced  into  Iceland  from  Nor- 
way, A.  D.  looo.  Before  that  time,  however,  the  first  Christian 
churches  had  already  been  erected.  Iceland  was  at  that  time  a 
commonwealth  or  a  republic  and  had  a  representative  assembly, 
the  so-called  Althing.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Althing  at  Thing- 
vellir  in  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  in  the  middle  of  the 
summer,  the  Icelandic  chiefs,  who  had  been  converted  to  Christi- 
anity during  their  travels  among  their  kinsmen  in  Norway  and 
especially  during  their  stay  at  the  court  of  King  Olafiir  Tryggva- 
S071,  who  was  brought  up  in  England,  and,  glowing  with  zeal  for 
missions,  preached  the  Christian  doctrines  to  the  assembled  mul- 
titudes and  celebrated  the  Mass  according  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
ritual.  Naturally  there  was  a  great  deal  of  friction  between 
the  two  parties,  the  heathen  party  tenaciously  clinging  to  the 
old  Asa-iQ.{\.h,  and  the  Christian  party,  by  all  means,  desiring 
to  bring  about  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  To  the  latter 
party,  however,  belonged  the  more  liberal-minded  and  progressive 
part  of  the  people, — the  younger  generation  of  chiefs,  who  had 
received  their  education  in  foreign  lands  and  were  fully  aware, 
that  the  world  was  fast  becoming  Christian.  The  Eiturgy  intro- 
duced was  naturally  that  of  the  then  universal  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  first  books  written  in  Iceland  were  in  all  probabil- 
ity books  used  by  the  clergy,  such  as  Missals  and  Breviaries, 
containing  the  ecclesiastic  forms,  copied  from  books  brought  from 
foreign  countries.  As  far  as  the  present  writer  knows,  none  of 
these  books  have  come  down  to  us,  intensely  interesting  as  they 
undoubtedly  would  have  been.  But  we  may  rest  assured  that 
they  contained  nothing  original  and  did  not  in  any  way  deviate 
from  the  fixed  liturgical  path  of  the  Roman  Church. 

(xcv) 


96  MEMOIRS. 

II.       THE    INTRODUCTION    OF   THE    REFORMATION. 

Our  review  of  the  history  of  lyiturgy  in  the  Icelandic  Church 
ma3^  therefore,  very  properly  commence  with  the  introduction  of 
the  Reformation  into  Iceland.  The  republic  had  passed  away, 
furnishing  a  glorious  prototype  to  all  later  republics,  with  a  most 
comprehensive  code  of  legal  procedure  and  its  famous  and  excel- 
lent jury  system.  A  union  had  been  entered  into  with  Norway 
under  the  rule  of  King  Hakon  the  Old,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
1262.  Norway  had  in  its  turn,  with  Iceland  as  her  dependency, 
passed  under  Danish  rule  in  1388.  Hence  it  is  that  in  Iceland 
the  Reformation  and  the  spiritual  resurrection  following  it  was 
brought  about  from  Denmark.  In  that  country  the  Reformation 
had  triumphed  in  the  year  1536.  At  that  time  Iceland  was  di- 
vided into  two  bishoprics,  one  at  SkalJwlt  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  country,  and  the  other  at  Holar  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
island. 

The  first  echo  of  the  great  Reformation,  heard  in  Iceland, 
probably  was  a  sermon,  preached  by  the  officiating  priest  at 
Skalholt  in  the  year  1530,  on  Kindlemas-day  in  which  he  de- 
nounced the  practice  of  addressing  prayers  to  saints  or  holy  men 
as  a  damnable  heresy.  The  bishop  whose  name  was  Ogmioidur 
Palsson,  an  old  man  already  by  this  time,  was  seriously  offended, 
and  more  so  because  the  priest  happened  to  be  a  very  intimate 
friend  of  his.  He  remonstrated,  but  in  vain,  as  the  priest  was 
unwilling  to  recant;  he  was  consequently  removed  to  a  neighbor- 
ing parish. 

But  at  Skalholt  there  were  a  number  of  young  men,  whose 
hearts  touched  by  the  fires  of  the  Reformation,  were  quietly 
studying  and  preparing  themselves  for  the  inevitable  conflict, 
without  committing  themselves  too  early.  The  most  prominent 
among  these  were  Gizur  Einarssoji  and  Oddur  Gottskalksson.  The 
former  had  been  brought  up  from  youth  by  the  bishop  and  sent 
to  Germany  to  complete  his  education.  There  he  came  into  con- 
tact with  the  doctrines  of  Luther  and  embraced  them  in  his  heart. 
Oddur  Gottskalksson  was  the  son  of  the  bishop  at  Holar.  He 
was  brought  up  in  Norway,  educated  in  Germany  and  there  con- 
verted to  the  Lutheran  faith.  Both  these  men  from  prudential 
reasons  concealed  their  convictions  for  some  time  and  kept  the 
worthy  bishop  in  utter  ignorance  of  their  Lutheran  proclivities. 
Oddur  Gottskalksson  however  commenced  at  this  time,  his  work 


THE   LITURGY   OF   THE   ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  97 

on  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Icelandic,  but  made 
a  close  secrecy  of  it. 

In  1536  Christian  III  ascended  the  throne  of  Denmark.  His 
ascension  was  hailed  with  much  enthusiasm  by  the  party  favor- 
ing the  Reformation,  which  then  was  at  once  consummated  as 
far  as  Denmark  and  Norway  were  concerned.  Shortly  after  a 
new  law  was  drawn  up  to  prescribe  and  regulate  the  theii  rather 
loose  and  irregular  practices  in  the  Danish  Church.  In  this  work 
a  number  of  the  greatest  lights  and  most  prominent  dignitaries 
of  the  Church  participated.  This  document  is  known  as  the 
Ordinayice  of  King  Christian  III.  It  was  sent  to  Martin  Luther 
at  Wittenberg  for  approval  and  subsequently  corrected  and  re- 
vised by  Biigenhagen,  who  was  sent  to  Denmark  for  that  very 
purpose.  In  the  fullest  sense  it  did  not  however  become  a  law  in 
the  Danish  Church  before  the  year  1539,  although  it  had  been 
considered  as  the  binding  rule  of  the  new  Church  for  some  time. 
This  may  best  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  already  the  year  before, 
1538,  it  had  been  sent  to  Iceland  with  the  view  that  it  should 
become  a  law  in  that  country.  At  the  same  time  both  the  bish- 
ops in  Iceland  received  royal  orders  to  change  the  error  of  their 
ways  and  live  from  that  time  on  according  to  this  new  ecclesias- 
tical code.  But  they  were  both  in  their  hearts  fervent  adherents 
of  the  old  faith  and  shelved  these  royal  orders  as  dead  and  impo- 
tent measures.  Bishop  Ogmundur  Palsson  however,  blind  and 
decrepit  as  he  now  was,  desired  to  free  himself  from  the  arduous 
duties  of  his  high  oflfice  and  brought  about  the  election  of  Gizur 
Einarsson,  his  foster  son,  whom  he  did  not  in  the  least  suspect 
of  Lutheran  heresy,  to  the  episcopal  ofhce.  The  successful  can- 
didate at  once  sailed  to  Denmark  to  receive  his  ordination  and 
get  instructions  from  his  government  at  the  same  time.  And 
cheerfully  did  he  vow  to  champion  the  Lutheran  cause  according 
to  his  ability  and  to  preach  the  Word  of  God  in  its  purity  to  his 
countrymen.  His  lay  co-laborer  and  friend,  Oddur  Gottskalks- 
son,  followed  him  to  Copenhagen  and  had  his  masterly  transla- 
tion of  the  New  Testament  into  Icelandic  printed  in  Roskilde, 
1540. 

In  the  diocese  of  Skalholt,  comprising  three-fourths  of  Ice- 
land, the  Lutheran  Reformation  was  thus  practically  introduced 
with  the  elevation  of  Gizur  Einarsson  to  the  episcopal  office. 
There  the  Church  Ordinance  of  Christian  III  was  at  least  nomi- 


98  MEMOIRS. 

nally  put  in  force,  and  we  have  no  doubt  that  the  young  bishop 
put  forth  all  his  endeavors  that  it  should  also  be  followed  in  prac- 
tice. But  he  had  a  fierce  and  persistent  opposition  to  encounter. 
The  old  bishop  was  furious,  but  could  not  do  much.  But  the 
bishop  at  Holar,  Jon  Arason,  put  up  a  prolonged  and  most  obsti- 
nate fight  against  the  new  faith  during  the  next  decade  (1540- 
1550).  He  was  a  very  influential  man  in  his  diocese  and  in  fact 
all  over  the  island,  upholding  the  old  Roman  Catholic  authority 
and  practice  with  a  bold  hand. 

One  of  the  melancholy  incidents  of  that  struggle  was  the 
death  of  the  champion  of  the  lyUtheran  cause,  bishop  Gizur 
Einarsson,  before  the  victory  was  gained.  At  a  noted  farm- 
house in  his  diocese  there  was  a  cross  of  much  miraculous  fame — 
one  of  the  landmarks  of  the  dying  faith.  To  this  cross  pilgrim- 
ages were  made  from  afar.  To  put  an  end  to  these  superstitious 
practices  the  bishop  travelled  to  the  place  and  took  the  cross 
down  with  his  own  hand.  But  as  soon  as  he  returned  home  he 
was  taken  sick  and  died.  The  party  which  was  yet  loyal  to  Ca- 
tholicism of  course  interpreted  this  as  a  miraculous  interference 
of  Providence.  The  antagonist  of  the  Lutheran  movement,  Jon 
Arason,  had  however  to  suffer  the  penalty  of  his  reckless  violence 
two  years  later,  when  he  met  a  violent  death  at  the  hands  of  his 
adversaries  with  whom  he  had  been  keeping  up  an  armed  warfare 
for  a  long  time.  After  his  decease  the  Reformation  became  tri- 
umphant in  the  whole  island  in  the  year  1550. 

In  the  j^ear  1571  Gudbrandur  Thorlaksson  was  appointed  by 
the  King  to  the  diocese  of  Holar.  He  was  at  that  time  by  far 
the  best  educated  man  in  his  country  and  endowed  with  rare 
abilities.  He  is  the  real  reformer  of  his  country.  He  was  a  man 
of  tireless  energy,  a  strong  will,  fervent  faith,  profound  learning 
and  much  literary  ability. 

III.       THE   REFORMATION    SERVICE. 

Bishop  Jon  Arason  had  imported  the  first  printing  press  into 
the  island  shortly  before  his  death.  Of  this  printing  press  bishop 
Gudbrandur  Thorlaksson  now  made  a  good  use.  He  translated 
the  Bible  and  issued  an  illustrated  edition  of  it  in  1584,  having 
made  the  wood-cuts  with  his  own  hand.  Besides  he  issued  a 
multitude  of  religious  books  and  in  a  short  time  transformed  the 
religious  life  of  the  country  according  to  the  ideals  of  the  Refor- 


THE   LITURGY   OF   THE   ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  99 

mation.  In  1589  he  published  the  first  Hymn-book  and  then  the 
Graduale,  which  after  that  was  the  only  Church-book  in  Iceland 
until  1801.  It  appeared  in  no  less  than  nineteen  editions,  the 
first  of  which  was  printed  in  1594  and  the  last  in  1779.  He  was 
bishop  for  fifty-six  years  and  was  untiring  in  his  labors  for  the 
Church  of  the  Reformation.  His  endeavors  were  crowned  with 
so  complete  a  success  that  the  Church  of  Iceland  became  as  truly 
Lutheran  in  faith  and  practice  as  any  other  part  of  the  Reforma- 
tion Church. 

At  first  the  Liturgy  of  the  Danish  Church  was  naturally  in  a 
rather  unsettled  condition.  The  first  evangelical  pastor  at  Mal- 
7710,  Ha7is  Taiiseii,  had  made  a  collection  of  the  first  Danish  hymns 
to  the  number  of  about  one  hundred,  and  had  his  book  published 
at  Malmo  in  1528.  It  also  contained  the  Evangelical  Order  of 
Service,  not  a  translation  of  Luther's  work,  neither  the  Fo7'miila 
Missce,  nor  the  Deutsche  Messe,  but  an  original  adaptation  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Service  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation. 
This  book  is  known  as  the  Mabno-book.  According  to  that  the 
order  of  Service  was  as  follows: — 

1.  A  Hymn  {Adjictorium  nost}-u7)i). 

2.  Confession  of  Sins  {Conjiteor,  in  altered  form). 

3.  Evangelical  Absolution. 

4.  iTitroitiis  {De  projundis,  a  Hymn). 

5.  Ky7ie  eleiso7i,  a  Hymn. 

6.  Gloria  in  Excel  sis. 

7.  Salutation  and  Collect. 

8.  Epistle,  especially  i  Cor.  11. 

9.  Hallelujah. 

10.  The  Gospel,  especially  John  6. 

1 1 .  Credo  and  Hymn. 

12.  Sermon. 

13.  Hymn. 

14.  Luther's  paraphrase  of  the  Lord's  Praj-er. 

15.  Saiichis. 

16.  The  Words  of  Institution  with  Agnus  Dei  and  Lu- 
ther's Exhortation  to  the  Communicants;  the  Distribution;  a 
Hymn  of  Thanksgiving. 

17.  Salutation  and  Luther's  Collect  for  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per {Deutsche  Jl/esse). 

18.  Benediction. 


100  MEMOIRS. 

19.  The  Ten  Commandments  in  versified  form  by  Claus 
Mortensen. 

Sometimes  the  Prcsfatio,  Stirsimi  Corda,  was  sung  before 
the  Lord's  Supper. 

This  is  the  very  first  Lutheran  Order  of  Service,  used  in  the 
Scandinavian  countries.  It  is  also  one  of  the  oldest  Liturgies  in 
northern  Europe.  I  have  therefore  considered  it  of  sufficient  in- 
terest to  be  incorporated  into  this  sketch.  This  Liturgy  was 
printed  in  a  separate  form  in  Malmo  in  1529  and  1535,  probably 
at  the  instance  of  Claus  Mortensen.  In  the  year  1529  both  Ha7is 
Taiisen  and  Olaiis  Chrysostomos  were  called  to  Copenhagen,  the 
Danish  Capital,  the  latter  from  Malmo,  to  take  charge  of  the  pas- 
torate at  Frue  Kirke,  where  the  royal  family  worshiped,  the  litur- 
gical practices  at  that  church  exercising  in  coming  years  norma- 
tive influence  all  over  the  Danish  Kingdom.  Both  these  men 
have  therefore  ordered  their  Services  according  to  the  Malmo- 
book.  The  Malmo  Order  of  Service  is  the  foundation  of  the 
Swedish  Liturgy,  which  was  not  published  by  Olaus  Petri  until 
the  year  1531.  In  fact  it  came  very  near  prevailing  in  all  the 
Scandinavian  countries,  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  it  is 
only  to  be  regretted,  that  it  did  not  prevail  altogether  in  its  main 
characteristics.  It  retained  the  old,  time-honored  feature  of  con- 
sidering the  Lord's  Supper  as  the  climax  of  the  whole  Service. 
Its  most  serious  defect  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  old  system  of 
Pericopes  has  been  discarded.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  good 
deal  of  vacillation  in  regard  to  the  use  of  Pericopes  and  Confes- 
sion of  Sins. 

As  before  stated,  the  first  echoes  of  the  Reformation  began 
to  be  heard  in  Iceland  about  the  year  1530.  During  the  preced- 
ing decade  the  men  who  were  destined  to  become  the  reformers 
of  the  Church  in  Iceland,  Gizur  Einarsson  and  Oddur  Gottskalks- 
son,  had  both  been  in  Germany  and  Denmark,  the  latter  having 
even  been  brought  up  in  Norway.  Both  undoubtedly  made  them- 
selves thoroughly  conversant  with  the  new  order  of  things  as  it 
was  taking  shape  especially  in  the  Danish  Kingdom.  The  prob- 
ability is  that  they  brought  copies  with  them  of  the  famous  Mal- 
mo-book  and  that  they,  as  soon  as  circumstances  permitted  them 
to  do  so,  adopted  that  form  of  Service  in  their  churches.  We 
have  no  direct  evidence  of  this  however,  as  books  began  to  be 
printed  in  Iceland  at  a  much  later  date.     But  the  probability  is 


THE    LITURGY   OF   THE)    ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  101 

SO  strong  that  it  almost  takes  the  form  of  certaint}'.  We  there- 
fore take  it  for  granted  that  it  was  the  Mahno  Order  of  Service 
which  was  first  introduced  into  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Iceland; 
that  this  was  done  a  considerable  time  before  the  Reformation 
was  formall}^  accepted  all  over  the  island,  and  that  this  same  Ser- 
vice has  been  followed  even  up  to  the  year  1560.  As  we  shall 
see  presentl}^,  a  great  many  changes  were  introduced  in  Denmark, 
but  the  Icelandic  Church  has  always  been  very  conservative  in 
regard  to  its  Liturgy  and  naturally  would  be  inclined  to  accept 
that  Liturgy  which  best  harmonized  with  old  Roman  Catholic 
practice. 

The  permanent  stage  had  not  been  reached  in  Denmark  by 
any  means.  The  Malmo  Order  of  Service  did  not  satisfy  the  de- 
mands of  the  Danish  reformers  and  had  consequently  to  undergo 
violent  changes.  A  draft  was  made  by  the  most  learned  theo- 
logians in  Denmark  and  the  Duchies,  and  submitted  to  King 
Christian  III,  who  had  it  revised  and  corrected  by  his  secretary, 
Jesper  Brochmand.  He  then  sent  it  through  his  court  preacher, 
Andreas  Jaedike,  to  Wittenberg.  It  was  to  receive  full  sanction 
at  the  hands  of  German  reformers,  before  it  should  be  made  final- 
ly binding  on  the  churches.  It  was  closely  examined  by  "the 
worthy  father,  Martin  Luther,  and  many  other  learned  men  at 
Wittenberg."  Dr.  Bugenhagen,  the  famous  pastor  and  preacher 
at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1537  called  to  Denmark  for  the  purpose  of 
perfecting  the  Liturg}-  and  he  is  in  this  connection  called  "our 
beloved  Bugenhagen."  It  was  then  finally  adopted  by  the  Royal 
Council  in  1537  and  afterwards  by  the  Diet  of  Odense  1539.  The 
first  part  of  this  new  Service  followed  closely  Luther's  Formula 
Misses  as  far  as  the  Sermon.  But  the  second  part,  containing  the 
order  for  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  was  made  to 
conform  more  closely  to  his  Deiitsche  Messe. 

This  Service  was  the  first  Service  officially  introduced  in  Ice- 
land. In  all  probability  it  was  translated  by  Oddur  Gottskalks- 
son,  the  already  famous  translator  of  the  New  Testament.  For 
a  number  of  years  this  Order  of  Service  existed  only  in  written 
copies  throughout  the  island.  About  the  year  1560  it  was  pub- 
lished for  the  first  time  by  Olafur  Hjaltason,  bishop  of  Holar, 
and  printed  on  the  first  printing  press,  imported  by  bishop  Jon 
Arason,  as  before  mentioned,  and  located  at  Breidabolsiad,  in  a 
small  volume,  called  Mamiale. 


102  MEMOIRS. 

In  this  new  Order  of  Service  the  Confession  of  Sins  had  been 
done  away  with  in  its  original  form.  KneeHng  at  the  Epistle- 
side  of  the  altar,  or  the  left  corner,  the  minister  was  to  pronounce 
the  Confiteor  in  silence,  while  the  Introitiis  was  sung  by  the  con- 
gregation. Then  came  the  Kyrie  and  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  or 
Cantus  Angelicus.  The  Salutatio  with  the  usual  response  from 
the  congregation  preceded  the  Collect.  The  Collect,  as  well  as 
the  whole  altar-service,  was  chanted  or  intonated  by  the  minister. 
The  old  Gregorian  Collects  were  used  uniformly  in  Iceland,  al- 
though in  Denmark  a  new  series  of  Collects  was  introduced  in 
1556,  to  be  used  along  with  the  others,  it  being,  as  it  appears, 
left  to  the  individual  judgment  or  preference  of  each  pastor  which 
to  use.  The  new  series  of  Collects  was  taken  from  a  Postill  by 
Veit  Dietrich  in  Niiernbiu'g ,  published  in  1549,  and  was  intended 
by  the  author  to  be  read  as  prayers  before  the  sermon.  They 
are  long  and  rather  clumsy,  although  the  spirit  of  the  Reforma- 
tion breathes  in  them.  After  first  being  used  in  the  Danish 
Church  along  with  the  old  Gregorian  Collects,  they  altogether 
displaced  these,  and  after  the  year  1564  the  German  Collects 
were  used  exclusively,  although  they  had  never  been  intended  as 
Collects  by  their  author. 

Fortunately  the  German  Collects  were  not  introduced  into 
the  Icelandic  Service  until  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tur}^  and  then  in  a  much  altered  and  reduced  form.  During  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  and  down  to  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  the  old,  time-honored  Gregorian  Collects  were 
used  in  the  Icelandic  Church,  although  these  German  Collects 
were  in  exclusive  use  in  the  rest  of  the  Danish  Kingdom,  both 
Denmark  and  Norway. 

But  let  us  proceed  with  our  description  of  this  Order  of  Ser- 
vice, which  might  be  adorned  by  the  name  of  "our  beloved  Bugen- 
hagen."  After  the  Collect  comes  the  Epistle  with  the  Hallelu- 
jah and  Sequence,  varying  with  the  Church  Year.  Then  follows 
a  so-called  Graduale-\\.yvoxi,  with  Kyrie  eleison.  After  the  singing 
of  that  hymn  comes  the  announcement  of  the  Gospel  with  a  re- 
sponse from  the  congregation.  Then  the  Gospel  is  chanted,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Nicene  Creed  in  versified  form.  At  first  the  Nicene 
Creed  was  read  in  L,atin  and  then  the  versified  translation  sung 
by  the  congregation  in  the  form  of  a  hymn.  But  later  the  read- 
ing in  Latin  was  omitted.     Now  the  minister  ascends  the  pulpit, 


THE   I.ITURGY    OF   THE    ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  103 

announces  his  text,  and  the  congregation  rises  and  remains  stand- 
ing while  it  listens  to  the  Divine  message.  The  text  was  almost 
invariably  the  Gospel  or  Epistle  for  the  day.  Then  the  Sermon 
is  preached.  The  Sermon  is  followed  b}^  a  General  Prayer  from 
the  pulpit  in  which  the  congregation  is  exhorted  to  pray  for  ev- 
erything needful.  This  General  Praj-er  is  followed  by  the  Pater 
Nosier,  the  congregation  uniting.  Besides,  the  beautiful  lyitany 
was  often  used.  Then  follows  a  versus  by  the  congregation. 
After  that  Holy  Communion  takes  place,  commencing  wath  Lu- 
ther's Exhortation,  the  Eord's  Prayer  and  the  Words  of  Institu- 
tion. While  the  elements  are  being  distributed  the  Agims  Dei  is 
sung  in  the  vernacular.  If  the  communicants  were  many,  Jubi- 
him  S.  Bernhardi ,  Jesii  didcis  menioria,  or  some  other  sacramental 
hymn  was  sung.  At  first  it  was  the  practice  in  the  Danish 
Church  that  nothing  should  be  said  b)'  the  minister  while  the 
distribution  of  the  elements  was  taking  place,  because  everything 
had  been  said  when  the  Words  of  Institution  had  been  pro- 
nounced and  needed  not  to  be  repeated.  But  as  this  custom  pre- 
vailed in  the  Danish  Church  only  till  the  year  1646  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  ever  became  prevalent  in  Iceland.  Still  I  am  inclined 
to  infer  that  it  has  also  been  the  practice  there  for  some  time. 
After  the  distribution  the  Salutation  wdth  response  was  followed 
by  Euther's  Collect  of  Thank.sgivdng,  the  Aaronic  Benediction 
and  a  Hymn.  On  the  great  festivals  of  the  Church  Year  the 
Eord's  Supper  was  celebrated  with  more  solemnity,  the  Prccfatio, 
Sursum  Corda,  and  Sanctus  being  chanted  by  the  minister  before 
the  Exhortation.  Then  also  the  Pro  Offertorio  was  rendered,  be- 
fore the  offerings  were  made  by  the  congregation.  At  first  these 
parts  of  the  Service  were  rendered  in  Eatin,  but  later  they  were 
gradually  translated  into  the  vernacular.  The  Confession  of  Sins 
with  the  Absolution  has  been  eliminated  from  this  Service,  ex- 
cept in  connection  with  the  Communion,  because  Communion 
was  administered  at  almost  every  Service  during  the  Reformation 
Period. 

IV.       THE    POST-REFORMATION    SERVICE. 

In  time  this  excellent  form  of  Service  was  destined  to  suffer 
several  changes  and  modifications  in  the  Danish  Church  as  else- 
where, brought  about  by  the  corresponding  changes  in  theology 
and  in  views  regarding  Divine  Services.     The  Ritual  of  16S5  and 


104  MEMOIRS. 

the  Altar  Book  of  1688  give  a  greater  prominence  to  the  sermon 
and  the  singing  of  hymns.  The  Lord's  Supper  becomes  more  of 
an  appendix  to  the  regular  Service  than  anything  else.  The  old, 
time-honored  Heilige  Worte  of  the  Church,  such  as  Introitus,  Ky- 
rie,  Hallelujah,  Gloria,  Credo,  Agnus  Dei  are  transformed  into 
metrical  paraphrases,  called  hymns.  Each  Sunday  has  a  fixed 
hymn,  characteristic  for  the  day,  in  order  to  give  prominence  to 
the  Church  Year.  The  beautiful  Prcefatio  was  for  the  most  part 
omitted  after  I^atin  was  no  longer  used.  Even  the  Introitus- 
hymn  must  also  disappear  and  in  its  place  the  Service  now  com- 
mences with  a  short  prayer,  read  by  the  deacon,  from  the  chan- 
cel-door. The  whole  Service  is  also  brought  to  a  close  hy  a  cor- 
responding prayer  by  the  deacon,  both  these  pra3^ers  being  trans- 
lated from  the  German  of  Veil  Dietrich.  The  General  Prayer 
now  becomes  a  direct  prayer  by  the  minister  and  the  sermonic 
part  of  the  Service  is  brought  to  a  close  by  the  Aaronic  Benedic- 
tion from  the  pulpit.  The  whole  tendenc>^  is  to  make  the  Altar- 
Service  suffer  from  the  encroachments  of  the  Pulpit-Service. 

All  these  changes  and  alterations  were  probabl)^  not  intro- 
duced into  the  vService  in  Iceland,  although  it  gradually  has  been 
by  practice  modified  in  the  same  direction.  In  its  essentials  the 
GradualeSo^TvicQ.  in  Iceland,  which  has  been  described  above, 
held  its  own  down  to  the  year  1801,  as  before  stated. 

V.      THE    PRESENT   SERVICE. 

In  the  3'ear  1801  a  new  Hymn-book  was  published  in  Iceland, 
suffering  greatly  from  the  theological  and  liturgical  defects  of  the 
times.  A  Royal  Rescript  of  1802  further  reduced  and  impover- 
ished the  Danish  Service.  And  unfortunately  it  was  now  consid- 
ered imperative  to  mould  the  Divine  vServices  in  the  Church  of 
Iceland  into  perfect  harmony  with  that  of  the  Danish  Church. 
But  the  change  was  not  a  Reformation,  but  a  deformation  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  prevalent  ideas  of  the  eighteenth  century.  As 
this  new  form  of  Service  has  prevailed  in  Iceland  through  all  the 
nineteenth  century  and  up  to  the  present  time,  a  detailed  account 
of  it  will  be  next  in  order. 

When  the  church-bells  have  rung  for  the  third  and  last  time 
before  the  Service,  the  congregation  assembles  or  is  supposed  to 
be  assembled  in  the  church.  The  minister  takes  his  place  before 
the  altar,  robed  in  his  black  gown  of  broadcloth,  buttoned  in 


THE    LITURGY    OF    THE    ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  105 

front,  with  narrow  sleeves,  and  the  large  white  ruffle  round  his 
neck.  Then  the  deacon  from  the  door  of  the  chancel  reads  a 
short  introductory  Prayer  or  Collect,  followed  by  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  minister  turning  to  the  altar,  the  congregation  bow- 
ing and  covering  their  faces.  Then  an  introductory  Hymn  is 
sung,  usually  an  invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  During  this  time 
the  minister  remains  standing,  turned  to  the  altar,  the  deacon  as- 
sisting him,  in  putting  on  a  surplice  of  pure  white  linen  and  a 
chasuble  of  purple  silk-velvet,  having  a  large  gold  cross  on  the 
back.  At  the  end  of  the  hymn  the  minister  turns  to  the  congre- 
gation chanting  or  intonating  the  Salutation,— '''Xh&  L,ord  be 
with  you,"  the  congregation  responding:  "And  with  thy  spirit." 
The  minister  then  chants:  "Let  us  pray,"  and  turning  towards 
the  altar  he  chants  the  Collect  for  the  day,  which  is  followed  by 
an  "Amen,"  sung  by  the  choir  and  the  congregation.  The  min- 
ister now  again  turns  to  the  congregation  and  announces  the 
Epistle  for  the  daj'.  The  congregation  rises  and  the  minister 
chants  the  Epistle.  After  the  Epistle  the  congregation  in  a  sit- 
ting posture  sings  a  short  Hj^mn,  usuall}^  only  one  stanza,  and  a 
Hallelujah- verse  is,  for  this  purpose,  introduced  into  the  latest 
Hym.n-book.  While  that  is  being  sung,  the  minister  turns  his 
face  to  the  altar,  but  at  the  end  of  it  he  turns  to  the  congrega- 
tion and  announces  the  Gospel  for  the  da}-,  chanting.  This  is 
followed  by  a  Responsorhim  by  the  choir  and  congregation,  at  the 
end  of  which  the  people  rise,  while  the  minister  chants  the  Gos- 
pel, resuming  their  seats  again  at  the  end  of  it,  and  the  minister 
turning  to  the  altar.  Then  the  congregation  sings  the  chief 
Hj'mn  of  the  day's  Service,  usuall}'  containing  the  chief  thought 
of  the  Gospel  for  that  day.  While  the  last  stanzas  are  being 
sung  the  deacon  removes  the  chasuble  and  the  surplice,  laying 
both,  neatly  folded  on  the  altar,  and  the  minister  in  his  black 
gown  and  ruffle  proceeds  to  the  pulpit,  where  he  arranges  his 
books  and  manuscript,  if  he  has  any,  and  offers  a  silent  prayer, 
while  the  last  words  of  the  hymn  are  being  sung,  covering  his 
face  with  his  hands.  He  then  pronounces  a  short  prayer,  giving 
the  main  thoughts  of  his  sermon  prominence  and  thus  preparing 
the  minds  of  the  people  for  what  is  to  follow.  He  then  an- 
nounces his  text,  which  usually  is  the  Gospel  for  the  day.  Hav- 
ing announced  his  text,  the  congregation  rises  and  remains 
standing,  while  the  minister  reads  the  same,  resuming  their  seats 


106  MEMOIRS. 

again  when  it  is  ended.  He  then  pronounces  the  Kanzel-gruss , 
addresses  the  congregation  and  commences  his  sermon.  In  Ice- 
land it  is  customary  for  the  minister  to  use  a  manuscript,  and 
the  delivery  of  a  sermon  generally  takes  about  half  an  hour. 
The  sermon  being  brought  to  a  close,  the  minister  pronounces  the 
Gloria  Patri,  introductory  to  the  General  Prayer  which  is  very 
short,  concluding  with  the  Lord's  Prayer.  He  announces  the 
Benediction,  the  congregation  rises  and  the  Aaronic  Benediction 
is  pronounced,  whereupon  the  congregation  is  seated  again  and 
the  minister  descends  from  the  pulpit,  taking  his  place  before  the 
altar.  If  Baptism  is  to  be  administered,  a  Hymn  introducing  that 
holy  act  is  sung  by  the  congregation  and  the  Baptism  takes  place, 
a  lady  holding  the  child,  and  two  male  sponsors  proceeding  to  the 
baptismal  font.  The  baptismal  formula  commences  with  a  bibli- 
cal exposition  of  Baptism  in  general,  translated  from  the  German. 
The  sign  of  the  cross  is  made  both  on  the  forehead  and  the  chest 
of  the  child,  followed  by  a  prayer,  that  the  child  may  be  received 
into  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  and  enjoy  the  blessing  of  Baptism. 
Then  follows  the  usual  Gospel  selection  with  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
the  minister  laying  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  child  while  pro- 
nouncing it.  The  questions  are  indirect,  not  directly  addressed 
to  the  child  as  the  case  used  to  be  before  the  present  form  was 
adopted.  The  Apostolic  Confession  is  preceded  by  the  Renunci- 
ation. The  whole  is  summed  up  in  one  question,  directed  to  the 
child,  and  answered  by  the  sponsors,  the  pastor  pronounces  the 
name  of  the  child  and  baptizes  by  aspersion  of  water  on  the  head 
in  the  name  of  the  triune  God.  Then  follows  the  admonition  to 
the  sponsors  concerning  the  education  of  the  child  in  the  Chris- 
tian religion. 

If  there  be  a  Communion,  the  communicants  must  present 
themselves  in  church  before  the  regular  Service  commences,  a 
short  preparatory  service  then  taking  place,  a  hymn  being  sung 
and  the  communicants,  gathering  about  the  altar-railing,  listen 
to  a  short  address  by  the  pastor  on  human  sin  and  Divine  grace, 
at  the  conclusion  of  which  the  Absolution  is  pronounced,  en 
masse,  and  not  severally.  But  the  act  of  Communion  itself  takes 
place  after  the  administration  of  Baptism,  if  there  has  been  any, 
preceded  by  a  Communion-hymn,  sometimes  the  Ag-fius  Dei,  dur- 
ing the  singing  of  which  the  minister  has  again  jDUt  on  the  sur- 
plice and  the  chasuble  with  the  assistance  of  the  deacon.     The 


THE   LITURGY   OF   THE   ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  107 

minister  then  turns  to  the  congregation  and  the  communicants 
assemble  around  the  altar-raiHng.  He  then  addresses  Luther's 
Exhortation  to  them  at  the  end  of  which  he  turns  towards  the 
altar,  the  communicants  kneeling  down  at  the  same  time  on  a 
cushion  at  the  base  of  the  railing.  The  minister  now  chants  the 
Lord's  Prayer  and  the  congregation  responds  with  Amen.  Hold- 
ing the  plate  containing  the  Communion  wafers  in  his  hands  and 
raising  it  slightly  above  the  altar-table,  he  pronounces  the  first 
part  of  the  Words  of  Institution.  He  then  takes  the  chalice, 
filled  with  wine,  in  his  hands,  lifts  it  up  and  pronounces  the  last 
part  of  the  Words  of  Institution,  also  passing  his  hands  over 
other  vessels  on  the  altar,  containing  Communion  wine  to  be  used 
that  day.  The  congregation  then  sings  the  Jubilum.  S.  Bern- 
hardi.Jesu  dulcis  memoria,  and  the  minister,  turning  to  the  peo- 
ple, commences  the  distribution  of  the  elements.  To  each  com- 
municant he  says:  "This  is  the  true  Body  of  Jesus,"  and  "This 
is  the  true  Blood  of  Jesus."  The  distribution  ended,  each  round 
of  commimicants  is  dismissed  with  the  Pax.  A  short  hynm  is 
sung,  after  which  the  minister  turns  to  the  congregation,  chant- 
ing the  Salutation,  followed  by  the  Response  and  the  Orcmus. 
Turning  to  the  altar  he  chants  a  Collect  for  the  Communion. 
But  if  there  be  no  Communion,  he  uses  another  Collect  for  the 
Word,  or  during  Lent  he  uses  still  another  Collect  for  the  Pas- 
sion, the  congregation  responding  with  an  Amen.  He  then  again 
tiu'ns  to  the  congregation  and  chants  the  Salutation,  responded 
to  by  the  congregation  as  before.  He  then  raises  his  hands,  the 
congregation  rises  and  from  the  altar  he  chants  the  Aaronic  Ben- 
ediction, which  is  followed  by  a  thrice  repeated  Amen,  sung  by 
the  congregation.  The  Service  is  now  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
singing  of  a  Hymn  by  the  congregation,  during  which  the  dea- 
con relieves  the  minister  of  the  chasuble  and  the  surplice.  The 
closing  Hymn  being  sung  to  the  end,  the  pastor  in  the  .same  po- 
sition with  his  face  turned  to  the  altar,  the  deacon  pronounces 
a  short  concluding  prayer,  corresponding  to  the  one  introducing 
the  Service,  followed  by  the  Lord's  Prayer. — -It  will  be  seen  that 
the  minister  remains  standing  during  the  whole  Service  from  be- 
ginning to  end. 

VI.      THE    FUTURP:   SERVICE. 

The  above  Order  of  Service  has  retained  the  main  character- 
istics of  the  Reformation  Service  and  has  a  simplicity  and  a  dignity 


108  MEMOIRS. 

of  its  own.  It  has,  however,  suffered  to  a  very  large  extent  from 
the  blight  of  eighteenth  century  illumination.  The  original, 
beautiful  Liturgy  is  cut  down  to  a  minimum  and  the  Service  has 
become  somewhat  barren,  too  much  prominence  being  given  to 
the  pulpit-service  and  the  Communion  Service  put  in  a  rather 
loose  and  inorganic  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  Service.  The 
beautiful  liturgical  parts,  Introitus,  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  Prcsfatio, 
Sa?2cfus,  Agmis  Dei  have  disappeared.  The  General  Prayer  has 
become  short  and  shriveled,  both  in  quantity  and  quality.  The 
Aaronic  Benediction  is  used  twice,  both  from  the  pulpit  and  the 
altar,  instead  of  using  the  Apostolic  Benediction  (2  Cor.  13:  13) 
from  the  pulpit  to  avoid  the  repetition.  The  too  frequent  use  of 
the  Lord's  Praj'er  is  not  in  good  liturgical  taste  as  it  may  occur 
at  least  five  times  during  the  same  Service,  if  Baptism  and  Com- 
munion take  place. 

Until  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Icelandic 
Service  had  preserved  the  Gregorian  Collects,  the  common  inher- 
itance of  the  whole  Christian  Church.  But  in  1869  a  new  revis- 
ion of  the  Ma?iual  was  published,  containing  a  great  many 
alterations,  introduced  with  the  laudable  intention  to  purify  the 
language  and  make  the  Service  more  acceptable  to  the  demands 
of  the  younger  generation,  bringing  it  at  the  same  time  into  a 
still  more  perfect  harmony  with  the  Danish  Service.  The  result 
of  this  may  in  some  respects  have  proved  beneficial,  but  in  others 
detrimental.  One  of  the  innovations  consisted  in  discarding  the 
old  Collects  and  introducing  the  German  Collects,  adopted  in  the 
Danish  countries,  Denmark  and  Norway,  but  never  in  Germany. 
It  was  found,  however,  that  the  popular  taste  in  Iceland  would 
not  tolerate  a  literal  translation  of  these,  so  they  were  shortened 
and  softened  down  in  a  considerable  degree,  many  of  their  most 
characteristic  expressions  being  entirely  left  out.  They  have 
therefore  lost  a  great  deal  of  their  force,  and  have  neither  the 
sober  Catholic  spirit  of  the  old  Collects,  nor  the  fervent  and 
almost  defiant  spirit  of  the  original.  The  change  was  a  mistake, 
done  in  perfectly  good  faith,  but  rather  a  loss  than  a  gain  from 
a  liturgical  point  of  view. 

To  remedy  all  these  defects  will  be  the  duty  of  the  future 
Service.  The  same  movement  will  have  to  be  inaugurated  in 
Iceland  as  elsewhere  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  to  recover  the  lost 
liturgical  treasures  and  reinstate  them  into  their  original  place  in 


THE   LITURGY  OF   THE   ICELANDIC   CHURCH.  109 

the  Service.  Sweden  has  its  lyiturgj^  in  almost  ideal  form.  The 
Norwegian  Church  now  possesses  a  revised  and  extended  I^itur- 
gy,  which  is  a  great  improvement  of  lasting  merit,  although  it 
may  be  perfected  still  more  and  undoubtedly  will.  In  Denmark 
the  good  work  proceeds  very  slowly,  other  matters  of  vital  im- 
portance engaging  the  attention  of  the  Danish  Church.  But  a 
good  deal  of  work  has  been  done  and  is  now  taking  shape.  In 
Iceland  interest  in  these  matters  is  awakening  and  a  committee 
has  the  work  of  revision  in  hand.  The  Icelandic  Synod  in  this 
country  has  already  introduced  again  some  of  the  essential  parts 
which  originally  belonged  to  the  Service,  such  as  the  Gloria  in 
Excelsis,  Gloria  Patri,  Kyrie,  Hallelujah,  Pro  Offertorio.  And  it 
is  sincerely  to  be  hoped  that  the  future  Service  will  also  contain 
the  Confession  of  Sins,  the  Absolution,  the  Creed  and  a  full  Gen- 
eral Prayer  from  the  altar,  and  not  from  the  pulpit,  as  now  is  the 
case,  and  that  it  will  reinstate  the  Gregorian  Collects. 


F.  J.  Bergmann. 
Winnipeg,  Mayiitoba,   Canada. 


Vol.  A^. 


THE   IvITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   GREGORY 
THE  GREAT. 


Gregory  the  Great  stands  unique  in  his  work  on  the  Roman 
Mass  and  liturgical  development  in  general.  It  would  be  a  mis- 
take to  regard  him  as  the  author  of  the  Mass  or  even  any  large 
portion  of  it.  A  rich  and  varied  material  had  accumulated  prior 
to  his  time.  He  took  the  liturgical  material  of  his  age  and  with 
a  masterh'  skill  recast  it,  giving  it  a  fulness  and  stabilit}-  which 
it  has  not  lost  unto  this  day.  In  order  to  estimate  correctly  his 
influence  in  the  liturgical  development,  two  facts  must  be  born 
in  mind;  first,  the  stage  to  which  Liturgies  had  developed  at  about 
the  time  that  he  was  elected  Pope,  (590);  and  the  development 
subsequent  to  his  death  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries 
until  we  come  into  possession  of  the  earliest  MSS  of  his  Sacra- 
mentary  anda  century  later  until  we  find  his  Antiphonary. 

There  are  extant  three  depositories,  Sacramentaries,  of  the 
purely  Roman  Liturgy;  the  Leonine,  (440-461);  Gelasian,  (496); 
Gregorian,  (590-604).  Pope  Gelasius  edited  the  Leonine  S;  cia- 
mentary  and  this  suffered  minor  changes  under  the  influence  of 
the  old  Gallic  Liturgy  in  France  and  Spain.  Gregory  took  again 
the  material  of  the  Leonine  and  reduced  the  confusion  of  the 
variable  formulae  to  a  small  and  invariable  number,  as  well  as 
transposing,  and  adding  material.  We  do  not  have  the  exact  form 
in  which  it  came  from  Gregory's  hand.  The  oldest  MSS  date 
onl}^  from  the  eighth  century  and  hail  not  from  Italian  but  from 
Western  territory.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  troublesome 
times  in  Italy  during  this  period.  The  interval  from  Gregory's 
death  to  the  close  of  the  eighth  century  was  fertile  in  liturgical 
development  especially  in  the  completion  of  the  Church  Year. 
There  is  a  strong  presumption  that  certain  changes  and  modifica- 
tions under  Western  influences,  found  their  way  into  the  Gregori- 
an Sacramentary  during  this  plastic  stage.     There  are  now  five 


I  MEMOIRS. 

MSS  of  this  Sacramentary  extant  dating  from  the  eighth  to  the 
eleventh  century  edited  by  Pamel,  Rocca,  Menard,  Gerbert  and 
Muratori.  These  MSS  agree  in  the  main  parts  but  differ  in 
minor  points  as  might  be  supposed  allowing  for  the  interval  of 
time  and  the  still  present  leaven  of  development.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  oldest  of  these  MSS  is  that  published  by  Muratori  and 
it  is  assigned  to  the  second  half  of  the  eighth  century.  The  Sac- 
ramentary as  first  published  by  Gregory  contained  no  rubrics, 
only  the  prayers  and  the  sequences  of  the  Mass;  no  lessons,  no 
antiphons.  The  editor  of  the  Muratori  MS  added  a  breviary  to 
the  canon  of  the  Mass  by  the  aid  of  which  we  can  have  a  correct 
knowledge  of  how  the  parts  were  rendered,  at  least  at  that  time. 

The  forty  homilies  published  by  Gregory  the  Great  give  con- 
siderable information  on  the  liturgical  development  of  his  age. 
The  Church  Year  was  then  not  yet  developed,  especially  the 
second  half,  the  period  without  festivals.  A  curious  circum- 
stance comes  to  light  in  the  superscription  of  these  homilies  as- 
signing them  to  those  Sundays  which  in  subsequent  times  had 
the  lesson  w^hich  the  homily  treated  as  its  text.  These  super- 
scriptions are  the  work  of  a  later  editor  who  failed  to  inform 
himself  of  the  contents  of  the  homily.  Thus  the  nineteenth 
homily  is  assigned  to  Septuagesima  Sunday  as  it  treats  the  text 
Matt.  20:  1-16.  In  point  of  fact  this  Sunday  w^as  not  yet  as- 
signed in  the  Church  Year  in  the  time  of  Gregory.  These  homi- 
lies are,  however,  valuable  in  determining  the  Church  Year  as 
many  of  them  mention  in  the  text  the  time  wdien  they  were 
preached.  These  lessons  of  Gregory  are  among  the  earliest  that 
have  come  to  us  from  this  period. 

The  Antiphonary  of  Gregory  contained  the  invitatories,  re- 
sponses, collects,  all  that  was  said  or  sung  by  the  choir.  But 
here  again  our  earliest  MS  dates  only  from  the  ninth  century. 
The  Antiphonary  comes  to  us  a  completed  work.  We  have  no 
means  of  tracing  its  development  during  its  constructive  stages 
such  as  we  possess  for  the  Sacramentary  covering  a  period  from 
the  fifth  to  the  ninth  century.  The  Church  Year  is  now  com- 
pleted. The  Sundays  after  Epiphany  and  Whitsunday  all  have 
their  appointments.  Just  how  much  of  the  Antiphonary  is  orig- 
inal with  Gregory  is  hard  to  determine.  That  there  was  singing 
in  the  Mass  before  his  time  is  self-evident;  what  was  added  after 
his  time  and  ascribed  to  him  we  cannot  determine.     Berno  Auari- 


THE    UTURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   GREGORY   THE   GREAT.       3 

ensis,  (1045),  calls  Gregory  the  Great  the  ordinator  libri  Sacra- 
mcntarium  et  Antiphonarium.  His  biographer  John  calls  him 
"wiser  than  Solomon  because  of  his  antiphons."  Gregory  is 
particularly  known  for  his  service  in  developing  Plain  Song  {can- 
t/is  Jirmus,  choralis,)  or  the  so-called  Gregorian  Chant.  The 
singing  that  prevailed  in  the  Church  in  his  day  was  the  Am- 
brosian  Song,  consisting  of  Greek  melodies  and  ancient  psalmody. 
In  course  of  time  the  emotional  element  in  the  Greek  melody  de- 
veloped into  unsanctified  worldly  sentimentality.  To  counteract 
this  tendenc}',  Gregory  introduced  what  is  known  as  Plain  Song. 
The  characteristics  of  this  "Gregorian  Music"  are  such  as  to 
adapt  it  most  fittingly  to  sacred  purposes.  It  held  its  place  all 
through  the  Middle  Ages,  was  preserved  in  the  Lutheran  Service, 
and  is  now  again  becoming  more  and  more  popular  in  the  Church. 
Gregory's  service  to  the  cause  of  Church  Music  was  commemo- 
rated during  the  Middle  Ages  by  singing  a  hymn  of  praise  in  his 
honor  before  Mass  on  the  first  Sunday  in  Advent.  Gregory  es- 
tablished a  singing  school  in  Rome  and  this  became  a  centre  for 
antiphonal  singing.  The  choir  composed  largely  of  clerical  mem- 
bers became  a  necessary  adjunct  to  the  rendition  of  the  Mass. 
It  was  arranged  in  two  parts,  one  on  each  side  of  the  altar.  One 
side  under  the  direction  of  a  leader  intoned  while  the  other  side 
sang  the  response. 

Upon  an  examination  of  the  Sacramentary  of  Gregory,  we 
find  that  the  old  threefold  division  of  the  Mass  with  respect  to 
the  attendants  is  abolished.  But  the  Mass  divides  itself  into 
three  separate  acts.  First,  the  acts  of  the  Lessons;  second,  the 
Offertory;  and  third,  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  proper.  The  ser- 
mon is  no  longer  an  integral  part  of  the  Mass.  The  General 
Prayer  following  the  sermon  in  the  Apostolic  Constitution  is 
either  lost  or  as  some  think  finds  expression  in  the  Kyrie.  There 
are  only  two  Lessons,  the  Gospel  and  Epistle,  and  one  Collect. 
The  Ife,  missa  est,  formerly  at  the  close  of  the  homiletical  service 
is  now  transposed  as  the  closing  formula  at  the  end  of  the  Mass. 
With  these  general  remarks  we  will  now  examine  the  several 
parts  of  the  Mass. 

The  Mass  began  with  the  Introit,  which  set  forth  a  particu- 
lar grace  for  the  Season.  The  Introit  was  followed  by  the  Kyrie 
which  was  sung  nine  times,  after  which  followed  the  Gloria  m 
Excelsis,  intoned  by  the  priest  and  responded  to  by  the  choir  from 


4  MEMOIRS. 

et  in  terra.  This  introductory  Service  is  of  special  interest  as  it 
is  of  purely  Roman  origin.  We  have  no  Antiphonary  which 
gives  us  the  text  of  the  Introits  of  this  period.  The  position 
which  the  Kyrie  occupies  and  its  interchange  with  the  Litany  is 
worthy  of  note.  The  Kyrie  Eleison  was  the  response  which  the 
people  made  to  the  intercessory  petitions  in  the  Litany.  Kliefoth 
advances  the  theory  (III,  226),  that  the  Litany  was  the  later 
form  of  the  General  Prayer  in  the  Apostolic  Constitution  follow- 
ing the  sermon.  During  the  sixth  century  the  Litany  was  trans- 
posed to  follow  the  singing  of  the  Psalm  in  the  Introit.  It  was, 
however,  contrary  to  the  proper  liturgical  conception  to  have  a 
General  Prayer  at  this  place.  Gregory  took  out  of  the  Litany 
the  Kyrie  Eleison  responses  and  assigned  them  to  their  present 
place  in  the  Introit.  This  seems  plausible,  for  on  fast  and  vigil 
days  the  Litany  is  appointed  instead  of  the  Kyrie,  when  this  and 
the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  are  to  be  omitted.  The  Kyrie  was  intoned  by 
the  choir  and  the  congregation  responded  with  the  Eleisoji.  The 
Kyrie  was  repeated  nine  times.  In  the  Apostolic  Constitution 
and  in  the  Greek  Church  the  two  words  go  together  and  are 
both  spoken  by  the  congregation.  Gregory  calls  the  Kyrie  l^ox 
deprecaiionis.  He  says  after  the  congregation  heard  the  word 
of  grace  announced  in  the  Introit,  the  people  cry  for  mercy. 
Upon  this  follows  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  the  hymn  of  praise  of 
the  angels.  Before  the  time  of  Gregory  it  was  not  in  common 
use.  He  appointed  it  for  all  Sunday  and  festival  day  masses 
when  the  bishop  was  celebrant  and  allowed  it  for  the  priests  on 
Easter  and  the  day  of  their  consecration.  When  the  Litany  was 
used  then  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  was  to  be  omitted.  Other  hymns 
are  not  found  in  the  Mass;  these  find  their  place  in  the  Horn. 
Nine  hymns  are  ascribed  to  Gregory.  The  best  known  among 
these  is  Rex  Christe,  factor  omnium.  After  this  introductory 
part  follow  the  Act  of  the  Lessons,  the  Offertory  and  the  Canon 
of  the  Mass  in  the  narrower  sense.  In  the  conclusion  of  the 
Canon  of  the  Mass,  the  priest  is  directed  to  put  a  little  of  the 
bread  in  the  chalice  and  then  to  slightly  elevate  it.  This  marks 
the  beginning  of  the  elevation  of  the  chalice.  The  consecrated 
bread  is  broken  before  distribution  in  order  to  deal  with  the  sac- 
rifice of  the  Mass  in  imitation  of  a  Lamb  that  was  slain. 

Although  Gregory  encouraged  the  practice  of  preaching,  yet 
in  his  Sacramentary  the  sermon  is  not  an   integral  part  of  the 


THE   LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   GREGORY   THE   GREAT.       5 

Mass.  The  I,essons  have  no  longer  a  purpose  and  object  of 
their  own.  The  Word  is  offered  to  God  in  prayer  and  He 
is  thanked  for  it,  but  the  congregation  no  longer  receives  the 
Word  and  its  explanation  in  the  sermon.  A  similar  displacement 
of  the  significance  of  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper  has  taken 
place.  The  early  Christian  Church  regarded  the  distribution  and 
the  reception  of  the  elements  as  the  chief  thing  in  the  sacrament. 
All  the  other  acts  were  really  only  preparatory  to  the  reception. 
Gregory's  sacrificial  theory  of  the  Mass  placed  the  chief  impor- 
tance upon  the  offering  up  unto  God  the  Body  of  Christ.  It  was 
immaterial  whether  there  were  communicants  present  to  partake 
of  the  Body  thus  offered. 

Gregory  clearly  teaches  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 
He  says:  Bonus  pastor  pro  ovibus  siiis  anunani  suani  posuit, 
tit  in  Sacramento  nostro  corpus  sinim  ct  sangiimem  vertcret  et 
oves,  quas  redemerat,  carnis  suce  alimento  satiaret.'^  "The  Good 
Shepherd  offered  His  life  for  the  sheep,  that  He  might  change 
His  Body  and  Blood  in  our  sacrament  and  might  satisfy  the  sheep 
whom  He  had  redeemed,  with  the  food  of  His  flesh." — The  offer- 
ings brought  by  the  congregation  w-ere  changed  through  the  op- 
eration of  the  Mass  into  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ.  Another 
passage:  Debemiis  quotidianas  carnis  ct  sanguinis  hostias  imvwlare. 
Haec  natnqtie  illam  nobis  moj'tem  unigeniti  per  mysteriuni  rcparat, 
qni  pro  nobis  iterian  in  hoc  niysterio  sacrce  oblationis  immolatnr .-\ — 
"We  ought  to  offer  the  daily  sacrifice  of  His  flesh  and  blood. 
This  sacrifice  indeed  alone  saves  the  soul  from  eternal  destruction 
which  procures  for  us  that  death  of  the  Only-begotten  through 
the  divine  mystery  who  is  offered  for  us  anew  i^iterum)  in  this 
mystery  of  the  .sacred  oblations." 

Gregory's  doctrine  of  Purgatory  found  a  practical  sup- 
port and  mighty  instrument  in  his  theory  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. He  says:  Si  culpce post  mortem  insolubiles  7ion  snnt^  midtiini 
solet  animas  etiam  post  mortem  sacra  oblatio  hostics  salutaris 
adjuvare,  ita  ut  ha?ic  nonnumqiiam  ipsa  dcfiaictoriim  animce  ex- 
petere  videantur.X  "If  sins  are  not  atoned  for  after  death 
it  is  wont  that  souls  are  greatly  profited  even  after  death  by 
the  sacred  oblations  of  the  .saving  sacrifice  so  that  these  souls 

•  Kliefoth  III,  195. 
t  Ibid.  Ill,  196. 
X  Ibid.  Ill,  196. 


6  MEMOIRS. 

of  the  dead  sometimes  appear  to  beg  for  this  sacrifice."  Gregory 
had  much  to  say  of  the  miraculous  power  of  the  consecrated 
bread  and  even  recounted  cases  where  the  dead  appeared  as  phan- 
toms begging  that  Mass  might  be  said  for  the  repose  of  their 
souls. 

Assuming  the  figment  of  purgatory  and  forcing  the  doc- 
trine of  the  lyord's  Supper  to  suit  its  exigencies,  Gregory  laid 
the  foundation  of  one  of  the  most  gigantic  errors  with  which 
mankind  has  ever  been  burdened.  The  steps  in  this  ruinous  S5's- 
tem  are  easily  taken.  The  chief  importance  in  the  Mass  is  its 
"imitation  of  a  lyamb  that  was  slain,"  i.  e.  being  offered  up.  If 
the  reception  is  not  essential  then  the  presence  of  the  congrega- 
tion or  the  individuals  for  whom  it  is  offered  is  not  necessary. 
This  was  so  advocated.  This  then  made  the  third  step  possible, — 
the  Mass  is  efficacious  for  the  absent  ones  whether  living  or  dead. 
All  this  was  in  accord  with  the  hierarchical  tendency  rapidly  de- 
veloping under  the  master  exponent  of  that  system,  Gregory  the 
Great. 

The  immediate  effect  of  these  principles  of  worship  was 
the  withdrawal  of  the  congregation  from  the  active  part  of  the 
responses  which  had  become  more  difficult  under  the  new  system 
of  antiphonal  rendering.  The  choir  supplanted  the  congregation. 
The  Latin  language  was  the  universal  language  for  the  Mass  but 
the  Germanic  people  did  not  understand  this  foreign  tongue 
and  in  course  of  time  this  became  a  dead  language  even  in  Rome, 
but  still  there  was  no  change,  nor  was  the  need  for  one  felt,  be- 
cause the  congregation  had  reall}^  no  share  or  part  in  its  render- 
ing. The  Word  of  God  had  lost  its  intrinsic  value  in  the  esteem 
of  the  hierarchical  system,  it  was  now  only  of  value  as  a  contrib- 
uting element  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 

The  age  of  Gregory  was  particularly  propitious  for  the  de- 
velopment of  Saints'  da3^s,  and  the  ora  pro  nobis  among  the  peo- 
ple. Processions  (Ivitanies)  were  common  in  the  time  of  Gregory. 
April  the  25th,  St.  Mark's  Day  was  called  Lltania  Major.  On 
this  day  processions  were  made  out  into  the  fields.  After 
Gregory  was  elected  Pope,  a  pestilence  broke  out  in  Rome.  He 
preached  a  sermon  on  the  theme  dc  7?iortalitate,  at  the  conclusion 
of  which  he  called  the  people  to  form  in  a  sevenfold  procession, 
classified  according  to  their  station  in  life. 

The  influence  of  Gregory  has  been  that  of  a  strong  deter- 


THE    LITURGICAL    INFLUENCE    OF    GREGORY   THE    GREAT.       / 

mined  personality.  He  certainly  did  a  remarkable  work  in  ed- 
itint^  and  establishing  the  Roman  Mass.  He  manifested  in  many 
parts  good  liturgical  taste  and  judgment,  but  no  doubt  has  done 
an  irreparable  injury  to  the  cause  of  pure  doctrine  of  the  Word 
of  God  b}'  distorting  sacred  truths  from  their  foundation  for  the 
selfish  purpose  of  building  up  the  hierarchical  power  of  the  Ro- 
man Bishop. 

A.    ly.    Ramer. 

Scra7tto?i,  Pa. 


THE    FUNCTION 
OF  THE   MINISTER   IN   DIVINE   WORSHIP. 


Every  good  gift  and  every  perfect  gift  is  from  above,  and  Com- 
eth down  from  the  Father  of  lights,  with  Whom  is  no  variable- 
ness, neither  shadow  of  turning.  (James  i:  17).  According  to 
this  text  we  are  indebted  for  every  blessing,  material  and  spiritu- 
al, to  the  grace  of  God.  However,  God  does  not  directly  and 
immediately  minister  unto  us  His  bounties;  but,  indirectly  and 
mediately  through  means  and  instruments.  The  refreshment 
and  the  energy  which  we  secure  through  the  medium  of  bread 
might  in  the  exercise  of  the  Divine  power,  have  been  transmitted 
directly  to  our  bodies  without  means  of  bread,  but  this  is  not 
God's  ordained  method.  Doubtless  if  He  saw  fit,  He  might  im- 
mediately and  directly  bring  to  our  souls  the  higher  blessings  we 
enjoy  in  the  Bread  of  Life;  however.  He  in  His  Wisdom  has  seen 
fit  to  connect  them  with  the  Means  of  Grace — the  Word  and  the 
Sacraments.  These  Means  are  simply  Means  of  Grace,  and  can 
not  administer  themselves,  in  like  manner  as  a  piece  of  the  finest 
and  most  skillful  mechanism  can  not  run  of  itself  without  the  in- 
tervention of  a  human  agent.  For  the  administration  of  these 
Means  of  Grace,  whereby  God  communicates  His  blessings  to 
His  people.  He  has  called  a  ministry.  God's  Word  is  always 
efi&cacious  and  powerful,  sharper  than  any  two-edged  sword, 
whether  meditated  upon,  or  read;  yet  its  solemn  and  authorita- 
tive use  is  associated  with  public  worship,  and  its  proper  admin- 
istration in  such  a  service  demands  the  services  of  a  minister. 
Baptism  can  not  ordinarily  be  administered  without  the  interven- 
tion of  a  minister,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  always  demands  the 
presence  of  the  administering  agent.  A  proper  conception  of  the 
Means  of   Grace   involves  the  recognition  of   the   necessity  of 

(ix) 


10  MEMOIRS. 

public  worship  and  of  a  ministry,  even  if  this  necessity  were  not 
plainly  taught  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 

It  is  evident  that  in  Divine  worship  there  are  three  elements, 
or  factors: — God's  people,  who  are  to  be  fed  with  Heavenly  bless- 
ings in  Christ;  the  minister,  who  is  to  administer  these  blessings 
in  God's  appointed  way;  and  the  Means  of  Grace  through  and  by 
which  these  blessings  are  brought  near  to  the  people  and  appro- 
priated by  them  by  faith.  The  function  of  the  minister,  then,  is 
a  very  important  and  essential  one,  and  worthy  of  our  reverent 
consideration.  Christ  says: — (John  6:  44)  No  man  can  come  to 
Me,  except  the  Father  Which  hath  sent  Me  draw  him:  and  I  will 
raise  him  up  at  the  last  day.  By  means  of  the  Sacrament  of 
Baptism,  administered  ordinarily  by  the  Pastor,  and  by  the 
preaching  of  the  Word,  the  worshiping  congregation  has  been 
called  into  being  and  been  made  possible  by  the  drawing  power 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  exerted  through  the  Means  of  Grace.  In  the 
Sacrament  of  the  Altar  Christ,  through  the  agency  of  the  minis- 
ter, comes  to  every  communicant  and  imparts  to  him  His  Body 
and  Blood — a  savor  of  life  unto  life  to  them  that  believe,  but  a 
savor  of  death  unto  death  to  the  unbelieving  and  the  impenitent. 
Through  the  Word  of  the  minister,  which  is  God's  Word,  the 
precious  blessing  of  Absolution  is  secured  as  surely  as  if  God 
Himself  spake  it  from  Heaven.  In  the  reading  of  the  Word, 
God's  Will  and  Grace  are  authoritatively  declared  through  the 
mouth  of  the  minister,  and  in  the  sermon  the  Gospel  is  applied  to 
the  present  needs  and  wants  of  God's  people. 

This  is,  however,  only  one  side  of  the  minister's  function. 
God  gives  in  the  Means  of  Grace,  and  He  gives  through  the 
agency  and  mediation  of  the  minister,  as  shown  above.  How- 
ever, where  God's  grace  is  imparted,  there  a  response  always 
manifests  itself.  When  God  in  the  spring  of  the  year  gently 
caresses  the  seemingly  dead  earth  with  His  zephyrs  and  softens 
it  with  His  showers,  it  forthwith  responds  in  a  carpet  of  green 
and  in  a  glory  of  bloom  on  shrub  and  tree.  Likewise  when  God 
by  His  Means  wakens  a  dead  soul  into  life  and  makes  it  the  re- 
cipient of  Heavenly  bounty,  there  naturally  and  necessarily  fol- 
lows a  response  in  a  service  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving. 
These  two  elements,  then,  are  found  in  every  properly  ordered 
Service.  In  certain  parts  of  the  Service  God  gives  and  bestows 
through  the  Means  of  Grace  mediated  by  the  minister.     At  these 


THE    FUNCTION   OF   THE    MINISTER    IN   DIVINE   WORSHIP.      11 

times  the  believing  congregation  is  devoutly  silent  and  receptive. 
Here  the  minister,  as  God's  agent  and  ambassador,  speaks  in  the 
name  of  God  and  addresses  the  congregation.  At  other  times  in 
the  Service,  again,  he  is  the  representative  and  the  mouth-piece 
of  the  congregation  and  directs  his  addresses  not  to  the  congre- 
gation, but  to  God.  Here  he  in  a  measure  fulfills  the  function 
of  the  Sheliach  Tsibbur  of  the  ancient  synagogue  service.  We 
see,  then,  that  the  minister  in  attending  to  his  specific  functions 
in  the  worship  of  the  Church  stands  in  a  representative  capaci- 
ty:— he  is  either  the  representative  of  God,  speaking  to  His  peo- 
ple, or  the  representative  of  the  people  speaking  for  them  and  in 
their  name  to  God.  In  the  singing  of  hymns  he  properly  joins 
in  the  worship  of  the  congregation  as  a  member  thereof.  These 
two  essential  parts  of  the  Service,  called  the  sacramental  and  the 
sacrificial,  dare  not  follow  abruptly  one  after  the  other,  but  the 
good  taste  of  the  early  Church  has  supplied  us  with  chaste  and 
Scriptural  transitional  passages  by  means  of  which  there  is  an 
easy  and  natural  progression  from  one  part  of  the  Service  to  the 
other.  Naturally  the  minister,  as  the  leader  of  the  worship  of 
the  congregation,  accords  these  parts  of  the  Service  their  proper 
use,  so  that,  like  in  nature,  there  may  be  no  startling  breaks  in 
the  worship  of  the  Most  High;  but  that  there  may  be  an  agreea- 
ble and  natural  progression  from  the  beginning  of  the  Divine 
Service  to  its  end. 

With  this  statement  of  the  function  of  the  minister  in  public 
worship,  this  paper  might  end;  yet  we  would  all  feel  that  a  very 
important  part  of  the  discussion  of  this  subject  had  been  omitted. 
Just  as  in  taking  observations  of  the  heavenly  bodies  the  astrono- 
mer is  compelled  to  take  account  of  the  "personal  equation,"  so 
in  the  consideration  of  the  minister's  function  in  public  worship, 
the  bearing  and  the  deportment  of  the  minister  demand  a  consid- 
eration, callini:  for  more  time  than  a  positive  statement  of  his 
function  in  Dixiue  Service.  Christ  teaches  us  (Matt.  23:  2): — 
The  scribes  and  Pharisees  sit  in  Moses'  seat:  all  therefore  what- 
soever they  bid  you  observe,  that  observe  and  do.  We  are  not 
held  by  any  Donatistic  views  of  the  ministry,  and  we  have  learned 
long  ago  that  God's  Means  of  Grace  are  always  efficacious. 
Water  is  water,  and  refreshes,  whether  it  comes  through  a  pipe 
of  lead  or  of  gold.  God's  Word,  even  if  preached  without  any 
accompaniment  of  rhetorical  grace,  or  to  the  detriment  of  the 


12  MDMOIRS. 

King's  English,  is  efficacious  and  powerful;  yet  who  would  not 
prefer  to  have  the  grace  of  the  Gospel  come  to  him  with  the  em- 
bellishments of  the  graces  of  polite  speech?  The  Sacrament  of 
the  Altar  rightly  administered  is  valid  and  efficacious,  even  if  the 
nails  of  the  administrator  are  in  mourning  and  the  proximity  of 
his  hands  in  presenting  the  sacred  wafer  brings  unmistakable 
suggestions  of  the  reeking  atmosphere  of  the  tobacconist's  shop 
or  the  environment  of  the  livery-stable,  as  has  been  the  experi- 
ence of  more  than  one  patient  sufferer;  yet  who  would  not  rather 
have  the  Means  of  Grace  administered  to  him  by  one  who  does 
not  shock  refined  sensibilities  and  who  does  not  accompany  the 
presentation  of  the  pure  Word  of  God  with  the  exhibition  of  an 
utter  lack  of  good  taste?  The  minister's  bearing  and  deportment, 
his  "personal  equation,"  if  you  please,  in  every  part  of  the  Ser- 
vice may  be  so  offensive  as  to  detract  from  the  usefulness  of  his 
functions  in  worship  and  demands  a  more  detailed  consideration. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  it  is  rather  a  delicate  task  to 
present  this  phase  of  the  subject.  To  a  person  who  does  not 
possess  the  genuine  liturgical  spirit,  some  of  the  things  that 
must  be  said  in  this  connection  would  seem  trifling  and  perhaps 
ridiculous.  It  were  folly  to  discuss  colors  with  one  born  blind, 
or  to  risk  incurring  the  enmity  of  the  deaf  by  entering  upon  a 
controversy  with  them  upon  the  merits  of  a  musical  opus  by  one 
of  the  masters.  Being  sure,  however,  of  a  sympathetic  hearer, 
and  in  the  conviction  that  I  am  addressing  only  those  of  refined 
liturgical  taste,  I  address  myself  to  the  congenial  task  of  deline- 
ating, in  as  practical  a  waj^  as  possible,  the  manner  in  which  a 
minister's  deportment  and  bearing  in  the  conduct  of  Divine  Ser- 
vice may  detrimentally  affect  its  usefulness,  and  the  pleasure  and 
profit  derived  from  it. 

The  minister  who  is  desirous  of  making  the  highest  possible 
use  of  the  Service  of  the  Church  for  his  people,  must  see  to  it 
that  a  number  of  things  are  attended  to  before  he  steps  into  the 
chancel  to  begin  the  sacred  offices.  The  lessons  must  be  hunted 
and  clearly  marked  in  the  Bible  on  the  Lectern  so  that  there  may 
be  no  awkward  pause  during  the  Service  while  the  Pastor  is 
searching  for  the  place  of  the  Lections.  The  pulpit  Bible  should 
be  open  at  the  proper  place  and  all  manuscripts  and  notes  con- 
veniently arranged.  The  service  books,  and  ever5'thing  else  re- 
quired should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  at  hand  when  needed.     To 


THE   FUNCTION   OF   THE   MINISTER   IN   DIVINE  WORSHIP.      13 

defer  this  work  until  after  the  minister  has  come  before  his  peo- 
ple to  begin  the  Service,  leaves  the  impression  that  he  is  not  pos- 
sessed with  a  sense  of  the  importance  of  the  Services  of  the 
House  of  God.  To  see  a  minister  rush  precipitately  from  one 
side  of  the  chancel  to  the  other,  to  be  subjected  to  the  ordeal  of 
seeing  him  handle  nervously  the  pages  of  Sacred  Scripture  in 
hunting  the  I^ections,  we  know  by  frequent  experience,  is  not 
edifying. 

Not  only  need  the  attention  of  the  oflBciating  minister  be  di- 
rected to  the  chancel  and  what  he  needs  in  the  sacred  ministra- 
tions, but  to  his  personal  appearance  as  well.  Anything  striking  , 
and  diverting  in  his  appearance  must  be  studiously  avoided.  We 
all  know  that  a  distinctive  robe  for  the  minister  is  adiaphoristic, 
as  a  liturgy  itself,  in  fact,  3'et  we  are  all  agreed  that  a  chaste 
liturgical  taste  demands  a  distinctive  badge  of  ofl&ce.  This  fact 
is  recognized  even  in  the  practice  of  congregations  of  culture  and 
refinement  in  unliturgical  denominations.  It  is  not  the  province 
of  this  paper  to  define  what  are  the  strictly  I^utheran  vestments. 
Practices  differ  in  different  places,  and  we  cheerfully  accord  to 
each  one  what  he  prefers.  But  having  chosen  a  vestment,  let 
him  see  that  it  is  properly  put  on,  and  secured  so  as  to  run  no 
risk  of  falling  off,  as  has  happened  in  more  than  one  instance. 
Regard  must  also  be  had  to  proper  fit.  In  a  church  near  Phila- 
delphia not  many  years  ago  a  clergyman,  approximating  the 
stature  of  the  son  of  Kish,  preached  a  trial  sermon  in  a  robe,  the 
property  of  the  congregation,  which  had  been  made  to  fit  the  pro- 
portions of  their  former  pastor  who  in  size  suggested  Zacchaeus 
the  pulican.  The  effect  was  too  ludicrous  for  even  that  devout 
congregation,  a  good  sermon  made  no  impression  and  an  estima- 
ble man  waited  in  vain  for  a  call  to  a  desirable  congregation. 

Let  us  suppose,  then,  that  all  necessary  arrangements  have 
been  made,  and  the  minister  is  ready  to  begin  the  Service.  Pre- 
cisely at  the  time  appointed  let  him  enter  the  chancel.  His  way 
of  entering  into  the  presence  of  the  congregation  and  the  manner 
in  which  he  moves  from  place  to  place  in  the  chancel,  are  not 
without  their  effect  upon  the  Service,  and  demand  some  consider- 
ation. Two  extremes  must  be  guarded  against.  He  will  not  en- 
ter the  chancel  with  swinging  arms  and  in  a  rapid  stride,  nor  will 
he  make  a  cross-cut,  and  approach  the  altar  from  the  side.  On 
the  other  hand  he  will  not  by  the  painful  slowness  of  his  move- 


14  MEMOIRS. 

ments  and  his  precise  posturings  give  the  suggestion  of  an  autom- 
aton. Good  taste  demands  a  devout  and  reverent  bearing  in 
keeping  with  the  character  of  the  place.  Any  suggestion  of  af- 
fectation on  the  one  hand  or  of  levity  on  the  other  is  detrimental. 

The  consideration  of  the  minister's  walk  naturally  suggests 
other  bodily  movements  which  must  not  be  passed  over.  Invol- 
untary movements,  which  betoken  nervousness,  and  are  a  waste 
of  vitality,  like  fidgeting,  are  extremely  exasperating  to  a  person 
of  refined  sensibilities,  and  produce  a  detrimental  effect  upon  even 
the  uncultured,  although  they  may  not  be  able  to  tell  the  cause 
X)f  their  unfavorable  impressions.  Such  movements  plainly  show 
a  lack  of  self-control,  and  are  fatal  to  personal  magnetism.  He 
who  can  not  control  himself  cuts  a  sorry  figure  in  trying  to  hold 
and  influence  a  congregation  in  public  discourse.  Among  such 
vicious  involuntary  movements  we  would  enumerate  thrashing 
the  handkerchief,  playing  with  the  mustache,  with  a  button,  or  a 
watch-charm,  or  walking  up  and  down  during  the  sermon.  We 
have  read  the  praises  of  peripatetic  philosophers,  but  we  can  give 
our  testimony  as  the  result  of  more  than  one  painful  experience 
as  a  victim,  that  we  never  saw  anything  to  recommend  in  a  peri- 
patetic minister. 

Here,  too,  we  must  record  our  conviction  that  it  is  offensive 
to  correct  liturgical  taste  and  conducive  to  the  marring  of  a  Ser- 
vice to  have  the  minister  move  about  in  the  chancel  when  the 
congregation  is  worshiping.  When  he  is  not  addressing  the  con- 
gregation in  the  sacramental  parts  of  the  Services,  or  speaking  to 
God  in  the  sacrificial  acts,  let  him  join  in  the  worship  with  the 
congregation  of  which  he  is  a  part.  We  have  frequently  seen 
ministers  move  from  the  center  of  the  chancel  to  the  I^ectern 
while  the  congregation  was  singing  the  Amen  after  the  Collect. 
It  is  a  common  thing  to  see  a  minister  use  the  time  during  which 
the  congregation  sings  the  closing  stanzas  of  the  hymn  before  the 
sermon,  in  going  into  the  pulpit  and  in  getting  into  adjustment 
for  the  sermon.  Let  the  minister  retain  his  seat  and  let  him 
worship  to  the  end  of  the  hymn  and  then  let  him  deliberately 
proceed  to  the  pulpit.  If  he  needs  private  prayer  before  the  ser- 
mon, let  him  teach  his  people  that  they  need  prayer  as  well  to 
receive  it  properly. 

Here,  too,  is  the  place  to  pillorize  the  trousers-pocket  bri- 
gade.    It  is  a  sad  commentary  upon  the  condition  of  the  litur- 


THE    FUNCTION    OF   THE    MINISTER    IN    DIVINE    WORSHIP.      15 

gical  taste  in  our  English  Church  to  be  compelled  to  treat  a  sub- 
ject like  this  in  a  paper  of  this  character.  We  should  have 
spared  3'ou  this  if  a  Service  had  not  been  spoiled  for  us  not  many 
months  ago  by  a  performance  of  this  character.  One  naturally 
associates  the  trousers-pocket  gesture  with  the  racy  aneciotes  of 
the  mountebank  and  the  hawker  of  cheap  jewelry.  When  this 
attitude  is  assumed  by  a  minister  in  Divine  Worship,  the  effect  is 
worse  than  that  of  the  proverbial  fly  in  the  ointment.  The  only 
way  to  be  sure  that  one's  hand  will  not  furtively  glide  to  its  fa- 
vorite repose  in  the  trousers-pocket  when  mininistering  in  the 
chancel,  is  never  to  let  it  rest  there  outside  of  that  sacred  place. 

A  vicious  fault  on  the  part  of  the  ministering  clergyman  is 
the  practice  of  looking  over  the  congregation  during  the  singing 
of  the  hymns  and  at  other  times  when  the  minister  is  not  speak- 
ing. It  alwaj's  makes  the  impression  upon  us  that  the  pastor  is 
taking  a  mental  note  of  absentees  or  trying  to  feed  his  vanity  in 
endeavoring  to  estimate  the  number  of  people  to  whom  he  is 
ministering.  If  he  must  ascertain  who  is  present,  and  cannot  do 
so  unconsciously  during  the  sermon,  when  he  ought  to  look  his 
people  in  the  eyes;  or  if  he  must  count  noses,  let  him  delegate 
this  unbecoming  work  to  some  one  else.  Only  let  him  bear  in 
mind  the  disastrous  experience  of  a  greater  than  he  who  indulged 
a  penchant  for  numbering  the  people.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
progress  of  sound  liturgical  teaching  will  soon  bring  it  to  pass 
that  our  cultured  congregations  at  least  will  insist  that  they  see 
the  pastor's  face  only  when  he  is  addressing  them. 

Having  passed  in  review  some  of  the  more  flagrant  faults  of 
the  officiating  minister  as  far  as  they  concern  his  bodily  move- 
ments which  always  mar  a  Service  more  or  less,  let  us  pass  to  a 
consideration  of  the  utterances  of  his  mouth.  In  passing  let  us 
emphasize  the  fact  for  the  purpose  of  vindicating  the  use  of  so 
much  space  in  discussing  this  phase  of  the  subject  that  what  a 
person  says  with  his  body  may  cry  out  so  loud  that  what  he 
says  with  his  lips  may  make  no  impression. 

One  of  the  most  common  faults  of  the  minister  in  performing 
his  functions  in  the  chancel  is  the  injection  of  the  dramatic  ele- 
ment, and  the  bringing  in  of  the  thread-bare  devices  of  the  cheap 
teacher  of  dramatic  and  elocutionary  reading.  Scripture  is  to  be 
read  intelligibly  and  with  proper  decorum  and  reverence.  The 
fact  must  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  it  is  God's  Word,  and  that 


16  MEMOIRS. 

the  ofl&ciating  minister  is  simply  the  agent  through  whom  this 
Word  is  mediated  to  the  people.  He  is  not  to  read  it  in  such  a 
way  as  to  show  off  obtrusively  his  elocutionary  skill.  The  high- 
est art  is  to  conceal  art.  It  is  not  considered  good  liturgical 
taste  to  look  up  from  the  page  in  reading  Scripture.  I^et  the 
Book  be  so  adjusted  as  to  afford  an  unobstructed  view  of  the  face 
of  the  reader,  and  let  him  read  reverently  and  devoutly,  with 
proper  emphasis  to  bring  out  the  meaning.  L,et  him  not  fall  into 
the  unliturgical  practice  of  commenting  while  he  is  reading 
Scripture.  I^et  nothing  but  God's  Word  be  heard  at  this  time, 
and  let  not  man's  word  and  God's  be  indiscriminately  mixed  up 
in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  to  an  unpleasant  perplexity  on  the  part 
of  the  hearer  as  to  what  Scripture  says  or  what  is  the  extempore 
effusion  of  the  reader.  All  explanation  of  Scripture  comes  prop- 
erly in  the  sermon.  Here  a  minister  may  comment  to  his  heart's 
content,  if  he  has  the  ability  to  do  it  well;  if  not,  the  less  the 
better. 

Many  of  our  ministers  in  reading  the  sacrificial  parts  of  the 
Service  have  the  ghastly  habit  of  turning  up  their  eyes  toward 
the  ceiling,  doubtless  to  indicate  to  the  people  that  what  is  said 
is  intended  for  Him  Who  inhabiteth  the  Heavens.  This  trick 
we  are  justified  in  qualifying  as  ghastly,  for  we  all  know  by  ex- 
perience that  the  spectacle  of  a  person  exposing  the  whites  of  his 
eyes  is  not  a  pleasing  one.  Since  there  is  a  desire  manifested  in 
this  disagreeable  practice  to  indicate  the  sacrificial  parts  of  the 
Service,  when  God  and  not  the  people  are  addressed,  why  not  in 
accordance  with  the  pure  practice  of  our  Church  where  she  has 
not  been  adversely  influenced  by  coming  in  contact  with  other 
denominations,  reintroduce  the  practice  of  indicating  the  sacri- 
ficial part  of  the  Service  by  the  minister's  attitude  with  reference 
to  the  altar,  the  center  of  the  church?  During  prayer,  the  people 
face  the  altar.  The  minister  is  a  member  of  the  congregation  as 
well  as  its  minister.  He  is  not  praying  at  them,  but  they  are 
praying  through  him  as  their  mouth-piece  and  spokesman.  He 
is  not  praying  his  private  prayers,  which  are  properly  reserved 
for  the  privacy  of  his  own  room,  but  he  is  making  audible  their 
petitions  at  the  throne  of  grace.  His  posture  ought  to  empha- 
size this  fact  in  a  liturgical  Service  conducted  with  due  regard  to 
taste  and  the  eternal  fitness  of  things.  True,  there  are  but  few 
of  our  English  congregations  far  enough  advanced  in  their  ap- 


THE   FUNCTION   OF   THE   MINISTER   IN   DIVINE   WORSHIP.      17 

preciation  of  correct  liturg;ical  principles  to  adopt  this  eminently 
beautiful  practice  with  edification.  Then,  too,  it  is  reprehensible 
to  disturb  the  peace  of  a  congregation,  and  perhaps  do  violence 
to  the  welfare  of  immortal  souls  by  throwing  a  stumbling-block 
in  their  way  in  the  reintroduction  of  a  practice,  right  and  good 
in  itself,  but  naturally  regarded  as  strange  and  foreign  to  the 
genius  of  the  Church  by  one  whose  horizon  is  bounded  by  the 
limits  of  the  parish.  Our  people  must  be  patiently  taught  to  ap- 
preciate correct  practices,  and  then  they  will  demand  their  ob- 
servance. To  introduce  them  before  they  are  ready  to  appreciate 
and  enjoy  them  is  not  wise.  A  pastor  stultifies  himself  by  un- 
necessarily creating  a  disturbance  by  the  introduction  of  an 
adiaphoron.  Here  as  elsewhere  patience  must  do  her  perfect 
work.  The  same  may  also  be  said  of  the  eminently  beautiful  and 
churchly  practice  of  intoning  the  Service.  There  is  no  more  rea- 
son for  a  congregation  to  sing  its  responses  than  for  a  pastor  to 
sing  his  parts  of  the  Service.  It  seems  one-sided  and  unnatural 
for  the  minister  to  speak  and  the  congregation  to  sing.  Let  both 
either  speak  or  sing,  but  let  each  do  the  same  thing.  Only  let  it 
be  done  well.  Only  the  best  dare  be  tolerated  in  the  House  of 
God.  Unless  a  minister  is  possessed  of  a  sweet  and  flexible  voice 
and  understands  music,  let  him  not  attempt  the  intonations.  I 
would  say  the  same  of  the  congregation.  If  they  are  not  willing 
to  learn  to  sing  the  responses  well,  let  them  not  sing  them  at  all. 
One  who  is  acquainted  with  the  condition  of  our  English  Church 
knows  full  well  that  the  general  practice  of  intoning  is  impracti- 
cable on  account  of  the  wretched  liturgical  taste  prevalent  among 
us,  and  the  lack  of  musical  training  among  the  overwhelming 
majority  of  our  clergymen.  The  reintroduction  into  our  church- 
es of  the  beautiful  practice  of  intoning,  which  is  recommended 
by  all  the  authorities  on  Liturgies  who  are  entitled  to  a  hearing, 
would  solve  many  of  the  problems  suggested  in  a  consideration 
of  the  use  by  the  minister  of  his  voice  in  the  Service  of  the 
Church,  either  to  its  making  or  marring. 

Again,  many  a  minister  sins  egregiously  against  good  litur- 
gical taste  and  feeling  in  conducting  the  prayers  of  the  congrega- 
tion. In  many  quarters  the  impression  of  many  pious  souls 
seems  to  be  that  the  public  prayers  of  the  congregation  are  tlie 
minister's  prayers;  and  they,  in  their  innocence  of  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  congregational  prayer,  demand  that   the  minister  make 


18  MEMOIRS. 

"his  own  prayers."  They  usually  are  his  own  prayers,  too — his 
very,  very  own,  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  grammar,  dic- 
tion and  arrangement.  He  prays  at  the  people,  preaches  to  them 
under  the  pretense  of  prayer,  sometimes  flatters  them,  interjects 
"Ohs,"  and  "Would  thats"  ad  mziseam,  often  transgresses  the 
second  commandment  by  his  battological  repetitions  of  the  Name 
of  God,  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  saying  something  while  he 
is  thinking  of  something  else  to  say;  and  usually  makes  such  an 
exhibition  of  wretched  taste  as  almost  to  turn  a  person  against 
extempore  prayer.  Then  good,  pious  souls  whom  Satan  uses  to 
flatter  their  dear  pastor,  assure  him  with  tears  in  their  eyes,  that 
his  prayer  was  "so  touching,"  and  did  them  so  much  good.  We 
believe  in  extempore  prayer  properly  conducted,  and  employed  it 
when  in  the  active  ministry,  but  we  always  felt  like  turning  to 
sack-cloth  and  ashes  when  assured  that  our  prayer  was  touching 
and  did  good.  A  prayer  that  touches  the  people  and  treats  them 
to  the  luxury  of  tears  is  no  prayer,  but  an  exhortation  masquer- 
ading as  an  address  to  the  throne  of  grace.  It  is  a  sham  and  an 
impertinence.  The  reason  why  there  is  so  little  genuine,  public 
prayer  in  our  English  Churches,  is  because  in  the  first  place  our 
people  do  not  more  generally  practice  private  prayer.  Private 
communion  with  God  is  a  conditio  sine  qua  non  of  public  prayer. 
If  people  prayed  more  assiduously  in  private  they  would  not  be 
so  eager  to  hear  some  one  else  make  his  private  prayer  in  public, 
but  they  would  come  together  to  offer  up  at  the  throne  of  grace 
their  common  supplications,  prayers,  intercessions  and  thanks- 
givings. In  order  to  do  this  in  accordance  with  the  proprieties 
which  ought  to  obtain  recognition  in  the  House  of  God,  they 
would  make  themselves  familiar  with  the  chaste  and  Scriptural 
forms  of  public  prayer  which  have  come  down  to  us,  hallowed 
and  redolent  vs^ith  the  worship  of  the  saints  of  all  ages.  When 
there  is  6ccasion  for  extempore  prayer  their  good  taste  and  devo- 
tion would  absolutely  refuse  to  tolerate  the  crudity,  the  individu- 
alism, the  gush,  which  characterize  so  much  of  what  is  called 
public  prayer  and  disgrace  our  worship.  They  would  demand 
that  they  be  informed  beforehand  what  is  to  be  prayed  for,  and 
then  they  would  insist  that  the  petitions  be  formed  in  accord- 
ance with  that  which  characterizes  the  pure  prayers  of  the 
Church.  They  would  demand  what  Schoeberlein  loves  to  call 
the  "lapidarstyl." 


THE    FUNCTION    OF    THE    MINISTER    IN   DIVINE    WORSHIP.      19 

The  last  fault  of  the  minister  in  public  Service  upon  which 
we  desire  to  dwell  for  a  moment  is  the  practice  of  changing  arbi- 
trarily the  hallowed  responses  and  formularies  which  have  come 
down  to  us  with  so  many  precious  associations,  that  the  slightest 
change  in  their  wording  startles  one,  and  mars  the  enjoyment 
and  the  profit  which  might  otherwise  be  gotten  out  of  the  Ser- 
vice. A  pertinent  illustration  is  the  unwarranted  dilution  of  the 
Apostolic  benediction  from  the  simple  and  chaste  form  as  it  oc- 
curs on  the  sacred  pages  to  something  like  the  following:  "The 
grace  of  our  I,ord  and  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ,  the  infinite  love  of 
God,  our  Heavenly  Father,  and  the  communion  and  fellowship 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  be  with  you  all  now  and  forevermore." 
When  a  man  quotes  Scripture,  he  ought,  in  due  respect  to  the 
inspired  Word,  quote  it  correctly.  Such  arbitrary  conduct  which 
characterizes  much  of  the  Service  as  administered  by  some  min- 
isters is  inexplicable.  We  have  heard  the  simple,  direct,  Scriptur- 
al sentences  provided  for  the  administration  of  the  elements  and 
the  dismissal  of  the  communicants  distorted  beyond  recognition. 
A  man  is  not  compelled  to  use  the  Service  in  its  entirety,  nor  in- 
deed any  part  of  it.  In  fact,  in  some  places,  we  would  deem  it 
advisable  not  to  use  any  liturgy  at  all  until  the  people  had  learned 
to  appreciate  the  use  of  a  common  Service  over  against  an  indi- 
vidualistic one.  However,  what  is  used,  let  it  be  used  as  given 
in  our  formularies,  or  do  not  use  it  at  all.  A  garbled  use  of  a 
formula  or  of  a  Service  is  apt  to  be  exasperating. 

What  surprises  us  still  more  is  the  fact  that  these  brethren 
who  habitually  change  these  formulas,  to  change  which  lays  one 
open  to  the  charge  of  vandalism,  are  often  vehemently  vociferous 
in  their  insistence  not  to  make  the  slightest  change  in  the  rubrics, 
which  have  by  no  means  the  authority  of  the  text  of  the  Service 
itself,  not  having  been  agreed  upon  by  the  Joint  Committee  en- 
trusted with  the  preparation  of  the  Service  itself,  and  some  of 
which,  we  fear,  received  their  present  form  about  thirty-five  years 
ago  in  the  attempt  to  adapt  a  liturgical  form  of  Service  to  litur- 
gical conditions  existing  at  that  time  in  certain  parts  of  the 
Church. 

In  conclusion,  what  must  be  done  to  bring  about  such  a  con- 
dition of  things  in  our  English  Churches,  with  which  alone  the 
writer  claims  an  intimate  acquaintance,  and  of  the  liturgical  con- 
dition of  which  he  is  not  in  any  ways  proud,  in  order  that  our 


20  MEMOIRS. 

ministers  may  perform  their  functions  in  such  a  way  as  to  con- 
tribute to  the  edification  of  our  people?  Our  people  love  beauti- 
ful things  and  can  be  led  to  an  appreciation  of  beautiful  art-fotms 
in  worship  as  well  as  elsewhere.  Our  congregations  are  to  be 
congratulated  upon  the  patient  endurance  of  much  that  is  posi- 
tively ugly  and  repulsive  in  worship.  ^  Where  the  ministry  has 
no  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  worship,  there  you  look  in  vain 
for  an  appreciation  of  beautiful  art-forms  among  the  people. 
Like  priest,  like  people.  Water  cannot  rise  above  its  source. 
It  rests  with  our  theological  seminaries  to  furnish  the  answer  to 
this  question.  The  principles  of  pure  Liturgies  must  be  thor- 
oughly taught.  But  this  is  not  all  that  is  required.  We  learn 
far  more  through  the  e5'e  than  through  the  ear.  The  theoretical 
teaching  of  a  Seminary  upon  the  subject  of  Liturgies  may  be  above 
the  suspicion  of  a  reproach,  but  if  the  daily  Services  of  the  stu- 
dents and  the  example  of  their  professors  constantly  transgress 
these  principles,  nothing  but  disappointment  can  result.  There 
must  be  here  as  elsewhere  a  beautiful  and  consistent  union  of 
theory  and  practice.  Let  it  be  our  part,  whether  as  teachers  and 
pastors,  or  churchmen  in  the  pew,  to  study  that  in  all  our  minis- 
trations and  Services  we  so  conduct  ourselves  that  the  injunction 
of  the  Apostle  be  honored: — (i  Cor.  14:  40).  IlavTa  Sk  £vo-;(>;/x,dvws 
KOI  Kara  to^iv  yivecrOoi. 

Elmer  F.  Krauss. 
Chicago,  III. 


A  LAITY   LITURGICALLY   WEIvL-INFORMED. 


The  primary  object  of  a  Christian  congregation,  from  the  human 
side,  is  the  worship  of  God  and  the  edification  and  salvation  of 
souls.  Everything  that  pertains  to  and  can  assist  in  this  object 
is  relatively  important.  It  is  well  that  we  have  the  most  ex- 
pressive form  of  architecture  in  church  building,  the  most  sug- 
gestive arrangement  of  nave  and  chancel,  the  most  helpful  fix- 
tures for  Sunday  School  work,  and  strive  after  the  best  style  of 
Church  Music  and  the  most  devout  utterance  of  our  public  de- 
votions. 

There  is,  no  doubt,  a  great  awakening  along  this  line  in  the 
Christian  Church  in  general.  This  is  especially  true  of  our  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Church.  Our  ministers  and  pastors  have  taken 
up  with  loving  hearts  and  devout  souls  the  study  of  matters  per- 
taining to  the  best  expression  of  the  devotions  of  the  Church  to- 
ward God  and  have  given  us  many  learned  writings  on  the  sub- 
ject. We  are  grateful.  But  what  benefit  to  our  congregations 
if  our  pastors  can  learnedly  discuss  the  influence  of  Gregorj^  the 
Great  on  the  ancient  Liturgy,  or  tell  what  the  Margrave  of 
Brandenburg  had  to  do  with  the  placing  of  the  Confession  of  Sin 
in  our  Lutheran  Liturgies,  unless  there  is  some  way  of  sharing 
both  the  enthusiasm  and  information  with  our  congregations. 
What  we  need  now,  is  not  less  information  for  our  Pastors,  but 
more  enlightenment  for  our  Laity.  The  present  paper  is  written 
partly  as  the  result  of  the  experience  of  the  writer  or  of  other 
pastors  and  partly  on  the  basis  of  all  pedagogical  principles. 

I.       METHODS   OF    INSTRUCTION. 

There  are  two  main  methods  of  instruction — the  abstract 
and  the  concrete. 

The  abstract  is  that  in  which  the  theory  precedes  the  prac- 
tice.    This  method,  as  applied  to  Liturgies,  would  first  explain 

(xxi) 


22  MEMOIRS. 

the  beauty,  propriety,  Scripturalness,  and  all  the  qualities  and 
history  of  the  purest  and  best  forms  of  worship.  It  would  show 
that  all  these  things  are  to  be  found  in  our  Common'  Service  for 
Evangelical  Lutheran  congregations.  Then  should  follow  the 
practice.  This  is  certainly  the  ideal  method.  Know  a  thing — 
then  do  it.  While  this  method  may  be  very  applicable  to  younger 
pupils  in  school,  where  mind  is  still  plastic  and  open  to  new  im- 
pressions it  has  rarely  been  found  best  for  older  persons  whose 
opinions  are  set  like  the  cast  steel  in  its  mold  and  whose  practice 
is  in  a  rut  as  deep  as  the  valleys  of  a  river.  A  person  may  be 
informed  but  not  enlightened.  A  questioner  may  be  silenced  yet 
not  convinced.  The  abstract  method  seldom  enlightens  and  con- 
vinces a  congregation. 

The  concrete  method  is  that  in  which  practice  precedes  the- 
ory. This  method  would  introduce,  use,  enjoy  that  which  is 
best  and  when  it  has  been  tasted  then  to  bring  the  explanation  and 
theory  and  all  the  history  of  the  Liturgy  in  order  that  the  users 
may  be  ready  always  to  give  a  reason  for  the  practice  in  which 
they  engage  as  well  as  for  the  faith  which  is  in  them.  This 
is  perhaps  the  easier,  and  for  the  many,  the  more  usual  method. 
More  things  are  learned  and  done  by  imitation  and  example  than 
as  the  result  of  ratiocination.  To  be  sure  we  meet  here  also  the 
inertia  of  old  practice,  but  we  need  not  immediately  answer  the 
prejudices  of  a  mistaken  or  ignorant  mind.  Wisely  used,  for 
young  and  for  old  this  method  would  be  the  more  likely  to  suc- 
ceed in  enlightening  a  congregation  as  to  the  best  in  worship. 

The  ideal  method  would  be  that  in  which  the  abstract  and 
concrete,  theory  and  practice,  go  hand  in  hand.  That  would 
require  the  ideal  congregation,  as  well  as  the  ideal  pastor.  Per- 
haps there  are  but  few  such.  We  must  then  endeavor  to  see 
how  we  may  best  enlighten  our  people  as  we  find  them, 

II.   THE  PURPOSE  OF  SUCH  AN  EFFORT. 

The  purpose  of  enlightening  our  laity  on  liturgical  matters 
is  a  very  important  and  practical  one.  Ignorance  is  not  the 
mother  of  devotion.  Ignorance  has  quite  another  brood  follow- 
ing her  chief  among  which  is  prejudice.  If  our  Lutheran  Church 
and  people  are  ever  to  occupy  the  position  which  God  seems  to 
indicate  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  we  cultivate  a  laity  well- 
informed  on  all  matters  concerning  the  Church. 


A    LAITY   LITURGICALLY  WELL-INFORMED.  23 

Worship  originates  indeed  as  a  wholly  spiritual  act.  But  to 
express  itself  it  must  use  sight,  sound,  gesture,  which  are  present- 
ed in  words  and  music,  building  and  furniture,  posture  and  actions. 
This  brings  us  immediately  into  the  province  of  art,  for  art  is  the 
expression  of  spirit  or  principles.  Now  if  worship  is  worth  ex- 
pression it  is  worthy  of  the  best  expression,  i.  e.,  of  the  most  ar- 
tistic. What  is  the  best  and  truest  expression,  i.  e.,  the  most 
artistic,  of  the  worshipful  idea?  What  is  true  and  what  is  false 
expression  or  art  in  worship?  The  question  here  is  not  the  ques- 
tion of  worship  or  no  worship,  but  the  liturgical  question  is  alto- 
gether a  question  of  the  expression  or  art-form  of  public  worship. 
That  expression  is  not  confined  to  what  is  called  lyiturgy  in  the 
narrower  sense,  as  the  form  of  an  Order  of  Worship,  but  it  em- 
braces everything  which  conduces  to  the  expression  of  the  spirit 
of  a  Church,  as  architecture,  music,  methods  of  working  and 
propagating  itself,  in  short  the  whole  method  of  realizing  its 
life. 

There  may  be  three  ways  of  arriving  at  the  expression  of 
congregational  worship.  There  are  three  clear  types  of  worship, 
which  have  each  had  their  time  and  place  in  our  land  and  our 
I^utheran  churches  as  there  have  been  three  distinct  types  of 
church  buildings  expressive  of  the  forms  of  liturgical  worship. 
Each  of  these  may  still  be  seen,  especially  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Pennsj^lvania. 

The  first  way  we  might  designate  as  the  congregational 
style.  Each  congregation  is  a  law  and  a  judge  unto  itself. 
When  the  minister  comes  the  word  is  "we  are  accustomed  to  have 
our  services  conducted  in  such  a  way."  The  people  that  can  de- 
termine such  a  matter  must  necessarily  be  well-taught.  They 
must  know  much  of  the  mind  of  Christ,  of  biblical  practice,  of 
Church  History  and  the  most  perfect  expressions  of  art.  Of  all 
congregations  such  an  one  should  be  the  most  willing  to  receive 
the  fullest  instruction  on  worship.  They  are  generally  the  least 
willing.  To  this  class  belongs  the  first  style  of  our  church 
buildings,  the  high  pulpit  on  its  slender  pillar,  the  altar  almost 
in  the  middle  of  the  church,  with  the  pews  arranged  on  three  sides 
and  often  the  high  galleries.  The  minister  stands  behind  the  al- 
tar, speaking  over  the  altar,  the  sacramental  part  very  prominent. 

Then  follows  the  way  of  the  "other  denominations"  and 
"sister  churches."     The  minister  ofiiciating  for  the  day  is  the 


24  MKMOIRS. 

sole  judge  of  what  shall  be  the  expression  of  the  worshipping 
congregation.  His  feeling  or  indisposition  shall,  or  in  fact  must, 
condition  the  whole  form  and  matter  of  worship.  The  minister 
that  is  willing  to  do  that  must  needs  have  great  confidence  in  his 
own  ability  and  the  congregation  much  more.  He  must  have 
exceeding  personal  information  and  ability  always  at  the  moment 
to  be  able  to  find  both  the  most  Scriptural  and  the  most  suitable 
art-form  for  the  occasion,  and  the  congregation  should  have  even 
more,  under  such  circumstances,  that  they  may  know  that  they 
are  not  misled.  This  form  of  liturgical  worship  exalts  the  per- 
sonal and  individualistic  over  the  public  and  congregational.  It 
has  its  architectural  expression  in  the  second  style  of  church 
building  found  in  our  churches.  The  pulpit  remains,  but  the  al- 
tar is  gone.  A  table  takes  its  place.  Or  if  something  represent- 
ing an  altar  remains,  it  is  given  the  only  space  left  for  it, — the 
space  immediately  below  and  against  the  pulpit.  The  congrega- 
tion has  lost  the  sacramental  in  the  exaltation  of  the  sacrificial. 

A  third  way  is  this,  that  the  pastors  and  Church  leaders  who 
have  both  the  ability  to  judge  and  the  learning  to  comprehend  as 
well  as  the  sensibility  to  appreciate  what  should  be  the  most 
Scriptural,  most  churchly  and  most  artistic  expression  of  public 
worship  should  present  the  same  to  the  Church  and  its  congrega- 
tions. This  from  every  point  of  view  would  be  the  most  practi- 
cal and  common  sense  method  of  procedure.  And  that  is  exact- 
ly what  our  Lutheran  Church  has  always  done,  from  the  first 
book  of  lyUther  down  to  the  Common  Service  adopted  by  three  of 
the  general  bodies  in  the  United  States.  Such  a  method  brings 
into  co-ordination  all  the  elements  of  the  Church,  the  wisdom  of 
the  general  bodies  in  preparing,  the  practical  leadership  of  the 
pastor  in  introducing,  and  the  intelligent  participation  of  the  con- 
gregation in  using,  the  best  possible  form  of  worship.  This  re- 
stores again  the  two  necessarily  essential  parts  of  every  public 
worship,  to  wit,  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial.  This  re- 
stored congregational  worship  has  also  again  brought  back  a 
churchly,  in  many  things  also  a  restored,  architecture.  It  is 
generally  gothic.  On  entering  the  eye  falls  on,  and  the  mind 
gratefully  recognizes  both  a  pulpit  and  an  altar,  a  Church  both 
of  Word  and  Sacrament,  in  which  both  the  subjective  and  object- 
ive have  their  place. 

Such  a  history  of  our  Church  shows  both  what  losses  and  ills 


A   LAITY   LITURGICAI^LY  WEI,I.-INFORMED.  25 

came  upon  us  because  of  a  want  of  proper  information,  and  again 
what  advancement  will  follow  when  both  clergy  and  laity  are  en- 
lightened liturgically. 

But  we  plead  for  a  laity  liturgically  well-informed  for  the 
continued  defense  and  upbuilding  of  our  Church.  If  it  was 
needed  in  years  gone  by  and  we  suffered  because  we  had  it  not, 
let  us  remember  that  in  these  intense  and  strenuous  times  we 
need  it  much  more  if  we  even  expect  to  hold  our  own,  and  if  we 
hope  to  advance,  it  is  one  of  the  absolute  imperatives. 

On  what  ground  do  we  gather  in  and  hold  the  allegiance  of 
our  members? 

Once  the  chief  argument  and  reason  was  "the  Church  of  our 
fathers."  With  most  of  us  the  reason  we  came  into  the  Church 
is,  we  were  born  into  it  by  our  natural  as  well  as  by  our  spiritual 
birth.  With  many  the  only  reason  why  they  remain  members  is 
because  their  parents  were  such.  There  may  come  a  time  when 
some  will  forget  the  "fathers"  or  indeed  become  ashamed  of 
them.  Then  the  result  will  be  they  will  forget  and  be  ashamed 
of  the  "fathers'"  Church.  Of  course  on  such  a  ground  no 
Church  could  ever  hope  to  become  a  missionary  Church  or  expect 
to  exert  any  influence  beyond  its  own  borders.  Such  are  the  ar- 
guments which  are  still  being  used  in  great  measure  when  we  ask 
an  offering  for  Home  Missions  to  gather  in  the  thousands  of  "lyU- 
therans"  instead  of  the  millions  of  "sinners."  Such  are  the  rea- 
sons given  when  there  is  a  question  as  to  the  Order  of  Services. 
What  wonder  that  such  arguments  and  reasons  convinced  no  one 
except  the  person  that  used  them,  and  that  under  them  the 
Church  continually  declined.     The  lack  was  information. 

Then  the  ground  on  which  Church-allegiance  was  asked  ad- 
vanced a  large  measure.  It  was  then  the  "Church  of  the  pure 
doctrine."  This  claim  was  also  preeminently  true.  Only,  too 
often  the  true  doctrine  was  buried  too  deep  in  the  heart.  It  nev- 
er came  forth.  The  world  never  saw  it  or  heard  it.  Why  it  was 
true  or  how,  could  be  shown  by  but  few.  Many  never  even  knew 
the  doctrine  which  they  claimed  to  be  true.  Naturally  came  the 
conclusion  that  there  is  "no  difference,"  that  we  are  "all  the 
same."  Such  a  conclusion  could  only  result  from  a  want  of  in- 
formation. But  on  these  questions  there  was  often  no  means  of 
information  to  the  laity,  and  when  there  was,  the  questions 
seemed  too  abstract  to  interest  them  very  much.     There  was  no 


26  MEMOIRS. 

concrete  point  on  which  our  members  could  lay  hold.  The  Baptists 
could  rally  around  the  fact  of  immersion,  the  Methodists  around  a 
mode  of  conversion,  and  all  their  members  could  grasp  the  practical 
point  and  give  their  reasons  for  it;  but  the  lyUtherans  could  only 
claim  the  abstract  of  "pure  doctrine"  without,  as  far  as  the  laity 
was  concerned,  being  able  to  give  example  or  proof  of  their  claim. 

There  is,  however,  one  all-pervading,  ever-obvious  activity 
of  the  Church, — that  is,  its  worship,  its  modes  of  working,  its 
form  of  life.  The  very  building  in  which  it  meets  preaches. 
The  manner  of  working  declares  a  difference.  The  Order  of  Ser- 
vices bears  constant  testimony  of  our  faith.  Why  such  a  style 
of  church-building,  why  a  chancel,  why  a  pulpit,  altar,  lectern, 
baptismal  font,  why  a  clerical  gown  and  liturgy,  why  infant  bap- 
tism, catechetical  instruction,  conjBrniation?  These  are  all  ques- 
tions that  belong  to  the  liturgical  disciplines.  They  are  practical, 
concrete  questions.  This  includes  the  "fathers"  and  is  based  on 
"pure  doctrine." 

It  is  along  this  line  that  we  must  seek  to  bring  to  our  people 
the  most  permanent  and  all-pervasive  instruction.  When  they 
shall  have  and  use  the  best  that  Scripture,  history  and  a  conse- 
crated art  can  give  and  when  they  can  give  the  reason  for  such 
faith  and  use,  then  may  we  indeed  expect  to  have  our  beloved 
Church  enter  upon  her  heritage  and  exert  her  influence  far 
beyond  her  own  borders. 

III.      WHAT  THE   PASTOR    MAY   DO. 

The  task  and  duty  of  informing  the  members  of  our  congre- 
gations in  this,  as  in  most  other  Church  affairs,  devolves  on  the 
Pastor.  Our  people  have  often  neither  the  time,  nor  the  inclina- 
tion, nor  even  the  opportunity  to  inform  themselves.  The  work 
is  one  which  should  be  undertaken  with  zeal  and  in  which  there 
must  be  constant  perseverance,  for  it  can  never  be  completed. 

Permit  the  writer  to  indicate  a  few  lines  along  which  he  has 
endeavored  to  work. 

There  is  no  more  fruitful  field  for  liturgical  work  in  most 
congregations  than  that  of  Church  music.  The  best  place  to  be- 
gin is  with  the  children  of  the  Sunday  School.  It  does  very  little 
good  simply  to  declaim  against  the  modern  abomination  of  jingle- 
music  for  Church  and  Sunday  School.  Then  again  how  often  we 
are  pained  by  the  choir-music  which  is  introduced  simply  and  on- 


A   I,AITY   LITURGICALLY   WELL-INFORMED.  27 

ly  for  the  sake  of  entertaining  and  pleasing.  Both  Methodist 
layman  and  Papal  head  of  the  Roman  Church  declaim  against  the 
abuse  of  music  in  the  sanctuary.  The  first  writes  in  the  New 
York  Independent,  "The  greatest  handicap  of  the  Church  is  the 
false  and  harmful  conceptions  of  the  function  of  music  in  public 
worship.  Music  is  appropriate  and  helpful  in  a  service  in  so  far 
as  it  is  used  by  the  members  of  the  congregation  to  express  their 

religious  emotions As  a  means  of  entertainment  it  has  no 

place  at  all  in  the  distinctly  religious  meetings  of  the  Church.  .  . 
The  concert  room  and  the  Christian  sanctuary  cannot  be  success- 
fully combined  under  one  management." 

The  Pope  of  Rome  has  undertaken  lately  to  inaugurate 
certain  reforms  in  ecclesiastical  music  in  France  by  prohib- 
iting exactly  the  same  class  of  music,  namely,  the  senti- 
mental and  operatic,  of  which  the  Methodist  layman  com- 
plains. Experience  has  shown  that  the  only  way  to  drive  out 
the  worse  is  to  use  the  better.  A  child,  and  a  person  of  un- 
vitiated  taste,  will  just  as  readily  learn  and  sing  a  chorale  as  a 
waltz  or  two-step  time,  except  that  the  latter,  being  the  flippant 
repetition  of  a  few-note  theme  and  often  of  meaningless  words, 
will  not  require  as  much  mind  or  soul.  Learn  the  worthy  and 
noble  and  there  will  not  be  so  much  danger  of  the  unworthy. 
The  theoretical  and  practical  may  well  be  united  for  the  congre- 
gation by  the  Pastor  taking  an  augmented  choir  and  using  five  or 
six  hymns  for  a  Vesper  Choral  Service.  Let  him  precede  the 
singing  of  each  hymn  and  tune  with  a  brief  history  and  a  few  in- 
cidents and  he  will  find  that  a  new  interest  is  connected  with  such 
a  hymn.  Four  or  five  such  services  a  year  may  very  profitably 
be  continued  for  years  and  afford  the  opportunity  of  saying  many 
necessary  things.  The  first  and  great  commandment  is  to  love 
God,  so  the  highest  object  of  Church  music  is  to  praise  God. 
Dr.  Stainer,  who  himself  wrote  much  excellent  Church  music, 
says,  "After  all,  the  best  tunes,  and  the  ones  we  learn  to  love  the 
most,  are  the  ones  our  grandmothers  loved." 

In  the  matter  of  congregational  liturgical  worship  we  come 
to  the  very  heart  of  the  subject  before  us.  The  writer  believes 
that  ordinarily,  the  practical  use  of  the  Liturgy  must  precede  any 
extended  theoretical  instruction.  The  congregation  must  use, 
and  use  well,  before  it  is  in  a  condition  to  judge.  Not  knowing 
the  better  how  is  it  in  a  condition  to  decide  anything  in  regard  to 


28  MEMOIRS. 

it?  Here  lies  the  difficulty.  The  congregation  cannot  judge 
rightly  until  it  has  used,  and  the  Pastor  cannot  introduce  a  bet- 
ter Service  until  the  congregation  knows.  Here  again  the  Sun- 
day School  as  the  more  malleable  material  is  the  better  element 
to  begin  with.  At  the  many  and  beloved  festival  seasons  of  our 
Church,  the  Sunday  School  can  give  the  congregation  a  taste  of  a 
well-rendered  liturgical  Service.  Often  a  temporary  use  may  cre- 
ate a  permanent  love.  As  in  one  case  the  writer  suggested  that 
in  a  series  of  special  sermons  where  sermon  outlines  and  the  Ves- 
per Services  were  printed  on  the  same  sheet  the  congregation  try 
the  Vesper  Service  for  three  months  and  then  if  not  satisfactory 
it  would  be  possible  to  go  back  to  the  old  (no)  order.  But  when 
the  three  months  were  past,  every  one  having  found  it  possible  to 
unite  in  the  Service  from  the  printed  ser\dces,  no  one  was  willing 
to  go  back  to  the  old.  At  the  same  place  the  Sunday  School  has 
been  using  for  the  last  two  years  the  music  of  the  Gregorian  Plain 
Song,  and  rendered  it  before  the  congregation  at  every  festival 
occasion.  It  would  be  entirely  feasible,  if  it  were  desirable,  to  in- 
troduce its  use  to  the  congregation. 

Undoubtedly  the  introduction  of  liturgical  worship  should, 
when  the  congregation  is  fully  settled  in  the  use  of  it,  and  it  is  no 
longer  a  matter  of  dispute,  be  followed  by  full  information  on  the 
principles,  reasons,  Scripturalness,  etc.,  of  such  a  Service.  They 
should  know  the  why  and  wherefore,  not  that  they  may  necessa- 
rily enjoy  it  any  more  themselves,  but  that  they  may  be  able  to 
give  such  reasons  and  arguments  to  others.  Such  information  can 
only  be  given  by  the  Pastor,  either  in  his  pastoral  visitations  or 
publicly  in  sermons,  for  it  would  seem  almost  impossible  to  reach 
the  heart  of  the  congregation  through  the  printed  page.  He  also 
is  most  interested  in  doing  so.  We  may  all  feel  the  beauty  of  mel- 
ody as  it  is  carried  by  a  single  voice,  touching  our  heart,  but 
there  is  something  in  a  harmonized  chord  that  we  can  never  get 
from  a  succession  of  notes,  a  melody.  There  is  beauty,  grace, 
blessing,  in  private  devotion  and  prayer.  In  the  worship  of  the 
congregation,  where  all  states  and  conditions  of  men  join  there 
is  not  only  an  intensification  of  the  individual's  devotion.  It 
has  a  new  quality.     It  has  become  the  Communion  of  Saints. 

In  the  matter  of  Church  Architecture  theory  must  precede 
practice;  for  when  once  a  thought  is  put  in  stone  and  iron  it  is 
more  apt  to  be  permanent  for  at  least  fifty  years.     As  we  have 


A   LAITY   LITURGICALLY   WELL- INFORMED.  29 

already  indicated,  the  doctrinal  and  liturgical  history  of  our 
Church  in  America  may  be  read  in  the  three  eras  or  general 
styles  of  church  buildings.  If  Ruskin  has  defined  architecture  as 
frozen  music,  we  may  certainly  be  right  when  we  say  that  Church 
Architecture  is  faith  and  life  done  in  stone.  Every  church 
building  expresses  something.  Some  time  ago  in  going  through 
a  church  that  cost  almost  a  hundred  thousand  dollars,  built  in  the 
Byzantine  style  of  the  round  arch,  after  going  through  ladies' 
parlor  and  gentlemen's  parlor,  and  kitchen  and  dining  room  and 
stage  with  curtains,  coming  at  last  to  the  amphitheater  "audito- 
rium" the  long-suffering  visitor  exclaimed,  "O,  Church  of  the 
Holy  Bake-oven!"  And  it  was  no  slander.  The  writer  knows 
of  a  congregation  which  put  a  twenty  thousand  dollar  addition  to 
its  old  church  building.  A  true  churchly  floor-plan  was  sug- 
gested by  the  Pastor  and  adopted  by  the  congregation.  Then 
that  the  prejudices  of  certain  parties  might  be  carried  out  the 
Pastor  was  excluded  from  the  building  committee  and  a  commit- 
tee appointed  of  which  at  least  three  members  confessed  that 
they  had  never  been  inside  of  any  other  lyUtheran  Church  than 
their  own  old  one.  Those  who  know  better  have  been  compelled 
to  apologize  for  conditions  ever  since.  How  can  we  expect  our 
Church  to  have  its  proper  influence  until  our  members  know  what 
style  of  architecture  is  expressive  of  our  faith  and  worship  and 
why  it  is  so?  Why  and  where  do  we  have  an  altar?  Why  we 
place  baptismal  fonts  in  our  churches?  What  is  the  proper  order 
of  font,  pulpit  and  altar,  and  why?  These  are  the  simplest  and 
most  fundamental  questions,  yet  to  many  of  our  members  are 
unsolvable  enigmas. 

How  much  there  is  to  learn  by  our  laity  concerning  our 
methods  of  working?  How  many  or  rather,  how  few,  can  give 
the  reasons  why  we  do  not,  and  cannot  join  the  denominations  in 
their  methods  and  ways  of  working?  Is  it  only  narrowness,  big- 
otry and  arbitrar}^  selfishness  which  moves  our  Pastors  to  occupy 
the  position  which  they  assume?  If  there  is  no  reason,  or  if  the 
reason  is  not  known,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing  for  the 
ignorant,  then  it  must  be  all  that  it  seems.  Pastors  have  good 
reasons  for  what  they  do.  The  people  must  know  them  if  Pastors 
expect  to  hold  them.  How  are  our  people  to  learn  that  the 
whole  method  and  spirit  of  the  popular  revival  meeting  and  sys- 
tem is  foreign  to  our  Lutheran  Church?     By  pointing  out  that 


30  MEMOIRS. 

the  revival  system  is  based  on  an  altogether  different  view  from 
the  Church  system.  The  revival  system  at  least  belittles,  if  it 
does  not  directly  contradict,  the  grace  which  the  child  receives 
in  baptism,  the  ordinary  blessings  of  God's  Word,  the  regular 
and  orderly  worship  of  God's  House,  the  sufficiency  of  the  regu- 
larly called  pastorate.  In  short,  it  is  the  direct  opposite,  not  on- 
ly in  practice  but  much  more  in  spirit,  of  our  Lutheran  faith  and 
worship  and  the  Lutheran  pastor  or  layman  who  would  take  part 
in  them  thereby  denies  everything  he  once  confessed.  What 
member  of  the  Church  that  is  well-informed  can  fail  to  see  that 
the  whole  Y.  M.  C.  A.  movement  with  its  disparagement  of  sac- 
rament and  ministry  is  a  movement  on  the  same  principles  and 
lines  as  the  monasticism  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  will  surely  at 
last  undermine  the  Church  and  teachings  of  Christ. 

Nor  can  we  forget  that  the  demand  for  special  weeks  of 
prayer  and  the  numerous  requests  for  sermons  on  special  subjects 
are  all  directly  opposed  to  the  Church  Year  which  lies  at  the  very 
center  of  our  worship.  All  these  things  lead  directly  away  from 
the  Church  with  its  pure  faith  and  holy  practice.  And  our  peo- 
ple instead  of  standing  in  the  attitude  of  apology  should  know 
how  to  propose  something  better.  Until  they  do  we  shall  not  be 
able  to  occupy  our  rightful  position.  We  cannot  unite  with  other 
bodies,  but  if  we  had  knowledge  enough  of  our  own  position,  our 
faith,  our  practice  we  might  easily  be  leaders.  We  need  above 
all  things  intelligence,  clear  perceptions  along  these  lines.  There 
are  individuals  and  congregations  who  are  in  the  clear  in  regard 
to  these  things.  They  are  to  be  congratulated.  They  are  our 
leaders.  But  there  are  many  who  are  yet  only  moving  toward 
the  light.     Let  us  help  them  all  we  can. 

The  ideal  Church  or  congregation  is  that  in  which  God  is 
worshipped  in  spirit  and  in  truth,  which  expresses  that  spirit  and 
truth  in  the  purest  art  forms,  and  which  does  it  intelligently. 


A.  B.  Markley. 
Warren,  Pa. 


THE   SIGNIFICANCE   OF  SYMBOLISM   AND   ITS 
EMPLOYMENT  IN  THE  SERVICE  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


"The  invisible  things  of  Him  from  the  creation  of  the  world  are 
clearly  seen  being  understood  by  the  things  that  are  made." 
This  is  symbolism.  A  symbol  is  something  that,  not  being  a 
portrait,  stands  for  something  else  and  serves  either  to  represent 
it  or  to  bring  to  mind  one  or  more  of  its  qualities;  especially 
something  so  used  to  represent  or  suggest  that  which  is  not  ca- 
pable of  portraiture;  as  an  idea,  state,  quality  or  action.  The 
oak  is  the  symbol  of  strength,  the  sword  of  slaughter,  the  trident 
of  Neptune,  white  of  purity. 

That  symbolism  is  very  beautiful,  useful  and  scriptural  is 
freely  admitted  by  most  scholars.  This  subject,  therefore,  needs 
neither  formal  introduction  nor  any  apology.  It  is  in  the  front 
among  present-day  questions  of  churchliness  and  artistic  beauty. 
It  must  be  considered.  A  new  conscience  concerning  the  ar- 
rangement and  ornamentation  of  churches  is  making  its  voice 
heard  among  thoughtful  Christians.  There  is  also  a  manifest 
awakening  on  the  subject  of  the  relation  of  Art,  in  its  diversified 
forms,  to  the  Church  and  her  Services.  This  is  a  very  signifi- 
cant tendency  and  should  be  encouraged  by  every  lover  of  devout 
worship  and  true  Art. 

Symbolism  is  both  a  science  and  an  art.  As  an  historical 
science,  it  has  a  special  field  for  investigation,  which  field  has 
been  indicated  in  the  definition  of  the  term,  symbol.  As  an  art, 
its  province  is  to  make  practical  application  of  these  historical 
facts  and  principles  to  the  Service  and  life  of  the  Church.  The 
origin  of  symbolism  is  very  remote.  Evidences  of  its  existence 
are  found  in  the  earliest  records  of  India  and  China,  of  Chaldaea, 
Assyria  and  Babylonia.  In  these  ancient  nations  symbolism  was 
always  associated  with  the  religious  life  of  the  people.     We  also 

(xxxi) 


32  MEMOIRS. 

find  that  symbolism  was  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the 
Jewish  religion.  The  Passover,  The  Cleansing  of  the  Temple, 
The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  The  Morning  and  Evening  Sacrifice, 
The  Sabbatical  Year,  The  Jubilee  were,  all,  in  the  highest  de- 
gree, figurative.  The  stones  in  the  breastplate  of  the  high  priest 
have  each  a  special  signification.  And  thou  shalt  set  in  it  set- 
tings of  stones,  even  four  rows  of  stones:  the  first  row  shall  be  a 
sardius,  a  topaz,  and  a  carbuncle:  this  shall  be  the  first  row. 
And  the  second  row  shall  be  an  emerald,  a  sapphire,  and  a  dia- 
mond. And  the  third  row  a  ligure,  an  agate,  and  an  amethyst. 
And  the  fourth  row  a  beryl,  and  an  onyx,  and  a  jasper:  they 
shall  be  set  in  gold  in  their  inclosings.  And  the  stones  shall  be 
with  the  names  of  the  children  of  Israel,  twelve,  according  to 
their  names,  like  the  engravings  of  a  signet;  every  one  with  his 
name  shall  they  be  according  to  the  twelve  tribes.  (Exodus  28: 
17-21.)  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph,  Moses,  Joshua  and  Da- 
vid are  most  remarkable  types  of  Christ. 

In  like  manner  do  we  find  in  the  New  Testament  authority 
for  the  principle  and  for  the  practice  of  symbolism.  From  the 
beginning  the  chief  doctrines  of  Christianity  were  set  forth  in 
type  and  symbol.  The  Flood  is  used  to  typify  Regeneration. 
The  Ark  is  a  type  of  the  Church.  The  Manna  and  the  Smitten 
Rock  are  emblematic  of  the  Bread  and  the  Wine  in  the  Holy 
Eucharist.  St.  Paul  symbolizes  the  enactments  of  the  Law  by 
the  ox  forbidden,  while  treading  out  the  corn,  to  be  muzzled. 
The  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine  is  one  long-continued  sym- 
bolic poem  of  marvellous  beauty  and  impressiveness. 

But  the  strongest  argument  in  behalf  of  the  principle  and 
practice  contended  for  in  this  paper  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
Christ  Himself  employed  the  symbolic  method  in  teaching  the 
great  truths  concerning  His  spiritual  kingdom.  The  phenomena 
of  nature  was  the  fruitful  source  from  which  He  drew  the  most 
striking  spiritual  likenesses.  When  He  said,  "I  am  the  Door," 
"I  am  the  Vine,"  "I  am  the  Way"  He  used  the  purest  symbol- 
ism and  thus  is  involved  the  well-known  principle  of  pedagogic 
sc\Q.nQQ,f7vm  the  known  to  the  7cnknown.  It  is  to  be  noted  also, 
that  the  train  of  thought,  the  every-day  observances,  and,  above 
all,  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  early  Christians  were  highly 
figurative.  Almost  every  great  doctrine  of  the  Christian  system 
had  been  symbolized  at  a  very  early  period.     The  Resurrection 


SIGNIFICANCE   OF   SYMBOLISM.  33 

was  set  forth  b)'  the  Phoenix  rising  renewed  and  purified  from 
its  ashes.  The  meritorious  Passion  of  our  Saviour  was  typified 
by  the  PeHcan  piercing  her  breast  and  feeding  her  young  with 
her  own  life-blood.  The  blessed  sacrament  of  the  I^ord's  Supper 
was  beautifully  symbolized  by  the  Grapes  and  the  Wheatears. 
The  Dove  was  the  emblem  of  purit}^  and  innocence.  The  Hand 
was  the  symbol  of  the  First  Person  of  the  Trinity.  But  the 
most  favored  of  all  symbols,  the  one  best- understood  and  most- 
beloved  was  the  Cross,  the  s^-mbol  of  Christ,  while  the  triangle 
and  the  trefoil  were  emblematic  of  the  Godhead.  The  four 
Evangelists,  Matthew,  Mark,  I^uke  and  John  were  represented 
respectively  by  a  human  figure,  a  lion,  an  ox  and  an  eagle. 

This  symbolic  material  was  introduced  into  the  early  patris- 
tic literature  and  it  passed  very  rapidly  from  rhetorical  decoration 
in  Christian  homilies  to  artistic  decoration  in  architecture  and 
painting.  As  a  result  we  have  in  use  to-day  many  beautiful  and 
helpful  symbols  that  were  found  originally  in  early  Christian  ed- 
ifices and  places  of  worship,  and,  though  the  originals  lack  accu- 
racy of  drawing  and  artistic  proportion  when  measured  by  present 
day  standards,  they  set  forth  divine  truth  in  a  clear  and  impress- 
ive manner. 

The  Bible  is  an  explicit  revelation  of  God.  There  is  also  an 
implicit  revelation  of  Him.  It  is  found  in  Nature.  "To  him 
who  in  love  of  Nature  holds  communion  with  her  visible  forms, 
She  speaks  a  various  language."  There  is  a  symbolism  in  Nature. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Resurrection  is  powerfully  set  forth  by  the 
season  of  Spring.  Winter  and  night  typify  sin  and  death. 
Among  the  flowers  named  from  some  extraordinary  property  or 
peculiarity  of  form  which  they  possess  we  find  the  Herb  Trinity, 
the  Passion  Flower,  and  the  I^acrima  Christi,  while  the  phrases, 
lyily  of  the  Valley  and  the  Rose  of  Sharon,  are  suggestive  rather 
of  "Him  Who  was  altogether  lovely"  than  of  particular  species 
of  flowers. 

The  Holy  Sacraments  are  examples,  in  the  highest  degree, 
of  this  principle  of  symbolic  teaching.  Whilst  it  is  true  that  di- 
vine grace  is  imparted  with  the  earthly  elements  yet  these  ele- 
ments are  the  visible  symbols  of  that  very  precious  spiritual  gift. 
It  is  not  to  be  concluded  from  these  facts  that  Christianity  and 
the  Church  are  any  the  less  real,  visible  and  practical  but  rather 
that  they  are  the  more  real  and  practical  because  their  teachings 


34  MEMOIRS. 

are  not  merely  objective  and  material  but  subjective  and  antici- 
pative  of  that  which  is  eternal. 

Three  great  doctrines  of  the  Christian  sj'stem,  namely,  The 
Holy  Trinity,  Regeneration  and  The  Atonement,  have  been  sym- 
bolized in  a  most  effective  way.  The  first,  by  the  architectural 
design  and  interior  arrangement  of  churches  as  seen  in  the  triple 
tower,  triplicate  windows,  three-fold  arches  and  the  three-part 
arrangement  and  furnishing  of  the  chancel.  The  doctrine  of 
Regeneration  is  typified  particularly  by  the  octagonal  form  of  the 
baptismal  font  for  the  reason  given  by  Ambrose,  namely,  "as  the 
old  creation  was  completed  in  seven  days,  so  the  number  next  en- 
suing may  well  be  significative  of  the  new.'"  On  some  of  the 
fonts  of  the  early  churches  are  sculptured  three  fishes  intertwined 
in  an  equilateral  triangle,  typifying  our  regeneration  in  the  three 
persons  of  the  adorable  Trinity.  The  fish  is  the  emblem  of  the 
Christian  from  the  fact  that  the  letters  of  the  Greek  form  of  the 
name  I-X-©-Y-2  are  interpreted  "Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  the 
Saviour." 

The  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  by  Christ  is  symbolized  by 
the  cruciform  plan  of  churches  as  found  even  in  the  early  Roman- 
esque period  and  reaching  its  clearest  expression  in  the  glorious 
Gothic  cathedrals.  Thus  in  the  very  ground-plan  of  the  build- 
ings consecrated  to  Divine  worship,  "Christ  and  Him  crucified" 
is  preached  to  every  thoughtful  beholder.  That  which  was  once 
the  by-word  of  pagans,  the  instrument  of  scorn  and  suffering, 
has  become  the  symbol  of  hope,  of  glory,  of  joy  and  of  eternal 
felicity  for  all  who  were  embraced  by  the  Saviour's  outstretched 
arms  upon  it. 

It  is  not  only  Christianity  that  is  symbolized,  every  religion 
is.  Symbolism  is  thus  shown  to  be  an  expression  of  a  natural 
impulse  in  man,  quite  as  innate  as  the  religious  idea  itself.  The 
religion  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  though  pagan  and  false,  was 
symbolic.  The  philosophers  of  the  time  of  these  nations'  highest 
intellectual  development  introduced  symbolism  into  their  philo- 
sophic systems  in  order  to  increase  their  efficiency.  The  Hindu 
religion  is  full  of  symbolism  and  many  of  the  Hindu  religious 
fables,  derived  from  whatever  source — whether  from  unwritten 
tradition  or  from  contact  with  the  Jews — possess  this  feature  in 
large  measure.  One  example  will  suffice,  viz.,  Krishna  suffering 
— Krishna  triumphant.     This  divinity  is  represented  by  a  human 


SIGNIFICANCE   OF  SYMBOI.ISM.  35 

figure  bound  in  the  coils  of  a  venomous  serpent  which  fastened 
its  teeth  in  its  victim's  heel.  The  representation  of  Krishna 
triumphant  shows  the  same  figure  crushing  with  his  heel  the 
head  of  the  monster.  Though  the  doctrine  here  symbolized  has 
long  been  forgotten  by  those  among  whom  the  legend  is  sacred, 
it  is  founded,  very  evidently,  upon  the  promise  concerning  the 
Seed  of  the  woman  and  the  serpent's  head.  This  is  a  striking 
instance  of  the  fact  that  truth  will  live  in  symbols  long  after  it 
has  perished  in  other  and  more  generally  used  forms.  When  the 
time  shall  have  come  for  the  conversion  of  all  India  to  Christian- 
ity thousands  will  receive  the  truth  the  more  willingly  because 
they  have  had  a  representation  of  it,  distorted,  it  is  true,  set  be- 
fore their  eyes  for  so  many  centuries. 

Symbolism  is  thus  the  true  sign  of  the  cross,  hallowing  the 
unholy.  It  is  a  good  salt  which,  cast  in,  purifies  the  spring. 
Origen  recognized  in  the  Scriptures  a  three-fold  sense, — the  liter- 
al, the  moral,  the  mystical  and  to  this  latter  sense  symbolism  is 
closely  related. 

Among  the  many  symbolic  passages  of  Old  Testament  and 
of  New  Testament  Scriptures  the  following  are  notable: 

Isaiah  5/.-  12,  And  I  will  make  thy  windows  of  agates,  and 
thy  gates  of  carbuncles,  and  all  thy  borders  of  pleasant  stones. 

Psalm  2j:  i,  The  L,ord  is  my  Shepherd.  He  maketh  me  to 
lie  down  in  green  pastures,  He  leadeth  me  beside  the  still  waters. 

John  10:  II,  I  am  the  Good  Shepherd:  the  Good  Shepherd 
giveth  His  life  for  the  sheep. 

Matthew  26:  jp,  O  My  Father,  if  it  be  possible,  let  this  cup 
pass  from  Me. 

The  Book  of  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine  is  rich  in 
symbolism  but  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  scarcely  a  single  sym- 
bol is  new.  The  figurative  ideas  of  the  Old  Testament  are  bor- 
rowed and  transfigured.  They  are  intensified,  massed  and  asso- 
ciated with  new  applications.  The  writer  of  this  Apocalypse 
seems  to  feel  that  no  symbol  can  be  sacred  enough  for  his  use 
unless  it  has  been  hallowed  by  associations  with  the  ancient 
prophecies.  Here  is  a  seven-fold  vision,  made  up  of  visible  em- 
blems which  are  echoes  from  the  prophecies  of  the  past.  There 
is  reference  here  to  the  golden  candlestick,  seen  by  Zechariah;  to 
the  wheel  within  wheel,  seen  by  Ezekiel;  to  the  Slain  L,amb,  seen 
by  Isaiah;  to  the  burning  mountain,   seen  b}'  Jeremiah;  to  the 


36  MEMOIRS. 

sickle,  seen  by  Joel.  There  is  in  this  Revelation  frequent  use  of 
the  symbolism  of  numbers.  While  we  must  be  careful  not  to 
read  meanings  where  they  were  never  meant  the  significance  of 
the  number  seven  is  clearly  indicated  in  many  parts  of  the  Bible, 
particularly  in  the  last  book  of  the  New  Testament,  e.  g.,  the 
seven  golden  candlesticks,  the  seven  seals,  the  seven  churches, 
the  seven  apocalyptic  angels,  the  seven  stars,  the  seven  trumpets 
and  the  seven  spirits  before  the  throne  of  God. 

Further  reference  to  the  symbolism  of  number  will  be  made 
at  the  close  of  this  paper. 

With  symbolic  writings,  enactments,  events,  personages,  ob- 
servances, buildings,  and  vestments  for  her  guidance,  how  can  the 
Church  of  to-day  be  true  to  her  history  and  to  her  evident  in- 
structions if  she  fail  to  adopt  and  follow  symbolism  as  a  divine 
and  an  historical  principle?  Symbolism  uses  real  personages, 
real  actions  and  real  things  as  emblems  of  the  truth.  The  only 
real  objection  that  can  be  urged  against  it  is  that  there  is  danger 
of  giving  reverence  to  the  symbol  rather  than  to  the  truth  sym- 
bolized, and  the  same  objection  may  be  made  against  Art  in  every 
form — against  architecture,  music,  painting  and  poetry — but  that 
is  the  7}iis2cse  and  not  the  right  use  of  that  which  in  itself  is  alto- 
gether good.  It  is  one  thing  to  adore  a  picture  and  it  is  quite 
another  thing,  by  means  of  a  picture,  historically  to  learn  what 
should  be  adored.  Rightly  understood  and  used  symbolism  is  a 
powerful  aid  to  devotion.  It  may  require  courage  and  a  venture 
of  faith  in  ministers  and  churches  to  break  away  from  the  popu- 
lar and  puritanic  system  in  Art  and  forms  of  worship  and  accept 
a  system  without  the  prestige  of  present  and  local  popularity, 
but  if  the  new  is  in  the  way  of  historic  Christianity  it  ought  to 
be  accepted  at  once. 

The  mind  clings  tenaciously  to  ideas  made  familiar  by  the 
usages  of  a  life  time  or  of  generations.  We  look  at  truth  through 
surrounding  conditions.  Our  prejudices  are  often  mistaken  for 
principles,  but  we  must  come  up  to  the  level  of  our  religion  or 
we  shall  bring  our  religion  down  to  a  level  with  ourselves. 

"The  invisible  things  of  Him,  from  the  creation  of  the  world, 
are  clearly  seen,  being  understood  by  the  things  that  are  made." 

The  use  of  symbolism,  by  the  churchly  communions,  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching  Christian  history  and  impressing  Christian 
truth,  is  but  a  practical  application  to  the  life  of   the  Church  of 


SIGNIFICANCE   OF  SYMBOLISM.  37 

one  phase  of  Christian  Art.  It  is  but  the  adaptation  of  an  effi- 
cient means  to  an  end  not  otherwise  attainable.  But  the  purpose 
and  the  possibilities  of  sj'mbolism  in  the  Service  of  the  Church 
cannot  be  attained  without  an  understanding  and  appreciation  of 
the  historic  symbols  themselves.  It  is  earnestly  hoped  the  fol- 
lowing list  of  most  frequently  used  symbols  may  prove  interest- 
ing and  useful  to  many  readers. 

SYMBOLS   AND   THEIR    SIGNIFICATION. 

Symbols  of  God  the  Father. 

1 .  The  Hand  Issuing  from  the  Clouds, — Omnipotence. 

2.  The  Eye, — Omniscience. 

3.  The  Flood  of  Light,  Kzekiel  8:  2, — Omnipresence. 

Symbols  of  God  the  Son, 

1.  The  Fish,— I-X-0-Y-2. 

2.  The  Cross, — Christ's  Suffering — His  Humanity. 

3.  The  Lion. 

4.  The  Lamb. 

5.  The  Vine. 

Symbols  of  God  the  Holy  Ghost. 

1 .  The  Dove. 

2.  Tlie  Tongue  of  Flame. 

Symbols  of  the  Trinity. 

1.  The  Triangle,  sometimes  within  the  Circle,  the  symbol 
of  Eternity. 

2.  The  Three  Triangles,  interlaced. 

3.  The  Three  Circles,  interlaced. 

4.  The  Three  Fishes. 

5.  The  Two  Human  Figures  with  a  Dove  between  them. 

6.  The  Father  holding  by  its  cross-beam,  a  Cross  with  the 
Figure  of  Christ  upon  it,  and  a  Dove  proceeding  downward  from 
the  Lips  of  the  Father. 

Sym,bols  of  the  Passion  and  Cr7icifixio7i  of  Christ. 

1.  The  Cock. 

2.  The  Purse. 

3.  The  Sword  (of  Peter). 


38  MEMOIRS. 

4.  The  Ear  (of  Malchus). 

5.  The  Scourge. 

6.  The  Spear. 

7.  The  Nails. 

8.  The  Sponge. 

g.  The  Crown  of  Thorns. 

10.  The  Heart,  the  Hands  and  the  Feet,  each  pierced. 

General  Symbols. 

1.  The  Cross,  in  general, — Christianity. 

In  particular, — The  Sufferings  of  Christ. 
The  Cross  is  sometimes  shown  with  precious  stones  at 
the  extremities  and  at  the  intersection,  typifying  the  five  wounds 
in  the  body  of  the  crucified  Christ,  There  are  various  forms  of 
the  Cross:  the  Roman,  most  used;  the  Greek,  four  arms  of  equal 
length;  St.  Andrews,  like  the  letter  X;  St.  Anthony's,  like  the 
letter  T;  the  Labarum,  i.  e.,  the  Roman  Cross  with  X  P  (Chi 
Rho)  interlaced. 

2.  The  Lamb — Christ  our  Sacrifice. 

3.  The  Lion — Christ  the  Lion  of  the  Tribe  of  Judah. 

4.  The  Pelican — Christ  shedding  His  Blood  for  the  Life 
of  His  People. 

5.  The  Serpent,  trampled  under  foot,  or  twined  around  a 
globe — Sin. 

6.  The  Hart,  (Psalm  42:  i) — Religious  Aspiration. 

7.  The  Olive  Branch — Peace. 

8.  The  Palm  Branch,  (Revelation  7:  9) — Martyrdom. 
The  Sword,  Flame,  Arrows,  Cauldrons,  Wheels,  Pon- 
iards,— Martyrdom. 

9.  The  Lily— Purity. 

ID.  The  Apple — Original  Sin. 

1 1 .  A  Lamp,  Taper,  Book — The  Holy  Scriptures. 

12.  The  Crown  and  Banner — Victory  over  Sin  and  Death. 

13.  Wheat  Ears,    Grapes,    Wafer   and   Cup — The   Lord's 
Supper. 

14.  The  Ark— The  Church. 

The  Symbolism  of  Numbers. 
One — The  Unity  of  the  Godhead. 
Two— The  Dual  Nature  of  Christ. 
Three— The  Holy  Trinity. 


SIGNIFICANCE    OF   SYMBOI.ISM.  39 

Four — The  Evangelists:  Sts.  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke   and 
John. 

Five — The  Wounds  in  the  Body  of  the  Crucified  One. 
Six — The  Attributes  of  Deity — power,  majesty,  love,  wis- 
dom, merc)^,  justice. 

Seven — Perfection . 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  often  this  idea  is  inv^olved  in 
its  use,  e.  g.,— 

Balaam  built  seven  altars  and  prepared  seven  oxen  and  seven 
rams  for  sacrifice  to  test  the  will  of  God. 

Job  referring  to  the  effectual  protection  of  Providence,  says, 
"In  seven  troubles  there  shall  no  evil  touch  thee,"  and  again, 
"Wisdom  hath  hewn  her  seven  pillars." 

As  a  sign  of  perfect  submission  Jacob  bowed  himself  seven 
times  before  his  brother. 

Jericho  was  circled  seven  times  before  it  fell, 
Naaman  was  commanded  to  bathe  seven  times  in  the  Jordan. 
Samson  was  bound  with  seven  bonds. 

The  Jewish  Church  has  seven  great  holy  days  in  each  year. 
The  first  board  of  Deacons  in  the  early  Church  consisted  of 
seven  men  of  honest  report. 

"How  oft  shall  my  brother  sin  against  me  and  I  forgive 
him.     Till  seven  times?" 

The  seventh  year  was  to  be  observed  as  a  Sabbath  and  at 
the  end  of  the  seven  times  seven  came  the  great  year  of  Jubilee. 
The  seventh  period  marks  the  completion  of  God's  creative 
acts. 

There  are  seven  penitential  Psalms,  viz.,  vi,  xxxii,  xxxviii, 
li,  cii,  cxxx,  cxliii.     Many  other  examples  of  the  significant  use 
of  the  number  seven  might  be  cited. 
Eight — Regeneration. 
Forty — The  Period  of  Probation  or  Trial. 
The  Israelites  wandered  forty  years  in  the  wilderness. 
They  were  forty  years  in  bondage  under  the  Philistines. 
Moses  was  forty  days  on  Mount  Sinai. 
Elijah  was  in  hiding  forty  days. 

The  rain  descended  for  forty  days  when  the  earth  was  de- 
stroyed. 

The  Ninevites  had  Jonah's  warnings  for  forty  days. 
Our  Master  fasted  in  the  wilderness  forty  days. 


40  MEMOIRS. 

Symbolism  of  Color. 

White — Innocence,  Purity,  Holiness. 
Red — Ardent  Love  and  Burning  Zeal,  Divine  Love. 
Green — Life,  Hope,  Fruitfulness,  Victory. 
Purple — Royal  Majesty,  Imperial  Power,  won  by  Humili- 
ation and  Suffering. 

Black— Deep  Grief,  "The  Wages  of  Sin." 

Blue — Heaven,  Truth,  Constancy. 

Yellow — Goodness  of  God,  Richness  of  God's  Mercy. 

George  J.  Gongaware. 
Greens bu  rg ,    Pa . 


THE   COLI.ECTS. 


Probably  there  is  no  other  subject  in  the  whole  liturgical  do- 
main so  fascinating  and  so  richly  capable  of  repaying  study  as 
the  Collects.  In  the  pericopes  we  have  parts  of  the  Word  of 
God  used  from  of  old  by  the  Church  to  give  expression  to  the 
central  truths  of  Christ's  redemptive  work  and  its  application  to 
the  life  of  the  Church.  In  the  Introits,  the  Psalter,  the  Anti- 
phons,  the  Invitatories,  the  Responsories,  the  Canticles,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  and  almost  every  other  part  of  the  Service  we 
have  the  choicest  outbursts  of  saintly  devotion  transferred  from 
the  written  Word  to  the  Church's  Liturgy.  To  the  writer  one 
of  the  greatest  charms  as  well  as  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  help- 
fulness of  the  beautiful  Lutheran  Services  has  alwaj^s  been  its 
large  infusion  of  the  very  words  of  Holy  Scripture  resulting  in  a 
quickened  zeal  for  the  closer  study  of  God's  Word  and  a  height- 
ened appreciation  of  its  inestimable  treasures.  In  the  reverent 
use  of  our  Service  we  are  indeed  translating  God's  revealed  truth 
into  terms  of  our  own  devotion  and  so  making  it  part  of  our 
Christian  experience.  The  sacramental  element  predominates  in 
the  Lutheran  Service  because  the  Lutheran  Church  always  mag- 
nifies the  gifts  of  God's  grace,  especially  the  gift  of  His  love  in 
the  Incarnation.  Therefore,  as  her  theology  is  Christocentric, 
her  Service  ever  keeps  close  to  the  cardinal  truths  of  God's  com- 
ing to  man  to  save  him  and  God's  working  in  man  to  will  and  to 
do  of  His  own  good  pleasure.  No  other  liturgy  makes  so  much 
of  the  Divine  element  in  worship  as  in  life.  None  other  so  ex- 
alts our  God  and  His  Christ.  We  cannot  do  otherwise  without 
losing  our  heritage  of  truth  and  betraying  the  Lord  of  our  lives. 
Our  Service  stands  first  and  supremely  for  the  declaration  of 
God's  will  and  God's  love,  for  the  impartation  of  God's  life  to 
human  needs,  for  the  promotion  of  God's  Kingdom  and  the  doing 

(xli) 


42  MKMOIRS. 

of  His  will  among  men  according  to  the  divinely-revealed  stand- 
ard, for  the  praise  of  the  glory  of  His  grace.  Whether  the  act 
be  liturgically  classified  as  sacramental  or  sacrificial,  the  words, 
as  far  as  possible,  are  the  words  of  the  record  of  revelation,  the 
words  of  the  Holy  Spirit  penned  by  prophet  and  psalmist  and 
evangelist  and  apostle.  The  lover  of  the  Word  cannot  help  ad- 
miring the  Lutheran  Service  reverently  rendered.  The  devoted 
Lutheran  worshipper  must  become  a  student  of  the  Word  whose 
atmosphere  he  breathes  throughout  the  Service.  This  is  the 
glory  of  our  Service,  that  we  seek  to  give  Christ  His  rightful 
place  and  to  hear  the  Holy  Spirit  speak  in  Word  and  Sacrament, 
that  we  cultivate  therein  the  fellowship  of  the  Spirit  of  God. 

Not  that  the  human  element  is  either  crowded  out  or  crowd- 
ed into  a  corner  in  the  Service.  Taught  by  the  Spirit  Himself 
to  speak  the  language  of  God,  the  believer  is  trained  in  Christ's 
school  of  prayer  to  respond  to  His  overtures  of  grace  and  to  ac- 
cept His  gifts  of  mercy.  In  confession  and  creed,  in  hymn  and 
prayer,  we  approach  God  with  our  own  words  as  we  offer  to  Him 
those  sacrifices  which  it  becomes  His  spiritual  priests  to  render. 
And  yet  not  really  with  our  own  poor,  feeble,  lifeless  words 
but  rather  with  His  own  rich,  life-giving  words  which  we  have 
translated  into  the  language  of  our  desires  and  our  praises. 
Prayer  is  pleading  God's  promises  with  God  or  since  all  the  Di- 
vine promises  to  man  are  fulfilled  in  Jesus  Christ,  it  is  pleading 
Christ's  merits  with  our  reconciled  Father.  Keeping  this  truth 
in  mind,  we  can  never  go  very  far  from  God's  Word  in  our 
prayer  life  and  yet  keep  very  close  to  our  God.  If  we  have  been 
with  Jesus,  we  must  reflect  Him  to  the  world  and  if  we  have 
been  students  of  God's  truth,  we  must  show  the  results  of  our 
study  when  entering  the  presence  of  the  Divine  Teacher.  To 
examine  ourselves  whether  we  be  in  the  faith  is  to  test  ourselves 
by  God's  Word  and  to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  the  life  of  fellow.ship 
we  must  pray  as  did  the  disciples,  "Lord,  teach  us  to  pray." 
The  Divine  standard  cannot  be  lowered.  As  Moses  was  com- 
manded to  build  the  tabernacle  according  to  the  plan  showed 
him  in  the  holy  mount,  so  must  our  prayers  and  our  praises  be 
the  personal,  believing,  loving,  hopeful  appropriation  of  God's 
truth  in  Jesus  Christ. 

The  lover  of  the  liturgy  must  be  an  apologist.  The  Lu- 
theran teaching  concerning  Church  Services  and  ceremonies  is  so 


THE   COLLECTS.  43 

catholic  and  so  harmonious  with  the  spiritual  worship  of  the  God 
Who  is  spirit  that  great  care  must  always  be  taken  not  to  offend 
weak  brethren  nor  to  cause  a  schism  among  the  members  of  the 
Body  of  Christ  by  even  unduly  urging  the  preeminent  claims  of 
our  wondrously  beautiful  Service.  Our  own  people  uninstructed 
and  often  prejudiced  against  what  is  churchly  because  of  outside 
influences  are  often  found  speaking  of  "our  denomination"  and 
so  really  losing  sight  of  the  fact  that  ours  is  the  Catholic  and 
Apostolic  Church  continued  in  unbroken  succession  from  the 
earliest  times  even  to  the  present.  Let  the  pastor  teach  his  cate- 
chumens that  they  are  in  the  Church  of  Christ  by  virtue  of  their 
Baptism  and  are  to  receive  His  Body  and  Blood  in  His  Church. 
We  need  not  be  rude  nor  uncharitable  to  our  neighbors  but  we 
ought  to  realize  that,  as  Dr.  Philip  SchafT  said  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  so  may  we  say  of  our  Service,  "It  is  the  most  Chris- 
tian, the  most  catholic,  the  most  conservative  in  Christen- 
dom." 

Particularly  in  reference  to  our  set  forms  of  prayer,  forms  of 
sound  words,  are  we  assailed  by  many  within  our  own  Commun- 
ion. Formal,  mechanical,  cold,  lifeless,  perfunctory,  our  prayers 
are  said  to  be.  Often,  perhaps,  justly  so  characterized  because 
of  the  slipshod,  slovenly  manner  in  which  they  are  read.  Often 
likewise  so  described  simply  because  the  book  is  used  and  the 
minister's  own  words  are  considered  superior  to  the  words  which 
have  helped  and  comforted  saintly  souls  for  many  ages.  To  ex- 
ercise the  wisdom  of  serpents  with  the  harmlessness  of  doves  is 
necessary  here  as  elsewhere.  We  may  use  free  prayers  in  our 
Services  but  if  substituted  for  the  set  Collects  de  tempore  which 
is  hardly  conceivable  where  there  is  any  Lutheran  consciousness 
what.soever,  or  for  the  General  Prayer  after  the  sermon  which  is 
quite  frequent,  we  must  be  careful  to  let  the  prayers  not  be  the 
expression  of  individual  but  of  congregational  needs,  of  the  needs 
of  Christ's  universal  Church.  The  free  prayer,  according  to  Lu- 
theran usage,  is  properly  used  in  connection  with  the  sermon. 
Correct  teaching  concerning  the  nature  of  prayer  and  the  differ- 
ence between  Church  prayers  and  private  prayers  will  help  to  do 
away  with  the  complaints  often  made  of  the  cold  and  prayerless 
life  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  Never  was  the  Church  of  Christ 
so  richly  fitted  for  an  ardent  devotional  life  as  when  with  purified 
teachings,  her  Services  were  likewise  purified.     God  help  us  to 


44  MEMOIRS. 

realize  the  wealth  of  blessings  left  to  us  in  the  Collects  and  to  use 
them  to  His  glory. 

The  prayers  of  the  Lutheran  Liturgy  properly  consist  of  the 
Litany  which  stands  by  itself,  the  General  Prayers  and  the  Col- 
lects. The  Lord's  Prayer  of  course  occupies  a  unique  position. 
The  value  of  the  Litany  only  those  will  learn  to  know  who  use  it 
all  the  year  round  and  not  only  in  Lent.  Responsive  prayer  is 
surely  as  helpful  as  the  antiphonal  use  of  the  Psalter.  The  Gen- 
eral Prayer  is  really  a  series  of  amplified  Collects.  The  Collect 
usually  has  one  central  thought  while  the  short  prayers,  which 
joined  together  constitute  the  General  Prayer,  elaborate  the  main 
petition  and,  like  the  Litany,  enumerate  those  for  whom  we  pray. 
It  would  perhaps  be  a  good  thing  were  our  General  Prayer  to  be 
so  arranged  with  the  proper  invocations  and  conclusions  that  the 
people  might  respond  Amen.  Its  real  structure  would  then  be 
more  easily  apparent. 

The  meaning  of  the  word  Collect  is  surrounded  by  consider- 
able doubt.  Various  significations  are  suggested  according  to 
the  varying  points  of  view  which  are  taken.  "The  Latin  word 
is  Colleda,  which  may  mean  a  gathering  of  any  sort — of  money, 
as  at  a  collection  in  church  for  some  charitable  object;  or  of  peo- 
ple, as  when  two  or  three  are  'gathered  together'  for  common 
prayer;  or  of  subjects  of  thought  or  study,  as  when  an  author  at 
the  end  of  a  chapter  gathers  up  in  a  short  summary  or  recapitu- 
lates what  he  has  said."*  The  idea  of  a  gathering  is  contained 
in  the  word.  What  is  gathered  together  in  this  prayer?  Is  it 
the  prayers  of  the  people  which  the  minister,  in  using  the  Collect, 
presents  in  the  briefest  possible  collected  form  before  God?  Is 
it  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Kpistle  for  the  day,  whose 
central  truth  and  promise  become  the  basis  of  our  plea  before 
God?  Is  it  that  collectedness  of  mind  required  in  all  true  wor- 
ship, and  without  doubt  so  admirably  expressed  by  the  Collects? 
Or  did  the  word  originally  mean  only  a  gathering  of  people  in 
the  church  and  was  it  an  abbreviated  form  of  the  fuller  expres- 
sion, oratio  ad  colledam,  a  prayer  to  be  used  at  an  assemblage  for 
Divine  worship?  Each  of  these  meanings  is  suggestive  and  each 
may  be  applied  to  the  Collects  as  we  have  them.  Beginning  with 
the  last,  we  may  say  that  the  Collect  is  a  puplic  rather  than  a 

*  The  Collects  of  the  Day  by  Edward  Meyrick  Goulburn,  D.  D.,  D.  C.  L., 
sometime  Dean  of  Norwich,  Vol.  I,  p.  ii. 


THE   COLLECTS.  45 

private  prayer,  intended  for  the  Service  of  God's  house  though 
not  inappropriate  to  the  privacy  of  individual  prayer.  It  does 
denote  the  concentration  of  mind  and  singleness  of  purpose  which 
ought  to  characterize  true  worship  in  that  its  very  brevity  re- 
quires careful  attention  and  thought  to  be  helpfully  appropriated. 
It  is  always  in  harmony  with  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  and  often 
throws  much  light  upon  their  central  teachings.  And  without 
doubt  the  testimony  of  our  own  experience  in  the  use  of  the  Col- 
lects leads  us  to  acknowledge  that  they  gather  up  the  throbs  and 
the  desires  of  many  hearts  and  present  them  in  one  overwhelming 
desire,  resting  upon  a  Divine  promise  before  the  mercy-seat. 
The  Collect  then  is  a  brief  congregational  prayer  resting  upon  a 
particular  promise  of  God's  Word  and  uttering  the  need  of  the 
Church  in  her  weakness  and  sorrow.  Note  its  marks.  It  is 
brief  and  concise  in  form,  Scriptural  in  content,  pleading  God's 
promises,  congregational  in  use  and  application,  voicing  human 
needs  and  specially  the  needs  of  God's  Kingdom  among  men. 

The  structure  of  the  Collect  is  very  interesting.  In  its  full 
form  it  has  five  parts  thus  stated  by  Neale: — I.  The  Invocation. 
II.  The  Antecedent  Reason.  III.  The  Petition.  IV.  The  Ben- 
efit Desired.  V.  The  Conclusion.  The  Collects  are  usually  ad- 
dressed to  the  Father,  sometimes  to  the  Son,  occasionally  to  the 
Holy  Spirit.  The  antecedent  reason  deals  with  some  attribute  of 
God  which  is  made  the  basis  of  the  special  petition  offered,  or 
lays  hold  upon  a  special  promise  which  faith  desires  to  realize. 
The  petition  proper  is  contained  in  a  single  sentence.  The  ben- 
efit or  blessing  to  be  obtained  from  this  petition  is  then  stated. 
The  conclusions  are  uniform  even  when  not  so  designated.  If 
the  Collect  be  addressed  to  the  Father,  the  words  are:  ''Per  Dom- 
inum  nostrum  Jcsuvi  Christimi,  Filiuni  Ttaan,  qtd  Tecimi  vivit  et 
rcgyiatin  nnitate  Spirihts  Sandi,  Deus  per  ormiia  saada  sccadoruni. 
Amen."  If  to  the  Sou:  ''Qui  vivis  et  regnas  ami  Deo  Patre  m 
imitate  Spiritus  Sandi,  Deris  per  omnia  scrada  scccidortmi.     Amen. ' ' 

To  show  these  five  parts  take  for  example  that  incomparably 
beautiful  Collect,  the  Collect  for  Purity  (No.  66  of  the  Collects 
and  Prayers  in  the  Liturgy)  which  is  called  the  Constant  Collect 
in  the  Communion  OQice  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  The 
L,atin  and  its  English  rendition  are  here  presented  side  by  side: 

Deus ,  Old  omne  cor patct  et  ovi-     O  God,  unto  Whom  all  hearts 
nis  vohintas  loquitur  et  queyn  md-     are  open,  all  desires  known  and 


46  MEMOIRS. 

him  latct  secretum;  purifica  per  from  Whom  no  secrets  are  hid; 
inf^isioncm  Sandi  Spiritus  cogi-  cleanse  the  thoughts  of  our 
tationis  cordis  fiostri;  ut  Te  per-  hearts  by  the  inspiration  of  Thy 
fecte  diligere  et  digne  lavdare  Holy  Spirit,  that  we  may  per- 
mereamiir.^  Per  Jesuvi  Chris-  fectly  love  Thee,  and  worthily 
turn  Domi7iiim  nostrum.     Amen,     magnify     Thy     holy     Name; 

through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord. 

Amen. 

I.  The  Invocation:     "O  God." 

II.  The  Antecedent  Reason:  "Unto  Whom  all  hearts 
are  open,  all  desires  are  known  and  from  Whom  no  secrets  are 
hid."  All  things  are  open  unto  the  eyes  of  Him  with  Whom  we 
have  to  do.  He  reads  the  human  heart  like  an  open  book.  Ev- 
ery desire  finds  a  voice  when  it  wings  itself  to  the  throne  of 
grace.  Nothing  lies  hidden  from  Him.  Compare  these  words 
with  Psalm  139. 

III.  The  Petition  Proper:  "Cleanse  the  thoughts  of  our 
hearts  by  the  inspiration  of  Thy  Holy  Spirit,"  "As  a  man  think- 
eth  in  his  heart,  so  is  he,"  said  the  wise  man,  and  a  wiser  than 
Solomon  said,  "Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart:  for  they  shall  see 
God."  The  prayer  of  the  y^M^r^r^  recurs  to  our  minds:  "Create 
in  me  a  clean  heart,  O  God,  and  renew  a  right  spirit  within  me. 
Cast  me  not  away  from  Thy  presence  and  take  not  Thy  Holy 
Spirit  from  me."  The  Holy  Spirit  must  lead  us  to  think  God's 
thoughts  after  Him  that  we  may  attain  the  blessing, 

IV.  The  Benefit  to  Be  Obtained:  "That  we  may  per- 
fectly love  Thee  and  worthily  magnify  Thy  holy  Name. ' '  Per- 
fect love  toward  God  and  perfect  praise  of  His  Name  can  result 
only  from  perfect  heart  harmony  with  His  blessed  will,  from 
purified  thoughts  inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

V.  The  Conclusion:  "Through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord." 
In  this  exquisite  Collect  the  fatherly  care  and  providence  of  God, 
the  sanctifying  work  of  the  Spirit  and  the  mediation  of  Christ 
are  beautifully  recognized.  It  has  been  thus  fully  treated  sim- 
ply to  show  the  wonderful  mines  of  hidden  spiritual  treasures  in 
the  Collects  of  the  Church. 


*  Mereor  in  medireval  Latin  is  used  in  a  lower  than  its  original  sense,  to  de- 
serve. Even  in  classical  Latin  the  verb  mc7-eo  has  hardly  any  thought  of  merit  con- 
nected with  it,  meaning  simply  to  win,  gain,  attain  unto.  Mr.  Maitland  in  his  Dark 
Ages,  p.  387,  Note  4,  thinks  there  is  very  little  of  the  popish  doctrine  of  merit  in 
this  word  in  ecclesiastical  Latin. 


THE  COLl,ECTS.  47 

Though  the  writer  desires  to  make  this  paper  appreciative 
rather  than  historical,  realizing  that  volumes  have  already  been 
written  on  the  subject  of  the  Collects,  yet  it  is  necessary  here 
briefly  to  refer  to  the  origin  of  these  admirable  prayers. 

The  Collects  for  the  Sundays  and  chief  festivals  are  almost 
entirely  of  pre-Reformation  origin.  They  are  taken  from  the 
IvConine,  the  Gelasian  and  the  Gregorian  Sacramentaries.  A 
Sacramentary  was  a  book  containing  the  Collects  and  the  un- 
changeable part  of  the  Service  called  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  just 
as  the  lycctionary  contained  the  Epistles,  the  Evangelistary  the 
Gospels,  and  the  Antiphonary  the  Anthems.  The  earliest  in  date 
of  the  Sacramentaries  is  known  by  the  name  of  Leo  I,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  A.  D.,  440  to  A.  D.  461.  The  following  Collects*  in  our 
Service  are  Leonine,  i.  e.,  assignable  to  that  Sacramentary  but  in 
use  probably  very  much  earlier:  III  Sunday  after  Easter  (Jubi- 
late), the  IV,  the  XII  and  the  XIII  after  Trinity.  They  are 
here  appended  in  order  to  show  that  they  were  prayers  that 
Christ's  people  might  be  kept  faithful  in  that  period  of  storm  and 
stress. 

III  Easter:  "Almighty  God,  Who  showest  to  them  that  be 
in  error  the  light  of  Thy  truth  to  the  intent  that  they  may  return 
into  the  way  of  righteousness:  Grant  unto  all  them  that  are  ad- 
mitted into  the  fellowship  of  Christ's  religion  that  they  may  es- 
chew those  things  that  are  contrary  to  their  profession  and  follow 
all  such  things  as  are  agreeable  to  the  same;  through  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ." 

IV  Trinity:  "Grant,  O  Lord,  we  beseech  Thee,  that  the 
course  of  this  world  may  be  so  peaceably  ordered  by  Thy  govern- 
ance that  Thy  Church  may  joyfully  serve  Thee  in  all  godly  qui- 
etness; through  Jesus  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our  Lord." 

XII  Trinity:  "Almighty  and  merciful  God,  of  Whose  only 
gift  it  Cometh  that  Thy  faithful  people  do  unto  Thee  true  and 
laudable  service:  Grant,  we  beseech  Thee,  that  we  may  so  faith- 
fully serve  Thee  in  this  life  that  we  fail  not  finally  to  attain  Thy 
Heavenly  promises;  through  Jesus  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our  Lord." 

XIII  Trinity:  "Almighty  and  everlasting  God,  Give  unto 
us  the  increase  of  faith,  hope  and  charity;  and  that  we  may  obtain 
that  which  Thou  dost  promise,   make  us   to   love   that   which 

•  Taken  from  The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England  hy  the  Rev.  H.  E.  Jacobs, 
D.  D.,  p.  297. 


48  MEMOIRS. 

Thou  dost  command;  through  Jesus  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our 
Lord." 

In  writing  of  the  Collect  for  IV  Trinity  Goulburn  beautifully 
says:  "When  the  Goths,  the  Huns  and  the  Vandals  were  hover- 
ing over  the  moribund  Roman  Empire  like  a  flight  of  vultures 
preparing  to  pounce  upon  a  dying  camel  in  the  desert  as  soon  as 
the  breath  is  out  of  his  body,  there  was  certainly  some  point  and 
there  was  likely  to  be  some  sincerity  in  such  a  prayer."  And 
to-day  when  Mormonism  is  rampant  and  Dowieism  about  to  swoop 
down  upon  New  York  with  thousands  of  its  fanatical  followers 
and  Christian  Science  spreading  among  cultured  people  because  of 
its  attractive  way  of  putting  away  sin  and  promising  rest,  surely 
Christ's  people  need  to  eschew  those  things  that  are  contrary  to 
their  profession  and  to  follow  all  such  things  as  are  agreeable  to 
the  same.  With  the  Goths  and  Vandals  of  destructive  criticism 
and  iconoclasm  and  moral  laxity  due,  to  a  great  extent,  to  relig- 
ious indifference  threathening  us  on  every  side,  we  need  to  purify 
our  prayer  life  and  pray  earnestly  that  Christ's  Church  may  joy- 
fully serve  Him  in  all  godly  quietness.  There  is,  indeed,  food 
for  thought  in  these  beautiful  prayers. 

Gelasius  was  raised  to  the  Bishopric  of  Rome  A.  D.  492. 
In  the  very  next  year  Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth,  at  the  head  of 
his  army  of  barbarians,  assassinated  Odoacer  and  succeeded  him 
as  king  of  Italy.  Rome  was  no  longer  the  seat  of  the  imperial 
government.  The  emperors  had  withdrawn  to  Ravenna,  a  great 
naval  and  military  station  on  the  Adriatic,  and  the  barbarian 
kings  who  succeeded  them  made  Ravenna  their  capital.  The 
power  of  the  popes  was  rapidly  increasing  and  political  changes 
and  religious  controversies  made  the  time  one  of  great  unrest. 
The  Collects  of  this  period  bear  unmistakable  traces  of  the  pre- 
vailing unquietness.  To-day  of  course  we  give  a  spiritual  inter- 
pretation to  these  frequently-repeated  petitions  for  peace  and 
quietness,  but  it  is  very  interesting  to  note  the  times  which  gave 
rise  to  prayers  such  as  these.  And  amid  our  distress  and  in  the 
restlessness  of  modern  life  we  find  these  Collects  wonderfully 
helpful.  The  following  Collects  are  traceable  to  the  Gelasian 
Sacramentary:  II,  III,  IV  Advent,  Christmas  Eve,  Christmas, 
the  First  of  the  Other  Collects  for  Advent,  Palmarum,  Easter 
Eve,  Easter  Day,  II,  IV,  V  Sundays  after  Easter,  the  Sunday 
after  Ascension,  I,  III,  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII,  IX,  X,  XI,  XIV, 


THE  COLLECTS.  49 

XV,  XVII,  XVIII.  XIX,  XX  after  Trinity.*  A  few  of  these 
Collects  are  here  given. 

For  Advent:  "Mercifully  hear,  O  Lord,  the  prayers  of  Thy 
people;  that  as  they  rejoice  in  the  Advent  of  Thine  Only-Begot- 
ten Son  according  to  the  flesh,  so  when  He  cometh  a  second  time 
in  His  Majesty  they  may  receive  the  reward  of  eternal  life." 

For  Christmas  Night:  "O  God,  Who  hast  made  this  most 
holy  night  to  shine  with  the  brightness  of  the  true  Light:  Grant, 
we  beseech  Thee,  that  as  we  have  known  on  earth  the  mysteries 
of  that  Light,  we  may  also  come  to  the  fulness  of  its  joys  in 
Heaven." 

For  Christmas  Day:  "Grant,  we  beseech  Thee,  Almighty 
God,  that  the  new  birth  of  Thine  Only-Begotten  Son  in  the  flesh 
may  set  us  free  who  are  held  in  the  old  bondage  under  the  yoke 
of  sin." 

Palmarum:  "Almighty  and  Everlasting  God,  Who  hast  sent 
Thy  Son,  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  to  take  upon  Him  our  flesh, 
and  to  suffer  death  upon  the  cross,  that  all  mankind  should  fol- 
low the  example  of  His  great  humility:  Mercifully  grant  that  we 
may  both  follow  the  example  of  His  patience  and  also  be  made 
partakers  of  His  Resurrection." 

Easter  Eve:  "O  God,  Who  didst  enlighten  this  most  holy 
night  with  the  glory  of  the  Lord's  Resurrection:  Preserve  in  all 
Thy  people  the  Spirit  of  adoption  which  Thou  hast  given,  so  that 
renewed  in  body  and  soul  they  may  perform  unto  Thee  a  pure 
service." 

Easter  Day:  "Almighty  God,  Who  through  Thine  Only- 
Begotten  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  hast  overcome  death  and  opened  unto 
us  the  gate  of  everlasting  life:"!'  We  humbly  beseech  Thee,  that, 
as  Thou  dost  put  into  our  minds  good  desires,  so  by  Thy  contin- 
ual help  we  may  bring  the  same  to  good  effect." 

IV  Easter  (Cantate):  "O  God,  Who  makest  the  minds  of 
the  faithful  to  be  of  one  will:  Grant  unto  Thy  people  that  they 
may  love  what  Thou  commandest  and  desire  what  Thou  dost 
promise;  that,  among  the  manifold  changes  of  this  world,  our 
hearts  may  there  be  fixed  where  true  joys  are  to  be  found," 

III  Trinity:     "O  God,  the  Protector  of  all  that  trust  in 

•  The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England,  p.  298,  taken  from  Gerbert's  Afonti- 
menta  veteris  lAturgia:  AleinanniccE,  supplemented  by  Muratori's  Liturgia  Rotnana. 
t  The  following  part  of  the  Collect  is  Gregorian. 


50  MEMOIRS. 

Thee,  without  Whom  nothing  is  strong,  nothing  is  holy:  Increase 
and  multiply  upon  us  Thy  mercy;  that  Thou  being  our  Ruler  and 
Guide,  we  may  so  pass  through  things  temporal  that  we  finally 
lose  not  the  things  eternal." 

V  Trinity:  "O  God,  Who  hast  prepared  for  them  that  love 
Thee  such  good  things  as  pass  man's  understanding;  Pour  into 
our  hearts  such  love  toward  Thee,  that  we,  loving  Thee  above  all 
things,  may  obtain  Thy  promises  which  exceed  all  that  we  can 
desire. ' ' 

VI  Trinity:  "Lord  of  all  power  and  might,  Who  art  the 
Author  and  Giver  of  all  good  things:  Graft  in  our  hearts  the  love 
of  Thy  Name,  increase  in  us  true  religion,  nourish  us  with  all 
goodness,  and  of  Thy  great  mercy  keep  us  in  the  same." 

XI  Trinity:  "Almighty  and  Everlasting  God,  Who  art  al- 
ways more  ready  to  hear  than  we  to  pray  and  art  wont  to  give 
more  than  either  we  desire  or  deserve:  Pour  down  upon  us  the 
abundance  of  Thy  mercy,  forgiving  us  those  things  whereof  our 
conscience  is  afraid,  and  giving  us  those  good  things  which  we 
are  not  worthy  to  ask  but  through  the  merits  and  mediation  of 
Jesus  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our  Lord." 

XX  Trinity:  "Grant,  we  beseech  Thee,  merciful  Lord,  to 
Thy  faithful  people  pardon  and  peace,  that  they  may  be  cleansed 
from  all  their  sins  and  serve  Thee  with  a  quiet  mind." 

But  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  as  it  is  probably  the  best 
known  of  the  Gelasian  Collects  is  the  Collect  for  Peace  printed 
three  times  in  our  Liturgy,  as  the  fixed  Collect  for  Vespers,  at 
the  close  of  the  Litany  and  at  the  close  of  the  Suffrages.  "O 
God,  from  Whom  all  holy  desires,  all  good  counsels  and  all  just 
works  do  proceed:  Give  unto  Thy  servants  that  peace  which  the 
world  cannot  give;  that  our  hearts  may  be  set  to  obey  Thy  com- 
mandments, and  also  that  by  Thee,  we,  being  defended  from  the 
fear  of  our  enemies,  may  pass  our  time  in  rest  and  quietness; 
through  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour." 

"One  has  seen  at  the  root  of  a  decaying  tree  tufts  of  wild 
hyacinths  or  primroses,  the  seeds  of  which,  wafted  by  winds  or 
carried  by  birds  or  insects,  have  found  in  this  friable,  corrupting 
soil  a  congenial  habitat.  And  there  are  correspondences  in  the 
moral  world  with  this  natural  phenomenon.  When  the  old  Ro- 
man Empire  was  in  its  last  stage  of  decay,  when  all  old  landmarks 
were  being  removed  and  old  institutions  were  going  to  pieces, 


THE   COLLECTS.  51 

then  appeared  for  the  first  time  these  bunches  of  fragrant  beau- 
tiful prayers,  giving  token  of  a  spiritual  vitality  below  the  sur- 
face of  society,  a  sure  evidence  that  all  was  not  corrupt,  that  the 
antiseptic  salt  of  God's  grace  in  the  hearts  of  His  elect  still  en- 
dured and  had  not  lost  its  savor."* 

Gregor)'  the  Great  became  Bishop  of  Rome  A.  D.  590.  The 
following  Collects  are  taken  from  his  Sacramentary:  I  Advent, 
Sunday  after  Christmas,  II  Other  Collect  for  Advent,  Epiphany, 
I,  II,  III,  IV,  V  after  Epiphany,  Septuagesima,  Sexagesima, 
Quinquagesima,  II,  III,  IV,  V  Sundays  in  Eent,  Monday,  Tues- 
day and  Wednesday  in  Holy  Week,  Other  Easter  Collects,  I  after 
Easter,  I  for  Ascension,  Whitsunday,  Monday  in  Whitsun-Week, 
XVI,  XXI,  XXII,  XXIII,  XXIV  after  Trinity.  "In  compar- 
ing them  with  the  Anglican  Collects  we  must  remember  that, 
after  the  Third  Sunday  after  Trinity,  the  Anglican  Collects  fall 
one  Sunday  behind,  and  that  elsewhere,  as  in  the  first  three  Sun- 
days in  Advent,  the  Anglicans  have  composed  new  Collects  while 
we  retain  the  ancient  Collects."! 

Besides  the  Collects  de  tempore  our  Book  contains  a  number 
of  beautiful  Collects  and  Prayers  classified  as  follows:  For  the 
Holy  Spirit,  For  the  Church,  For  the  Civil  Authorities,  In  Time 
of  Affliction  and  Distress,  Thanksgiving,  For  Special  Gifts  and 
Graces,  For  Answer  to  Prayer,  and  Eitany  Collects.  All  of  these 
would  well  repay  special  study  but  it  is  not  within  the  scope  of 
this  paper  to  take  them  up  in  detail.  We  are  immeasurably  in- 
debted to  the  compilers  of  the  Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
for  the  beautiful  versions  of  the  Collects  which  we  use  in  com- 
mon with  that  branch  of  the  Church.  One  of  the  four  variable 
parts  of  the  Service,  like  the  Introits,  the  Gospels  and  the  Epis- 
tles, the  Collects,  always  tell  us  of  the  great  fact  and  truth 
commemorated  by  the  Church.  They  are  our  response  to  the 
Heavenly  gifts  of  life  and  godliness. 

Brief  but  comprehensive,  Churchly,  catholic,  Scriptural,  the 
Collects,  like  the  hymns  unite  us  with  the  Church  of  Christ  in 
every  age  and  in  every  land.  As  a  common  confession  of  faith 
is  made,  as  common  praises  ascend  from  many  sanctuaries,  so  in 
the  Collects  do  we  have  real  common  prayer.  Let  us  study 
them  ourselves  and  teach  them  to  our  people.     As  the  Salutation 

*    The  Collects,  Goulburn,  Vol.  I,  p.  38. 

t    The  Lutheran  Alovement  in  England,  p.  298, 


52  MEMOIRS. 

and  the  Oremus  always  precede  the  Collects,  they  should  indeed 
be  made  the  prayers  of  the  worshipping  congregation.  They 
are  congregational  prayers,  fit  offerings  for  the  priesthood  of 
believers.  God  help  our  people  to  learn  more  of  this  precious 
manual  of  prayer  and  to  use  these  glorious  petitions  to  His  glory 
and  our  eternal  welfare. 


Samuel  A.  Bridges  Stopp. 


Doylestown,  Pa, 


THE    FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES    OF 
DIVINE  SERVICE. 


I.       DEFINITION. 

Divine  Service  or,  which  is  the  same,  Public  Worship,  consists 
in  the  drawing  near  to  God  of  His  people  with  the  offerings  of 
humble,  contrite  and  thankful  hearts,  prayer,  praise  and  thanks- 
giving, that  God  may  also  draw  near  to  them  to  impart  His 
grace. 

II.       ITS    ORIGIN. 

Before  the  Exodus  the  worship  of  God  was  patriarchal,  each 
head  of  a  family  conducting  the  same  when,  where  and  as  he  saw 
fit.  But  after  the  people  had  been  united  into  a  congregation, 
God  Himself  laid  the  foundation  of  Divine  Service  in  the  com- 
mand and  promise:  (Ex.  20:  24)  "An  altar  of  earth  thou  shalt 
make  unto  Me,  and  shalt  sacrifice  thereon  thy  burnt  offerings, 
and  thy  peace  offerings,  thy  sheep  and  thine  oxen.  In  all  places 
where  I  record  My  name  I  will  come  unto  thee  and  I  will  bless 
thee." 

For  the  execution  of  the  principle  here  laid  down  the  taber- 
nacle, and  afterwards  the  Temple,  was  constructed  from  God-giv- 
en plans,  and  an  order  of  Service  was  established  by  Divine  law. 
In  this  order  the  people  approached  God  and  He  approached 
them;  but,  as  redemption  was  not  yet  accomplished,  it  could  be 
conducted  only  through  the  mediation  of  a  special  priesthood. — 
Through  the  priest  the  people  drew  near  to  God  and  through  the 
priest  God  also  drew  near  to  them.  He  did  not  dwell  in  the 
court  among  the  people  nor  yet  in  the  Holy  Place  among  the 
priests,  but  in  thick  darkness,  on  the  mercy  seat  between  the 
cherubim  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  which  was  separated  from  the 
priests'  and   the  people's  place  by  a  thick  vail.     Only  the  High 

(liii) 


54  MEMOIRS. 

Priest,  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  incense  and  with  the  blood  of  the 
atoning  sacrifice,  might  go  behind  the  vail,  and  that  only  once  a 
year.  Whatever  the  people  offered  to  God  must  be  presented 
through  the  priest  and  whatever  grace  God  bestowed  upon  them 
was  conveyed  to  them  by  the  priest. — The  offerings  were  largely 
propitiatory,  symbolizing  the  one  sacrifice  yet  to  be  offered  once 
for  all  sin  by  the  Great  High  Priest. — For  the  time  being  God 
agreed  to  accept  the  symbolic  sacrifice, — but,  as  it  only  foreshad- 
owed the  atonement,  it  had  to  be  repeated  year  by  year.  This 
worship,  consisting  in  types  and  shadows  of  good  things  to  come, 
was  only  "a  figure  for  the  time  then  present."  "The  way  into 
the  Holiest  was  not  yet  made  manifest."  (Heb.  9:  8).  "But 
Christ  being  come  a  High  Priest  of  good  things  to  come  .... 
entered  once  into  the  Holy  Place,  having  obtained  eternal  re- 
demption for  us."  He  fully  accomplished,  by  the  sacrifice  of 
Himself,  all  that  was  symbolized  by  the  Aaronic  priesthood. 
Through  the  rending  of  His  body  the  vail  of  separation  was  rent 
asunder,  and  the  way  to  God  was  fully  opened  and  made  mani- 
fest. He  no  longer  dwells  in  thick  darkness  behind  the  vail,  but 
in  the  midst  of  His  people.  Hence  in  Christ  the  fundamental 
principles  of  Divine  Service,  as  expressed  in  founding  the  Old 
Testament  worship,  are  fully  realized.  From  this  the  Apostle 
draws  the  conclusion:  (Heb.  10:  19-22)  "Having  therefore  bold- 
ness to  enter  into  the  Holiest  by  the  blood  of  Jesus,  by  a  new  and 
living  way,  which  He  hath  consecrated  for  us,  through  the  vail, 
that  is  to  say  His  flesh,  and  having  a  High  Priest  over  the  house 
of  God,  let  us  draw  near  with  a  true  heart  in  full  assurance  of 
faith  having  our  hearts  sprinkled  from  an  evil  conscience  and  our 
bodies  washed  with  pure  water." 

Thus  the  symbolic  worship  of  the  Old  Testament  has  had  its 
fulfilment  in  Christ,  in  Whom  God's  "covenant  of  peace"  is  es- 
tablished with  us,  and  "His  tabernacle  is  with  us,"  so  that  what 
was  only  foreshadowed  in  the  Temple  Service  has  become  a  real- 
ity. The  Word  has  become  flesh,  and  dwells,  not  at  a  distance 
from  us,  but  among  us. 

The  hour  has  come,  when,  not  only  in  Jerusalem,  but  in  all 
places,  where  believers  meet  in  His  name,  they  may  worship  Him 
in  spirit  and  in  truth.  The  Temple  Service,  with  its  priesthood, 
has  passed  away,  but  the  principles  upon  which  it  was  based,  re- 
alized in  Christian  worship,  abide  forever.     Jesus  Himself  made 


THE   FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPI.ES   OF   DIVINE   SERVICE.       55 

them  the  foundation  principle  of  the  Divine  Service  of  His 
Church,  when  He  said:  (Matt.  i8:  20)  "Where  two  or  three  are  ' 
gathered  together  in  My  name  there  am  I  in  the  midst  of  them." 
(See  also  Matt.  28:  19-20).  The  conditions  for  the  fulfilment  of 
this  promise  were  present  for  the  first  time  on  Easter  Sunday- 
evening,  when  ten  disciples  of  Christ  and  the  two  Emmaus  be- 
lievers were  assembled  in  Jerusalem.  Then  He  stood  in  their 
midst,  imparted  peace  to  them,  communicated  the  Holy  Spirit, 
confirmed  their  faitli  and  filled  them  with  gladness.  This  as- 
sembly may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  all  future  assemblies  for  Di- 
vine Service. 

It  demonstrates  the  truth  that  the  principle  underlying  the 
public  worship  of  God  in  both  Testaments  is  the  same,  viz.,  That 
God  has  a  Church,  a  congregation  of  believers,  which  draws  near 
to  Him  to  seek  His  grace  and  present  its  offerings,  and  to  which 
He  also  draws  near  to  impart  His  grace.  Hence  in  the  taberna- 
cle there  were  certain  symbolic  representations,  appearing  to  the 
eye.  The  images  of  the  cherul^im,  always  connected  with  God's 
throne,  on  the  vail  in  front  of  the  Holy  of  Holies,  reminded  of 
God's  presence  to  bless  His  people;  and  the  altar  of  burnt  offer- 
ing in  the  outer  court  and  the  altar  of  incense  in  the  Holy  Place 
reminded  the  people  that  they  must  also  bring  something  to  Him, 
i.  e.,  their  offerings.  By  the  death  of  Christ  the  outer  court 
with  its  altar  for  propitiatory  sacrifices  was  abolished  and  the 
Holy  of  Holies  was  united  with  the  Holy  Place,  to  which,  with 
its  altar  of  incense  representing  the  prayers  of  the  people,  all  be- 
lievers, now  become  a  royal  priesthood  in  Christ,  were  advanced. 
The  three  parts  of  the  tabernacle  have  now  become  one,  in  wdiich 
God  dwells  in  tlie  midst  of  a  congregation  of  priests.  The  fun- 
damental principle  of  the  worship  in  this  tabernacle  is  this:  The 
people  assemble  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  and  He,  in  Whom  the  ful- 
ness of  the  Godhead  dwells  bodily,  is  in  their  midst.  They  are 
here  to  worship  Him  with  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving;  He 
is  here  to  accept  their  offerings  and  to  bestow  His  grace. 

HI.      TWO    KINDS    OF   ACTS. 

From  the  above  it  must  be  evident  that  true  worship  consists 
in  two  kinds  of  acts,  sacramental  acts  and  sacrificial  acts — acts  of 
God  and  acts  of  believers. 

By  sacramental  acts  we  mean  those  acts  of  God,  by  which  He 


56  MEMOIRS. 

imparts  His  grace.  For  this  purpose  He  draws  near  to  the 
congregation:  "There  will  I  come  unto  thee  and  I  will  bless 
thee."  These  acts  of  God  are  represented  to  the  eye  in  the 
house  of  God  by  the  pulpit,  the  font  and  the  altar.  God  bestows 
His  grace  by  the  Holy  Spirit  through  the  Word  and  the  Sacra- 
ments. The  preaching  of  the  Word  and  the  administration  of 
Baptism  and  the  Holy  Supper  are  all  sacramental  acts,  wrought 
by  Almighty  God,  through  the  minister  as  His  instrument.  By 
these  acts  He  imparts  the  grace  sought  by  His  people.  There 
can  be  no  true  worship  without  them.  The  people  cannot  draw 
near  to  God,  unless  He  first  draws  near  to  them;  nor  can  they 
give  anything  to  Him,  unless  He  has  first  given  to  them,  as  Paul 
writes  to  the  Romans:  (Rom.  ii:  35)  "Who  hath  first  given  to 
Him  and  it  shall  be  recompensed  unto  him  again?  For  of  Him  and 
through  Him  and  to  Him  are  all  things."  Therefore  these  sac- 
ramental acts  are  not  only  an  essential  part  of  Divine  Service, 
they  are  its  most  prominent  parts,  yea,  without  them  the  other 
parts  are  not  conceivable.  Yet  they  alone  are  not  public  wor- 
ship; the  sacrificial  acts  must  be  conjoined  with  them. 

By  sacrificial  acts  we  mean  the  acts  of  the  people, — what  they 
bring  to  God.  He  has  given  something  to  them;  they  must  also 
give  something  to  Him.  This  part  of  the  Service  is  represented 
by  the  altar.  Whatever  is  given  to  God  is  called  a  sacrifice,  and 
its  presentation  is  called  an  offering.  But  this  is  a  priestly  act, 
and  it  implies  that  those  who  perform  it  are  priests,  who  have 
the  right  and  duty  of  ministering  at  the  altar. 

The  Church  of  Rome  has  a  sacerdotal  order,  to  which  alone 
she  accords  public  priestly  functions.  Hence  she  fences  the  al- 
tar off  from  the  people;  and  they  have  no  access  to  it  except 
through  the  priest.  But  this  does  not  accord  with  the  teaching 
of  the  Divine  Word.  It  does  not  warrant  the  distinction  between 
priest  and  laymen.  Christ  instituted  a  ministry  but  no  special 
priesthood;  and  the  functions  of  the  ministry  are  sacramental, 
not  sacrificial.  As  our  High  Priest  He  has  offered  Himself  once 
for  all  sin,  and  has  obtained  eternal  redemption  for  us.  Not  even 
He  can  repeat  that  offering.  But  as  our  High  Priest  He  still 
prays  for  us  and  with  us.  He  is  the  Head  of  the  only  priesthood 
recognized  by  the  New  Testament.  He  dwells  in  the  hearts  of 
believers  by  faith;  and  they  are  all  equally  priests  in  Him. 
Hence  Peter  writes:   (I  Pet.  2:  9)  "But  ye  are  a  royal  priesthood 


THE   FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES   OF   DIVINE   SERVICE.       57 

.  ,  .  that  ye  should  show  forth  the  praises  of  Him,  Who  hath 
called  you  out  of  darkness  into  His  marvellous  light."  This  be- 
ing true,  the  functions  of  each  and  every  believer  in  the  house  of 
God  are  priestly,  i.  e.,  to  offer  sacrifices.  What  kind  of  sacri- 
fices? Surely  not  of  a  propitiatory  sort,  such  as  the  Jewish 
priests  very  properly  offered  as  types  of  the  one  sacrifice  offered 
on  Golgotha,  much  less  of  the  Romish  sort,  to  make  satisfaction 
for  the  sins  of  the  living  and  the  dead,  by  the  bloodless  repetition 
of  the  offering  on  Calvary. 

The  altar  of  burnt  offering  no  longer  stands,  but  the  altar  of 
incense,  i.  e.,  of  prayer  does.  The  New  Testament  requires  that 
here  all  believers  .shall  offer  eucharistic  sacrifices,  i.  e.,  thank-of- 
ferings, first  of  themselves,  as  Paul  writes  (Rom.  12:  i)  "I  be- 
seech you  therefore  by  the  mercies  of  God,  that  ye  present  your 
bodies  a  living  sacrifice,  holy  and  acceptable  unto  God,  which  is 
your  reasonable  service."  To  this  must  be  added  prayer,  praise, 
thanksgiving  and  of  our  substance, — the  offerings  of  humble,  con- 
trite and  grateful  hearts.  These  sacrificial  acts  were  so  promi- 
nent in  connection  with  the  sacrament  of  the  altar,  in  the  early 
Church,  that  the  latter  was  called  the  Eucharist.  Here  we  have 
the  most  intimate  communion  with  God:  He  gives  Himself  to  us 
and  we  give  ourselves,  with  all  that  we  have  and  are,  to  Him. 

It  is  the  privilege  and  duty  of  every  believer  to  engage  in  all 
these  sacrificial  acts,  with  heart  and  voice  and  hand.  They  must 
not  be  idle  spectators,  or  a  mere  audience,  to  witness  what  is  said 
and  done  in  the  hou.se  of  God,  but  active  worshippers.  In  this 
sense  also  they  must  be  "doers  of  the  Word."  Each  and  every 
one  of  them  must  bring  something  to  God  as  well  as  receive 
something  from  Him.  To  obtain  the  blessing  of  God's  sacra- 
mental acts,  wc  must  draw  near  to  Him  with  sacrificial  acts. 

IV.      THE   OBJECT. 

The  object  of  this  Service,  or  worship,  is  to  secure  the  growth 
in  grace  and  the  spiritual  development  of  all  who  participate 
therein.  Hence  our  fathers  called  it  the  cultus,  from  the  Latin 
colo,  to  cultivate.  The  Church  is  a  vineyard,  planted  with  pre- 
cious vines,  each  one  of  which  should  grow  continually  and  bring 
forth  fruit.  This  end  is  accomplished  in  a  natural  vineyard  when 
the  vines  are  pruned,  watered  and  nurtured,  when  the  husband- 
man does  his  part  and  the  vines  render  the  befitting  response. 


58  MEMOIRS. 

The  sunshine  and  the  rains  descend  upon  the  plant,  then  in  re- 
sponse it  lifts  up  its  head  towards  its  benefactor,  buds,  blooms 
and  brings  forth  fruit.  This  is  successful  culture.  So  in  the 
Church  the  object  of  the  cultus  is  attained  when  God  bestows 
His  grace  through  the  Word  and  the  Sacraments  and  the  believ- 
ing people  respond  to  this  grace  and  render  the  ripe  fruits  thereof 
to  its  Author  in  the  .sacrifices  that  proceed  from  humble,  contrite 
and  thankful  hearts. 

That  the  above  purpose  may  be  accomplished, 

V.      AN   ORDER   OF    DIVINE  SERVICE, 

that'  makes  provision  for  all  of  these  twofold  acts,  sacramental 
and  sacrificial,  is  necessary.  Where  a  number  of  people  are  to 
unite  in  doing  the  same  thing — as  in  "glorifying  God  with  one 
mind  and  one  mouth" — there  must  be  a  place,  time  and  manner 
of  doing  it,  which  all  understand  and  approve.  Private  worship 
may  be  rendered  by  the  individual  at  any  place  and  time  and  in 
any  manner  that  he  may  choose.  It  concerns  only  himself  and 
his  God,  But  to  worship  God  collectively  as  a  congregation,  we 
must  first  have  a  suitable  place.  This  should  be  a  house  of  God, 
constructed  in  such  style  and  furnished  in  such  manner  as  to  be- 
speak its  purpose.  God  instructs  us  through  the  eye  as  well  as 
the  ear;  and  every  thing  that  strikes  the  eye  as  well  as  the  ear 
should  be  of  such  character  as  to  direct  our  thoughts  Heaven- 
ward and  to-God-ward.  Not  only  should  there  be  a  pulpit  to 
represent  the  preaching  of  the  Word,  by  which  the  Holy  Spirit 
works  faith,  a  font  to  remind  us  of  Baptism  and  our  covenant  re- 
lations with  God,  and  an  altar  to  set  forth  our  priestly  functions 
and  the  Holy  Supper,  in  which  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial 
are  beautifully  combined  and  which  establishes  our  most  intimate 
Communion  with  God  and  each  other, — God  bestowing  the  living 
meat  and  drink  and  believers  responding  with  heartfelt  thanks- 
giving. But,  in  addition  to  this,  works  of  sacred  art,  that  .sug- 
gest devout  thoughts,  are  very  useful  and  much  more  helpful 
than  blank  walls.  The  decorations  of  the  Temple,  planned  by 
God  Himself,  teach  us  that  such  works  are  pleasing  to  Him. 

But  the  most  suitable  places  of  worship  would  fail  of  their 
purpose  without  fixed  seasons  and  times  for  the  assembly  of  the 
congregation.  Under  the  Old  Testament  both  place  and  time 
were  fixed  by  law. 


THE   FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES   OF   DIVINE   SERVICE.       59 

The  Temple  was  ordinarily  the  place,  and  the  Sacred  Year 
provided  the  seasons  and  the  days  of  public  worship.  From  this 
we  observe  that  it  is  the  mind  of  God  that  there  should  be  such 
fixed  seasons  and  times.  But  under  the  New  Testament  it  is  left 
to  the  liberty  of  the  Church,  guided  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  ar- 
range all  such  matters.  In  the  exercise  of  this  liberty,  in  the 
light  of  the  revelation  of  the  mind  of  God,  the  Church  very  early 
ordained  the  Christian  Year,  with  its  seasons  and  holy  days,  for 
the  systematic  "learning"  of  God's  Word. 

On  the  same  principle  the  Church  has  also  developed  an  Or- 
der of  Service,  which  provides  for  the  practical  application  of  the 
New  Testament  principles  of  Divine  worship.  The  I^ord  Him- 
self pointed  and  led  the  way  to  such  an  order.  In  His  public  life 
He  conformed  s'lrictly  to  the  forms  in  use  under  the  Old  Testa- 
ment dispensation.  The  .sectarian  idea  of  spirit  without  form  has 
no  place  in  either  His  teaching  or  His  example.  The  Psalms, 
the  inspired  prayer  book  of  the  Hebrews,  were  very  dear  to  His 
heart,  and  He  prayed  from  them  even  when  He  was  dying  on  the 
cross.  His  "My  God,  My  God,  why  hast  Thou  forsaken  Me," 
was  from  a  written  prayer,  the  twenty-second  Psalm;  and  His 
last  prayer,  "into  Thy  hands  I  commend  My  spirit,"  was  from 
the  thirty-first  Psalm.  With  this  practice  accords  His  teaching. 
When  He  taught  the  individual  how  to  pray  alone  He  gave  no 
form,  but  said,  "When  Thou  prayest,  enter  into  thy  closet,  and, 
when  thou  hast  shut  thy  door,  pray  to  thy  Father  Which  is  in 
secret."  But  when  He  taught  the  disciples  how  to  pray  collect- 
ively, as  a  congregation,  He  inculcated  both  the  spirit  and  the 
form,  or  "manner,"  saying:  "After  this  manner  therefore  pray 
ye:  "Our  Father,"  etc.  Thus  we  have  it  from  Him  that  the 
spirit  of  Divine  Service  should  be  clothed  in  an  appropriate  form. 

VI.      LITURGICAL  FORMS. 

Of  all  existing  liturgical  forms,  i.  e.,  forms  for  the  people's 
worship,  the  Order  of  Service  of  the  Evangelical  lyUtheran 
Church,  as  contained  in  the  "Common  Service,"  most  fully  em- 
bodies all  the  fundamental  principles  of  Divine  Service. 

The  Church  of  Rome  pushes  aside  and  obscures  the  sacra- 
mental acts  by  the  sacrificial,  leaving  little  or  nothing  for  God  to 
do.  With  her  the  arrangement  of  the  Jewish  Temple  still  seems 
to  stand, — God  is  still  removed  from  His  people,  behind  the  vail. 


60  MEMOIRS. 

and  the  people  are  still  in  the  outer  court,  with  no  way  of  com- 
munication with  Him,  except  through  a  spurious  priesthood, 
which  usurps  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  "royal  priesthood," 
which,  with  Christ's  high  priesthood  and  based  upon  it,  is  the 
only  priestly  order  known  to  the  New  Testament.  The  Sacra- 
ment of  the  Altar  is  perverted  into  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  of- 
fered by  the  priest  for  the  living  and  the  dead,  so  that,  to  be  ben- 
efited by  it,  it  is  not  necessary  to  be  present  at  its  celebration. 
The  beneficiary  may  not  even  be  upon  earth;  he  may  be  in  "pur- 
gatory." Altars,  dedicated  to  the  saints,  supposed  mediators 
between  God  and  men,  are  multiplied;  the  pulpit  is  made  subor- 
dinate and  placed  in  an  obscure  position;  the  preached  Word  be- 
comes a  matter  of  indifference;  and  the  direct  application  of  the 
Word  to  the  individual  in  the  absolution  is  made  nugatory  by  the 
penances  upon  which  it  is  conditioned.  It  is  therefore  not  a  mat- 
ter of  surprise  that  the  worship  is  conducted  in  an  unknown 
tongue  and  that  the  active  participation  of  the  people  in  the  Ser- 
vice is  not  encouraged.  The  priest  and  the  choir  can  do  all  that 
is  to  be  done,  and  it  is  not  necessary  that  those,  for  whose  benefit 
the  Service  is  rendered,  should  witness  it,  much  less  participate 
in  it.  The  worship  consists  principally  in  what  the  priest  offers 
to  God  for  the  people,  and  there  is  little  place  for  God  in  the  en- 
tire Service.  It  makes  the  impression  that  the  vail  in  the  Temple 
is  still  unbroken  and  the  way  to  God  still  closed;  that  He  is  still 
unreconciled  to  His  people;  that  He  has  no  Gospel  for  them, 
nothing  but  law,  the  threatenings  of  which  must  be  silenced  by 
the  propitiatory  sacrifice  offered  by  the  priest  and  the  intercession 
of  the  saints. 

The  Reformed  Churches  and  the  sects  have  fallen  into  the 
same  error,  although  from  a  different  standpoint.  Whilst  they 
have  banished  the  altar,  which  represents  the  sacrificial  part  of 
the  Service,  they  make  nearly  the  whole  worship  sacrificial,  and 
retain  very  little  that  is  sacramental.  Dr.  Kliefoth,  quoted  by 
Dr.  Jacobs,  has  well  said:  "Antagonizing  the  Romish  propitiatory 
sacrifice,  they  make  the  Service  almost  entirely  eucharistic  sacri- 
ficial. In  the  I,ord's  Supper  He  really  gives  nothing  to  them, 
but  they  memorialize  His  death.  The  application  of  grace  is 
conceived  as  occurring  immediately,  from  spirit  to  spirit.  The 
constant  presence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  with  the  Word  and  Sacra- 
ment is  denied.     All  liturgical  acts  are  expressions  of  faith  al- 


THE   FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES   OF   DIVINE   SERVICE.       61 

ready  wrought.  The  sacraments  offer  nothing  from  the  Lord.  .  . 
The  Word  does  not  bring  the  Spirit  but  the  Spirit  brings  the 
Word.  Through  the  exposition  of  the  Word  the  preacher  simply 
gives  testimony  to  his  faith.  Believers  come  together  chiefly  for 
common  prayers,  confession,  praise,  thanksgiving,  etc.,  to  exer- 
cise their  faith."  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Order  of  Service 
of  the  Reformed  Church  and  the  sects  fails  to  combine  properly 
and  to  harmonize  the  two  fundamental  principles  of  Christian 
worship.  It  is  only  in  the  Lutheran  Church  that  the  two  essen- 
tial elements  of  a  complete  Christian  cultus  are  accorded  their  rel- 
ative importance  and  their  proper  place.  This  will  become  ap- 
parent when  we  notice  briefly 

VII.      HOW  THESE    FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES   FIND 
EXPRESSION   IN  THE  "COMMON  SERVICE." 

Here  we  have: 

a.  A  Preparation  for  the  Service,  which  consists  in  the 
solemn  announcement  by  the  pastor,  sealed  by  the  "Amen"  of 
the  people,  that  we  are  assembled  in  the  Name  of  the  Triune 
God,  and  that  in  this  Name  we  begin,  continue  and  end  the  wor- 
ship. This  reminds  us  of  the  promise  (Matt.  i8:  20)  upon  which 
the  Christian  assembly  is  based,  and  we  are  here  to  claim  its  ful- 
filment. We  are  gathered  around  the  Lord,  Who  is  present  to 
impart  the  blessing,  which  we  seek.  This  is  a  holy  presence; 
and  the  first  thing  we  ought  to  do  is  to  put  away  our  sins. 
What  God  commanded  Moses  to  do  in  a  symbolical  manner  (Ex. 
3:  5)  we  are  to  do  in  reality:  "Put  off  thy  shoes  from  off  thy  feet, 
for  the  place  whereon  thou  standest  is  holy  ground." 

This  is  done  in  the  confitcor  and  the  Declaration  of  Grace  that 
follows  it,  to  which  we  are  invited  by  the  minister;  and  the  source 
of  the  ability  and  the  manner  of  so  doing  is  expressed  in  the 
words:  "Our  help  is  in  the  Name  of  the  Lord,  Who  made  Heaven 
and  earth."  "I  said  I  will  confess  my  transgressions  unto  the 
Lord;  and  Thou  forgavest  the  iniquity  of  my  sin."  The  confes- 
sion of  sins,  original  and  actual  follows,  as  also  the  cry  for  "mer- 
cy" and  "forgiveness"  and  the  ."increase"  in  us  of  the  "true 
knowledge  of  God"  and  His  will  and  "true  obedience"  to  His 
Word  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  indicating  the  purpose  for  which  we 
draw  near  to  God.     Then  comes  the  Declaration  of  Divine  Grace, 


62  MEMOIRS. 

pledged  to  us  in  Baptism  and  about  to  be  communicated  to  us 
more  fully  by  the  Word  and  Sacrament. 

This  preparation  having  been  made,  the  Service  proper  for 
the  day  begins  with 

b.  The  hitroit,  a  sacramental  act,  in  which  God  express- 
es the  leading  thought  for  the  day, — a  communication  of  the 
Word. 

The  names  of  the  Sundays  are  largely  derived  from  the  In- 
troit.  It  is  usually  taken  from  the  Psalms,  consisting  of  an 
Antiphon  and  a  Psalm.  The  Gloria  Pairi,  (sacrificial)  which 
follows,  is  the  believer's  joyful  response  to  the  Antiphon.  Then 
follows: 

c.  The  Kyrie.  God  is  present,  according  to  His  promise, 
and  He  has  spoken  in  the  Declaration  of  Grace  and  in  the  Introit. 
Hence  the  people,  feeling  the  misery  that  has  come  of  sin  and 
realizing  that  the  Healer  is  in  their  midst,  cry  to  Him  for  mercy 
which  heals,  as  grace  pardons.  The  Kyrie  is  not  a  confession  of 
sin,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  blind  Bartimaeus,  a  plea  for  the  removal 
of  the  misery  and  suffering  that  remains  as  a  consequence  of  sin, 
as  spiritual  blindness  or  weakness  or  any  kind  of  spiritual  or 
bodily  want  or  wretchedness.     Then  follows 

d.  The  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  in  which  the  minister  calls  up- 
on the  congregation  to  unite,  as  it  assures  them  that  grace  and 
mercy  have  fully  come  in  the  Person,  Whose  presence  God  an- 
nounces through  the  angels.  This,  their  song  over  Bethlehem's 
manger,  has  this  purpose:  "That  faith  is  aroused  and  takes  the 
Word  from  God's  lips."  (Jacobs).  Faith  being  thus  enkindled 
and  awakened,  we  prepare  to  enter  more  fully  upon  the  sacrificial 
parts  of  the  Service,  viz., 

e.  The  Salutation  and  Collect.  In  the  Salutation,  "The 
lyord  be  with  you,"  the  minister  prays  for  the  people,  imploring, 
not  the  general  presence  of  God,  according  to  which  He  is  pres- 
ent everywhere  by  His  omnipotence,  but  His  special,  gracious 
presence,  to  impart  His  blessing  through  the  means  of  grace. 
The  people  also,  in  the  same  spirit  comfort  and  pray  for  the  pas- 
tor in  the  response,  "And  with  thy  spirit." 

Having  prayed  thus  separately  for  each  other  the  pastor  now 
invites  the  people  to  pray  with  him  unitedly  (collectively)  for 
the  special  grace  to  be  sought  this  day.  This  is  done  in  the  Col- 
lect,  spoken  by  the  pastor   and   approved   and   sealed  by   the 


THE   FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES  OF   DIVINE   SERVICE.       63 

Amen  of  the  people.  It  consists  in  an  address  to  God,  usually 
the  Father,  a  ground  of  expectation  and  a  petition  based  upon  it, 
and  a  doxology,  or  ascription  of  praise  to  the  Trinity.  This 
prayer  God  now  answers  in 

f.  The  Scripture  Lesso7is.  First  an  Epistle  is  announced 
and  read,  usually,  but  not  always,  from  the  New  Testament. 
This  corresponds  with  the  reading  of  the  Law  in  the  Synagogue 
Service.  The  Epistles  are  the  New  Testament  Law,  now  a  de- 
light to  Christians,  because  it  has  been  fulfilled  by  Christ,  and  is 
written,  as  a  rule  of  life,  in  their  hearts.  Hence  they  joyfully 
respond  to  it  by  singing  the  "Hallelujah!"  which  proclaims  the 
Lamb  victorious  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  Law,  according  to  Psalm 
ii8. 

Then  the  Lamb  draws  nearer  to  them  in  the  announcement 
of  the  Gospel,  by  which  He  speaks  to  them  more  directly.  At 
this  the  congregation,  realizing  more  fully  that  He  stands  in  their 
midst  and  is  about  to  speak  to  them  in  His  own  words,  joyfully 
greets  Him  with  the  words:  "Glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord!"  Then 
rising  in  profound  reverence  for  His  gracious  presence  and  for 
the  truth  He  is  about  to  utter,  the  people  devoutly  hear  Him, 
standing  upon  their  feet  as  good  soldiers  of  the  Cross,  ready  to 
execute  His  will.  The  precious  Gospel  of  peace  having  been 
heard,  what  could  more  suitably  follow  than  the  response,  sung 
with  heart  and  voice,  "Praise  be  to  Thee,  O  Christ!"?  The  Lord 
having  now  spoken  in  both  forms  of  His  Word,  and  that  having 
been  thankfully  acknowledged,  they,  that  believe  wjth  their 
hearts  "unto  righteousness,"  also  confess  their  faith  "with  the 
mouth"  "unto  salvation,"  by  the  use  of 

g.  The  Creed.  Here,  not  the  Apostles'  Creed,  which  is 
the  confession  at  baptismal  Services,  but  the  Nicene,  which  is  the 
creed  of  the  Communion,  is  used.  In  the  Lutheran  Church  it  is 
not  hurried  over,  as  if  it  were  a  mere  form  or  a  task  to  be  ended 
as  quickly  as  possible,  but  spoken  distinctly,  with  a  loud  voice 
earnestly,  it  being  a  precious  privilege  to  confess  our  faith  in  the 
Triune  God,  Who  created,  redeemed  and  sanctified  us.  Then 
after  a  hymn  follows 

h.  The  Sermon,  the  explanation  and  application  of  the 
precious  message,  which  the  Lord  has  delivered  to  us  in  the  Gos- 
pel, which  is  intended  to  impart  the  special  grace  announced  in 
the  Introit  and  asked  in  the  Collect.     The  selection  of  themes 


64  MEMOIRS. 

not  contained  in  the  Gospel  mars  the  Service  and  measurably  de- 
feats the  purpose  of  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  Lessons 
for  the  Church  Year:  that  the  people  may  receive  "grace  for 
grace,"  each  grace  in  its  proper  season  and  in  the  right  relation 
to  all  others.  The  sermon  closed,  with  "the  peace  of  God," 
which  the  Gospel  conveys,  pronounced  upon  the  congregation,  it 
is  followed  by 

i.  The  Offertory  a7id  General  Prayer.  God  having  richly 
bestowed  His  grace  through  the  sacramental  act  of  the  Word, 
there  should  be  some  sacrificial  return  for  His  goodness.  This 
is  devoutly  and  thankfully  acknowledged  in  the  Offertory,  which 
tells  whence  the  sacrifice  should  proceed,  from  "a  broken  and  a 
contrite  heart,"  and  looks  to  God  to  cleanse  its  source — "a  clean 
heart."  The  General  Prayer  immediately  follows,  in  which 
thanksgivings  and  praises  are  offered  and  all  sorts  and  conditions 
of  men  are  remembered  before  the  throne  of  grace  and  all  the 
wants  of  all  mankind,  especially  of  the  sick  and  suffering,  widows 
and  orphans  and  of  all  in  authority,  are  laid  before  God.  It  ends 
with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  spoken  by  all  the  people,  the  best  and 
highest  of  all  prayers,  certain  to  be  acceptable  to  God  and  heard 
of  Him,  because  Jesus,  Who  prays  with  us,  has  commanded  us 
to  say  these  words  and  promised  that  the  Father  will  surely  grant 
our  petitions  offered  in  His  Name,  as  God's  dear  children. 

The  prayer  ended,  thank-offerings,  gifts  of  our  substance, — 
alms,  are  laid  upon  the  altar,  the  place  for  everything  sacrificial. 

Then,  follows  the  culmination  of  the  cultus: 

The  H01.Y  Communion. 

Here  we  have  the  most  profound  mystery  and,  at  the  same 
time,  the  highest  privilege  of  Christian  worship:  a  fore- pledge  of 
the  final  consummation,  when  the  saints  shall  be  the  table  guests 
of  the  Lord  in  glory;  here  we  enter  the  sanctuary  of  the  sanctu- 
ary, beyond  which  there  is  nothing  but  Heaven  itself,  the  sum- 
mit of  our  liturgical  cultus.  Hence  all  parts  thereof  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  enable  the  believer  to  realize  a  repetition  of  the  act 
of  the  night  of  our  Lord's  betrayal  in  breaking  the  bread  and 
blessing  the  cup,  and  imparting  His  own  broken  Body  and  His 
shed  Blood  to  each  of  His  guests.     It  has  these  several  parts: 

I.  The  Introduction.  This  part  of  the  Service,  which  is 
partly  eucharistic  sacrificial  and  partly  sacramental,  begins  with 


THE   FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES   OP   DIVINE   SERVICE.       65 

1.  The  Salutation.  Here,  as  before  the  Collect  and  in- 
troductory to  the  sacramental  act  of  God  in  imparting  the  grace 
of  His  Word,  the  pastor  prays  for  the  special  presence  with  the 
people  of  the  WORD  as  the  L,amb  of  God,  as  the  Host  communi- 
cating the  Sacrament  and  also  as  the  "Passover  sacrificed  for  us." 
But  there  the  reference  is  to  His  presence  through  the  Holy 
Ghost,  His  representative,  as  our  Prophet,  about  to  speak  to  us 
through  the  Word;  here,  however,  it  is  His  presence  as  our 
Priest  and  King,  in  a  glorified,  personal  and  bodily  manner,  "so 
that  we  may,  in  this  transaction,  call  the  Lord  Himself  to  us  in 
a  peculiar  manner  of  personal  presence,  such  as  is  accorded  alone 
in  the  institutional  promise."  (Zeschwitz).  In  the  same  man- 
ner the  people  also  comfort  the  pastor,  as  the  instrument  of  the 
Lord,  in  the  response:  "And  with  thy  spirit."     Then  comes 

2.  The  Sursuni  Corda:  "Lift  up  your  hearts,"  i.  e., 
raise  them  from  all  things  earthly,  above  the  desires,  cares,  am- 
bitions and  treasures  of  the  world; — this  because  they  now  stand 
at  the  very  vestibule  of  Heaven,  Realizing  the  solemnity  of  the 
Service  upon  which  they  are  entering,  the  people  reply:  "We  lift 
them  up  unto  the  Lord."  Raising  their  hearts  to  Him,  what  are 
they  now  to  do?     The  minister  answers  with 

3.  The  Gratias:  "Let  us  give  thanks  unto  the  Lord," 
which  St.  Augustine  thus  explains:  "That  we  lift  up  our  hearts 
to  the  Lord  is  God's  gift,  for  which  then  we  are  bidden  to  give 
thanks  to  our  Lord  God."  (Dr.  Jacobs).  And  the  people  de- 
voutly answer  with 

4.  The  Dignum:  "It  is  meet  and  right  so  to  do."  Then 
the  minister,  taking  this  acknowledgment  out  of  the  mouth  of  the 
people,  raises  it  to  Heaven  in  the  words:  "It  is  truly  meet  (be- 
cause He  has  redeemed  us),  right  and  salutary  (because  He  is 
about  to  seal  His  grace  to  us),  that  we  should  give  thanks  to 
Thee,  O  Lord,  Holy  Father,  Almighty,  Everlasting  God." 

Then  having  acknowledged  the  special  grace  of  the  season 
or  day,  as  imparted  through  the  Gospel,  in  the  "Proper  Preface," 
the  pastor  and  people,  realizing  the  sacramental  presence  of  the 
Lord  and  the  fellowship  of  the  Heavenly  spirits,  unite  in  the  se- 
raphic song,  (Isa.  6)  "Holy,  holy,  holy.  Lord  God  of  Sabaoth, 
Heaven  and  earth  are  full  of  Thy  glory."  Thus  God  is  praised 
by  the  Church  on  earth  and  in  Heaven  for  the  Lord's  sacrament- 
al presence.     Then  realizing  that  He  is  drawing  near  to  us  as 


66  MEMOIRS. 

the  Lamb  that  was  slain  for  us,  to  impart  Himself  to  us  as  our 
Passover,  we  greet  His  approach  with  the  great  Passover  Halle- 
lujah (Psalm  ii8),  which  was  sung  at  His  entrance  into  Jerusa- 
lem as  the  Chosen  Lamb  and  again  at  the  Last  Supper:  "Blessed 
is  He  that  cometh  in  the  Name  of  the  Lord.  Hosanna  in  the 
highest."  The  people  now  consecrate  themselves  to  the  Lamb 
by  saying  the  prayer  He  taught  them  to  say:  The  Lord's  Prayer, 
and  He  proceeds  to  answer  their  prayer,  first  in 

II.  The  Consecration.  The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  now  takes 
the  bread  and  the  cup,  through  the  hands  of  His  servant,  and, 
by  his  mouth.  He  speaks  the  consecrating  words: 

1.  The  Words  of  the  Institution.  He  makes  the  Sacra- 
ment by  adding  His  Word  to  the  element.  The  people,  now  be- 
lieving that  He  is  present  at  His  table,  humbly  cry,  not  to  the 
bread,  but  to  Him,  in  the  words  of  the 

2.  Agnus  Dei,  first  for  His  mercy,  to  remove  their  mis- 
ery, and  then  for  His  peace, — the  crowning  grace,  that  flows 
from  the  complete  pardon  of  sin.  This  is  what  He  promised  His 
people:  "My  peace  I  give  you."     He  answers  their  prayer  with 

3.  The  Pax,  spoken  through  the  minister:  "The  Peace 
of  the  Lord  be  with  you,"  a  pledge  that  the  peace  prayed  for  in 
the  Agnus  Dei  is  about  to  be  imparted.  The  people  accept  this 
pledge  with  a  trusting  "Amen."  Then  He  proceeds  to  impart 
this  peace  in 

III.  The  Administration.  Here  He  approaches  and 
deals  with  each  individual,  saying  to  every  communicant:  "Take 
and  eat,  this  is  the  Body  of  Christ,  which  is  given  for  thee." 
"Take  and  drink,  this  is  the  Blood  of  the  New  Testament,  shed  for 
thy  sins."  Then,  assuming  that  the  communicants  have  believed 
these  sacramental  words,  they  are  dismissed  with  the  blessing: 
"The  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  His  precious  Blood 
strengthen  and  preserve  you  in  true  faith  unto  everlasting  life." 
Having  now  reached  the  summit  of  Divine  Service,  beyond 
which  there  is  nothing  but  Heaven,  there  is  nothing  left  but 

IV.  The  Post  Communion,  which  must  needs  be  brief, 
and  consists  almost  exclusively  in  devout  thanksgiving,  Christ 
having  imparted  to  us  forgiveness  of  sins  and,  therefore,  life  and 
salvation;  the  peace  prayed  for  in  the  Agnus  Dei  and  proclaimed 
in  the  Pax,  has  been  communicated  by  the  Sacrament.  We  need 
nothing  more.     The  Lord  has  nothing  more  to  give  us.     There- 


THE    FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES   OF    DIVINE    SERVICE.        67 

fore  we  sing  with  Simeon,  whose  most  devout  longing  had  been 
satisfied: 

V.  The  Nunc  Dimittis:  "Lord,  now  lettest  Thou  Thy 
servant  depart  in  peace,"  etc.  Then  calling  upon  each  other  "to 
give  thanks  unto  the  Lord,"  we  repeat  the  Thanksgiving  Collect. 
Pastor  and  people  once  more  comfortingly  salute  each  other, 
blessing  and  thanking  the  Lord;  and  the  whole  Service  is  closed 
with  the  Benediction,  which  consists  in  a  threefold  putting  of  the 
Name  of  the  Lord  upon  His  people  for  their  blessing,  keeping 
and  their  peace.  How  otherwise  should  this  last  sacramental 
act  be  received  than  with  the  threefold  "Amen?" 

It  will  thus  be  seen,  that  the  Lutheran  Order  of  Service  most 
perfectly  embodies  and  applies  all  the  fundamental  principles  per- 
taining to  Divine  Service  contained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
that  each  part  is  in  its  proper  place.  And  whoever  intelligently 
and  devoutly  joins  in  every  part  of  this  Service  will  experience 
that  it  contains  everything  necessary  to  our  edification  and 
growth  in  grace.  Any  man  that  cannot  profitably  unite  in  such 
worship  must  be  sadly  wanting  either  in  Christian  intelligence  or 
devotion,  or  both.  By  its  diligent  and  faithful  use  all  may 
"come  to  the  fullness  of  the  stature  of  new  men  in  Christ  Jesus." 


G.   W.  Mechling, 
Lancaster,    Ohio. 


REGULATIONS   AND   CUSTOMS    PERTAINING   TO 
THE    USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS. 


It  is  well  known  that  the  Protestant  denominations,  generally, 
recognize  two  Sacraments — Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper, — 
whereas  the  Roman  and  Greek  Catholic  Churches  recognize  sev- 
en. It  might  be  supposed  that  where  there  are  only  the  two 
Sacraments,  the  Protestant  wing  of  the  Church  would  be  able  to 
agree  on  those  two  in  the  matter  of  doctrine  and  practice;  but 
whether  possible  or  impossible,  the  fact  is  they  do  not.  Each 
has  some  distinctive  practice  respecting  the  divergences  on  the 
doctrinal  acceptation. 

It  is  almost  a  truism  in  the  Lutheran  Church  that  the  prac- 
tices grow  out  of  the  doctrine;  and  hence,  the  practices  conform 
to  the  essentials  of  the  doctrine  in  such  a  way  that  the  didactic 
result  of  the  practice  ought  not,  and  should  not,  vitiate  the  doc- 
trinal position  of  the  Church.  We  are  well  aware  that  the 
Church  is  careful  to  define  her  doctrines  with  exactness  and 
clearness  of  language;  so  too,  it  is,  that  the  practices  are  express- 
ive of  the  content  of  the  doctrine. — One  might  almost  say  that 
the  practices  are  to  the  content  of  the  doctrine,  as  the  adjectives 
and  adverbs  are  to  the  definition  of  the  doctrine. 

When  it  happens,  and  it  does  happen,  that  a  doctrine  is  ill- 
defined  according  to  Scripture,  or  that  the  content  of  the  word  is 
minified  or  magnified,  we  may  see  this  reflected  in  the  rubrics 
and  regulations  of  the  Church  or  Christian  body.  Take  for  in- 
stance the  doctrine  of  the  Word,  as  held  by  the  Friends,  respect- 
ing the  Sacraments.  Here  we  see  a  low  conception  of  the  Word. 
Its  authority,  per  sc,  is  very  limited,  when  compared  with  the 
authority  of  the  Spirit.  As  a  consequence  the  Sacraments  are 
set  aside.  Such  a  doctrine  practically  gives  us  a  Spiritless  Word, 
and  a  Wordless  Spirit;  and  supersedes  Christ  by  the  Spirit. 

(Ixix) 


70  MEMOIRS. 

A  somewhat  different  phase  is  suggested  by  the  combination 
of  necessary  immersion  with  the  absolute  requirement  of  definite 
and  personal  faith,  in  order  to  constitute  Baptism.  This  insist- 
ence accords  to  Christ  scarcely  more  than  the  establishment  of 
the  Sacrament;  while  the  essence  of  it,  if  there  is  an  essence, 
comes  from  human  faith,  judging  by  the  practice.  It  involves  a 
confusion  between  the  essence  and  the  benefits  of  the  rite.  An- 
other phase  may  be  seen  in  the  Reformed  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  compared  with  the  Lutheran,  as  a  type  or  system.  Here 
is  seen  a  species  of  emptying  the  Word  of  its  content  and  laying 
the  stress  upon  the  Spirit  beyond  the  Word,  upon  human  faith, 
and  the  spiritual  participation  of  the  communicant,  in  the  Com- 
munion. This  not  only  eliminates  Christ  from  the  Sacrament, 
and  goes  entirely  outside  the  rite;  but  makes  the  Sacrament  de- 
pend upon  a  human  condition,  and  in  fact  makes  the  Sacrament 
little  more  than  a  pious  action  on  the  part  of  the  participant. 

Take  this  instance: — *The  distribution  is  to  be  made  with 
these  words — "The  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  which  was 
given  for  thee,  preserve  thy  soul  and  body  unto  everlasting  life. 
Take  and  eat  this  in  remembrance  that  Christ  died  for  thee,  and 
feed  on  Him  in /^j  heart  by  faith  with  thanksgiving."  "The 
Blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  which  was  shed  for  thee,  preserve 
thy  sold  and  body  unto  everlasting  life.  Drink  this  in  remem- 
brance that  Christ's  Blood  was  shed  for  thee,  and  be  thankful." 
Italics  in  the  text. 

We  find  something  very  similar  to  this  conception  concern- 
ing the  commemoration  and  the  human  faith  in  the  Westminster 
Confessionf  and  Common  Prayer. J 

Jesus  says,  "Take,  eat;  This  is;"  but  these  forms  virtually 
say,  "This  was,"  for  a  remembrance  has  to  do  with  that  which 
is  past-  and  it  is  specifically  stated  "Which  was  given  for  thee" 
and  "Drink  this  in  remembrance  that  Christ's  Blood  was  shed 
for  thee."  The  practice  in  the  distribution  is  all  the  more 
strangely  contrasted  by  the  practice  in  the  consecration,  which 
uses  these  words  §  "  .    .    .  According  to  Thy  Son  our  Saviour 

*  The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  (he  AfethoJist  Episcopal  Church,  1880,  New 
York,  p.  291. 

t    Weslminsicr  Confession  of  Fail h,   Presbyterian,  Phila.,  1896,  pp.  150-153. 

X  Book  of  Cotntnon  Prayer,  Episcopal,  1891,  p.  244. 

§    The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  M.  E.  Church,  1880,  N.  Y.,  p.  290. 


CUSTOMS   PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.        71 

Jesus  Christ's  holy  institution,  in  remembrance  of  His  death  and 
passion,  may  be  partakers  of  His  most  blessed  Body  and  Blood; 
Who,  in  the  same  night  that  He  was  betrayed,  took  bread;  and 
when  He  had  given  thanks,  He  broke  it,  and  gave  to  His  disci- 
ples, saying,  Take,  eat;  this  is  My  Body  which  is  given  for  you; 
do  this  in  remem]:)rance  of  Me.  Likewise  after  supper  He  took 
the  cup;  and  when  He  had  given  thanks,  He  gave  it  to  them, 
saying,  Drink  ye  all  of  this;  for  this  is  My  Blood  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  is  shed  for  you,  and  for  many,  for  the  remis- 
sion of  sins;  do  this,  as  oft  as  ye  shall  drink  it,  in  remembrance 
of  Me."  The  administration  is  made  to  ministers  first  if  present, 
then  to  the  congregation,  kneeling,  being  given  into  the  uncov- 
ered hands. 

Why  the  consecration  should  be  in  the  present  tense  while 
the  distribution  is  in  the  past,  we  understand  from  the  doctrine: 
but  why  they  ought  so  to  be,  we  cannot  understand  as  a  matter 
of  truth.  Nor  do  we  understand  why  the  participants  in  the 
consecratory  prayer  have  a  present  Christ,  and  in  the  distribution 
a  few  moments  afterward  have  to  make  a  memory  leap  over  1800 
years,  a  feat  which  is  impossible  to  any  present  living  individual, 
except  historically. 

According  to  Scripture,  the  memory  leap  which  one  class  of 
people  has  to  make  is  not  much  greater  than  the  mental  leap 
which  another  class  has  to  make  in  order  to  compass  transubstan- 
tiation,  as  .set  forth  in  practice.  The  more  so  when  the  transub- 
stantiation  is  so  applied  that  one  element  comprises  the  two.  It 
would  seem  that  sacerdotal  transubstantiation  of  the  elements  al- 
most requires  the  transubstantiation  of  the  priest  into  Christ.* 
We  find  the  priest  is  the  deputy  of  Christ  and  through  this  depu- 
ty, in  the  Mass,  to  the  Catholic  believer  there  is  given  "to  each 
of  us  in  particular:  ist.  To  join  our  I^ord  and  Priest  in  offering 
the  Divine  Victim  of  Calvary,  present  on  our  altars,  to  the  Eter- 
nal Father." 

But  concerning  the  ceremonies  etc. ,  of  the  Catholic  Church 
several  quotations  from  Dr.  Bruno  may  speak  for  themselves. 

t "Ceremonies  do  not  form  an  es.sential  part  of  the  institution 
of  Christ,  most  of  them  having  been  added  l)y  the  Church  in  the 
time  of  the  Apostles  or  in  subsequent  ages.     Consequently  they 

•   Catholic  Belief,  Joseph  Faa  di  Bruno,  D.  D.,  Benziger  Bros.,  N.  Y.,  p.  104. 
t  Ibid.     p.  105. 


72  MEMOIRS. 

may,  by  the  direction  of  authority,  be  changed  or  omitted  (as  in 
fact  in  cases  of  necessity  they  are  omitted),  without  affecting  the 
vaHdity  of  the  Sacrament.  But  as  they  are  prescribed  by  the 
Church,  acting  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  order 
the  better  to  show  forth  the  dignity  and  the  effects  of  the  Sacra- 
ments, and  to  dispose  us  to  receive  them  in  a  more  devout  man- 
ner, it  would  be  wrong  to  omit  them,  except  in  case  of  necessity." 
*"If  solemn  ceremonies  were  not  used  in  the  celebration  of  the 
Mass,  Catholic  belief  in  the  real  presence  of  Christ  upon  our  al- 
tars would  not  be  fitly  expressed.  If  the  faithful  saw  the  altar 
stripped  of  ornaments,  and  the  officiating  priests  without  dis- 
tinctive vestments,  not  bending  the  knee,  and  not  giving  any 
outward  token  of  worship  before  the  consecrated  elements,  their 
Catholic  instinct  would  be  shocked.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
they  see  the  great  pains  taken  and  the  great  cost  often  incurred 
for  the  becoming  adornment  of  the  house  of  God,  for  making  the 
Altar,  the  Tabernacle,  and  the  Throne  gleam  with  rich  ornaments; 
when  they  see  that  the  priests  and  their  assistants  are  robed  with 
distinctive  emblematic  vestments,  and  especially  when  they  see 
them  bend  their  knees  in  humble  adoration  before  the  consecrated 
Host  and  the  consecrated  Chalice,  their  faith  and  devotion  are 
strengthened,  and  the  practical  lesson  they  receive  is  likely  to  do 
them  more  good  than  any  sermon  on  the  subject." 

Concerning  the  Mass  the  Doctor  says:  f  "Let  us  consider 
these  externals,  first,  with  regard  to  the  ofiiciating  priest,  and 
afterwards  with  respect  to  the  people."  .  .  "The  Mass  ordinarily 
consists  of  the  following  things: — The  Forty-second  Psalm,  he- 
ginn'mg,  /icdzca  vie  Deics,  the  Conjiteor,  the  Introit,  Kyrie  Eleison, 
repeated  nine  times,  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  Collect,  the  Epistle  for 
the  Day,  the  Prayer,  Munda  cor  metmi,  the  Gospel  for  the  Day, 
the  Nicene  Creed,  the  Offertory,  part  of  the  Twenty-fifth  Psalm, 
Oblation  Prayer,  the  Prayer  called  Secret,  the  Preface,  the 
Sandus,  the  Canon,  or  prayers  according  to  solemn,  unvarying 
rule,  the  Consecration  of  the  Host,  the  Consecration  of  the  Wine, 
Prayers  after  Consecration,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Agnus  Dei,  three 
prayers  before  Communion,  Communion  of  the  Priests,  Prayers 
after  Communion,  the  Blessing  of  the  People,  the  last  Gospel, 
most  frequently  from  the  first  chapter  of  St.  John." 

*    Catholic  Belief,  Dr.  Bruno,  p.  io6. 
t  Ibid.     p.    107. 


CUSTOMS   PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.        73 

'''Continuing  he  says: — "Now,  it  appears  that  all  this  is 
thoroughly  spiritual,  and  without  any  ceremonial  formality,  es- 
pecially when  we  consider  that  the  greatest  part  of  this  is  said  or 
done  by  the  priest  in  secret,  that  is,  in  a  low  tone  of  voice." 
"What  is  less  important  in  the  Mass,  and  what  may  strictly  be 
called  ceremonial,  consists  in  the  priest  changing  his  position;  in 
his  reverently  bowing  the  head  and  kneeling;  in  kissing  the  altar 
and  paten;  in  joining  or  raising  his  hands;  in  looking  up  towards 
Heaven,  or  to  the  crucifix  on  the  altar;  in  making  repeatedly  the 
sign  of  the  Cross;  and  in  turning  towards  the  people  when  ad- 
dressing them,  as  when  he  says,  Domimts  vobiscuvi  and  Orate 
fratres. ' ' 

*"Men  are  struck  at  the  reflection  that  many  of  these  things 
Jesus  did,  and  that,  therefore,  they  cannot  be  called  valueless 
formalities,  unless  indeed  we  were  to  say  that  the  priest  does 
these  things  without  the  proper  interior  spirit,  which  would  be 
an  accusation  our  Lord  forbids  us  to  make  under  pain  of  sin: 
"Judge  not,  that  you  may  not  be  judged." 

"In  the  Mass  there  is  no  set  form  of  prayers  required  to  be 
repeated  after  the  priest  in  a  formal  way  by  the  people,  as  there 
invariably  is  in  Protestant  churches  and  chapels,  but  the  people 
are  left  free  to  follow  the  Mass  in  spirit,  either  meditating  on  the 
Passion  of  our  Lord,  or  making  some  acts  of  repentance,  love, 
praise,  adoration,  and  other  acts  of  devotion;  or  reciting  prayers, 
each  in  his  own  way,  in  keeping  with  each  one's  capacity,  needs 
and  desires;  or  following  the  Mass  according  to  the  direction  of 
the  book  of  devotion  which  each  worshipper  may  have  chosen 
for  his  own  use." 

There  may  not  be  very  much  formality  about  this  outline  of 
worship  and  ceiemonial  principles  as  stated  by  Dr.  Bruno;  but 
there  is  undoubtedly  a  goodly  quantity  of  fixity  in  their  use. 
Here  is  regulation  in  detail,  and  a  little  margin  for  personal  lib- 
erty. The  principle  might  be  stated: — That  formality  is  to  be 
used  which  the  Church  prescribes,  subject  to  cases  of  necessity. — 
The  Church  here  practically  becomes  the  priesthood,  inasmuch 
as  the  highest  act  of  worship,  the  Mass,  can  be  and  is  conducted 
while  the  people  are  absent,  as  shown  by  the  "Benediction  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament, "t  and  the  way  the  peo})le  who  are  present 
participate,  as  quoted  previously. 

*   Catholic  Belief,  Dr.  Uku.no,  p.  lo8.  t  Ibid.  p.  115. 


74  MEMOIRS. 

Ill  comparison  with  this  ceremonial  fixity  and  regulation  we 
may  cite  Dr.  Jacobs,  for  the  Lutheran  Church,  as  to  the  funda- 
mental basis  of  Lutheran  doctrine— the  doctrine  involves  the 
Word  and  the  minister  must  subscribe  to  it:*  "It  is  well  to  notice 
that  it  is  not  the  acceptance  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  but  the 
acceptance  of  its  doctrines  which  determines  the  Lutheran  char- 
acter of  a  teacher  or  Church  body."  This  subscription  to  the 
doctrine  underlies  the  whole  regulative  portion  of  the  Lutheran 
practice,  and  carries  with  it  the  weight  of  consentient  opinion  in 
regard  to  the  uniformity  which  the  Church  general  deems  desir- 
able in  her  forms  of  worship;  such  opinion  being  set  forth  in  her 
authorized  Liturgy,  subject  to  a  certain  liberty  in  things  unes- 
sential, as  circumstances  may  dictate. 

With  Lutherans,  therefore,  regulation  is  according  to  doc- 
trine, and  it  is  so  far  the  practical  expression  of  the  Church's 
life,  working  out  the  requirements  of  doctrine. 

Custom  may  be  called  the  unregulated  portion  of  practice, 
that  is,  unregulated  by  doctrinal  necessity;  and  it  derives  its 
privilege  from  the  doctrinally  unessential  features  of  the  Church's 
life,  and  the  exigencies  of  the  occasion  or  age,  according  to  the 
principle  that  "What  is  not  contrary  to  the  Word  of  God  may  be 
accepted."  Under  this  principle,  which  at  once  afTirms  Gospel 
liberty  and  excludes  legalism,  iconoclasm  and  fanaticism,  various 
adiaphoristic  customs  are  permissible,  which  the  Reformed  dic- 
tum, that  whatever  is  not  expressed  in  the  Word  of  God  is  for- 
bidden, affords  no  place.  The  Lutheran  spirit  does  not  foster 
anarchy  in  practice,  nor  can  it  countenance  "authority"  not  al- 
lowed in  the  Word  of  God. 

The  Lutheran  Church  does  not  reside  in  the  priesthood,  but 
is  found  in  the  "communion  of  saints;"  and  the  authority  of  the 
Church  resides  in  that  communion,  that  is,  the  primary  and  re- 
siduary source  of  Lutheran  authority  is  the  congregation,  the 
earthly  side  of  the  communion  of  saints. f  "The  true  Lutheran 
principle  of  congregational  right  and  authority  demands  the  co- 
operation of  the  congregation  in  the  Service;"  and  Dr.  Jacobs,  J 
"The  congregations  are  the  primary  bodies  through  which  this 
power  (of  Christ)  is  normally  exercised."     This  cooperation  is 

*    The  Doctrines  and  Usages  of  the  Lutheran  Church,     p.  96. 

t  Lectures  on  Liturgies,  Dr.  Spaeth. 

+    The  Doctrines  and  Usages  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  p.  106. 


CUSTOMS   PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF  THE   SACRAMENTS.        75 

seen  in  the  representative  production  called  "The  Order  of  Ser- 
vice" in  our  Church  Book,  wherein,  notwithstanding  Dr.  Bruno's 
restriction,  the  congregation  has  its  place.  If  Lutheran  doctrines 
are  measurably  correct,  Lutheran  members  cannot  be  excluded. 
Nevertheless  the  Church  is  not  made  up  of  externals  alone,  either 
in  practice  or  organization;  but  is  the  compact,  consentient  body 
of  l^elievers.  Forms  are  made  for  man  and  not  man  for  the 
forms. 

In  order  to  simplify  the  further  consideration  of  this  topic, 
and  to  eliminate  some  items  which  will  need  no  extended  refer- 
ence, it  may  he  well  to  state  that  the  concensus  of  opinion  of  the 
fathers  of  the  Lutheran  Church  is  that  neither  the  time  nor  the 
place  of  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments,  nor  the  qunntity 
and  quality  of  the  elements*  with  exceptions  to  be  noted  later, 
nor  the  personal  character  of  the  ministerf  affect  the  validit)-  of 
the  Sacrament.  The  prayers,  the  exhortations,  the  general 
Scripture  lessons,  the  laying  on  of  hands,  the  exorcisms,  signs  of 
the  cross,  standing,  kneeling,  etc.,  are  not  essentials.  The  pas- 
tor is  the  organ  of  the  congregation,  of  which  himself  is  a  part, 
so  that  his  character  and  his  intention  are  not  elements  of  validi- 
ty. Of  course,  the  character  of  the  minister  as  a  moral  example 
and  shining  light  are  of  consequence  to  the  life  of  the  Church, 
and  should  be  above  reproach.  So  too,  the  prayers.  Scripture 
lessons,  the  laying  on  of  hands  are  edifying,  and  fitting  for  the 
instruction  of  the  congregation,  calling  to  mind  the  vows  which 
have  been  made  by  the  members;  and  are  helpful  in  pre.serving 
and  impressing  upon  the  candidate  and  congregation  the  serious 
importance  of  the  Christian  life  and  duty.  They  are  not,  howev- 
er, essentials,  though  they  are  not  to  be  trifled  with  to  suit  the 
whim  of  the  person. 

BAPTISM. 

In  regard  to  baptism,  there  are  three  instances  of  adminis- 
tration to  be  noted,  viz: — Infant,  adult  and  emergency  baptism, 
or  Noth  Taufe.  In  each  instance  the  Sacrament  is  the  same.  It 
never  varies,  as  the  human  portions  or  practices  may.  That  is, 
the  essentials  of  the  Sacrament  never  change,  however  much  the 
circumstances  accompanying  the  administration  may. 

*  Baptist  System  Examined,  Seiss,   p.  185  sq. 

t  Schmidt's  Doctrinal  Theoloi:^y  of  the  Ev.  Lutheran  Church,  ed.  1S76,  pp. 
562-5.      Catholic  Beliefs  Dr.  Bruno,  p.  108  supra,  intention. 


7G  MEMOIRS. 

The  primary  regulation,  effective  both  for  pastor  and  con- 
gregation, is  to  see  to  the  validity  of  the  rite. 

Validity.  The  insistence  upon  the  validity  of  the  Sacrament 
is  absolutely  fundamental,  for  without  this  the  administration  is 
useless,  if  not  culpable  contempt  of  the  Lord's  command.* 

Without  going  into  the  doctrinal  side  of  the  Sacrament,  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  the  Sacrament  is  the  institution  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  as  such,  comes  to  us  with  all  the  power  and  authority 
of  His  Divine  personality.  No  man  has  the  self-assumed  privi- 
lege of  doing  or  refraining  from  doing  what  He  has  commanded. 

However,  it  is  not  appointed  in  every  case  what  details  shall 
be  fulfilled.  In  such  case  it  falls  to  the  duty  of  the  Church  gen- 
eral to  appoint  such  undetermined  portions,  so  far  as  occasion 
and  circumstances  warrant;  and  also  to  see  that  such  appoint- 
ments are  respected.  God  is  not  the  God  of  anarchy  but  of  or- 
der; and  His  Church  should  be  likeminded. 

The  validity  of  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism  rests  upon  three 
points,  none  of  which  are  subject  to  personal  human  liberty. 

One  essential  for  validity  is  that  there  shall  be  an  earthly  el- 
ement used.  This  element,  according  to  Scripture,  is  water.f 
It  may  be  noted  that  some  persons,  in  cases  of  necessity,  do  not 
consider  water  to  be  the  sole  possible  element,  where  water  is  not 
obtainable;  but  this  is  not  allowed  by  others,];  and  so  far  as  we 
are  concerned,  water  would  seem  to  be  the  only  element.  The 
real  question  to  be  decided  is  whether  the  element  is  superior  to 
the  Sacrament  as  commanded;  or  whether,  without  water  there 
can  be  a  Sacrament. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  quality  of  the  water  is  not  essen- 
tial; but  decency  would  insist  that  it  be  clean,  as  well  as  the  ves- 
sel and  the  minister. 

While  the  Lutheran  Church  does  not  deny  that  immersion  is 
baptism,  providing  other  essentials  are  present,  yet  the  practice 
is  sprinkling  or  pouring. § 

*  Schmidt's /)<?<:/.  TheoL  of  the  Ev.Lulh.  Church,  ed.  1876.  pp.  540-4,  554  sq. 

t  Ibid.  pp.  543-6.     Book  of  Concord,  Jacohs,  p.  468. 

t  Dr.  Spaeth's  Lectures  on  Catechetics.  Book  of  Concord,  Jacobs,  p.  82. 
The  Catholic  Christian  Instructed,  Dr.  Challoner,  N.  Y.,  p.  24.  Westminster 
Conf. of  Faith,  Phila.,  1896,  p.  146.  The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  M.  E.  Church, 
1880,  N.  v.,  p.  265.  Book  of  Common  Prayer^  1891,  pp.  261,  247.  Conservative 
Keformation,  Krauth,  p.  519.      Church  Book,  p.  347. 

§  Elements  of  Religion,  Dr.  Jacobs,  p.  173.  Bap.  Sys.Exam.,  Seiss,  p.  189. 
Bk.  of  Com.  Prayer,  Episcopal,  1891,  p.  257.  Conservative  Rcf.,  Krauth,  p.  519. 
Schmidt's  Doct.  Theol.  of  the  Ev.  Luth.  Church,  ed.  1876,  p.  560. 


CUSTOMS  PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.         77 

The  second  essential  to  the  validity  of  baptism  is  to  use  the 
words  of  institution,  viz: — "In  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of 
the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,'"  in  other  words,  the  trinitarian 
formula.  The  minister  has  not  the  privilege  of  making  a  formu- 
la to  suit  hini.self,  for  it  is  Christ's  institution. 

The  third  essential  of  validity  is  that  the  element  shall  be 
applied  to  the  person  (or  head)  of  the  candidate;  preferably  at 
the  pronunciation  of  the  personal  names  of  the  Trinity.* 

A  distinction  is  made  between  the  validity  of  the  Sacrament 
and  the  benefits  derived  therefrom.  The  validity  depends  upon 
the  intention  and  purpose  of  Christ,  and  the  act  of  the  congrega- 
tion, administered  through  the  administrator,  according  to 
Christ's  Word,  and  not  the  intent  of  the  administrator,  as  set 
forth  by  the  Catholic  Church, f  but  the  benefits  depend  upon  the 
faith  or  state  of  the  recipient. 

The  general  rule  for  baptism  is  that  it  should  be  administered 
in  the  presence  of  the  congregation,  in  church,  except  cases  of 
necessity,  and  by  the  pastor,  or  ordained  minister.  The  West- 
minster Confession  (p.  145)  allows  only  the  minister. 

Infant  Baptism.  It  may  not  be  admitted  that  infant  baptism 
is  a  regulation ;  but  it  is  the  purpose  just  now  to  take  it  in  that 
sense.  Among  Lutherans  there  is  no  question  that  infants  are  to 
be  baptized;  but  the  practices  going  on  around  us  in  other  denom- 
hiations,  or  the  failure  to  practice,  is  very  prevalent.  Not  only 
so,  but  some  are  hostile  to  the  rite,  and  we  feel  the  reflex  of  the 
hostility  in  a  tendency  to  let  such  matters  pass  without  concern. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  Catholic  Church  demands  infant  bap- 
tism as  "absolutely  necessary"!  while  the  Lutheran  Church 
demands  it  as  necessary,  or  rather  the  Word  of  Christ  and  His 
provision  demand  it.  It  has  been  a  struggle  ever  since  the  Refor- 
mation to  keep  this  truth  before  the  Church,  because  the  lax  sac- 
ramental views  of  many,  and  the  hostile  views  of  others  lead  into 
carelessness  and  denial. § 


*    7  he  Lutheran  Cyclopedia. 

t  Schmidt's  Doct.  Theol.  of  Luth.  Church,  ed.  1876,  pp.  472,  550,  546.  The 
Cath.  Chris.  Insir.,  Dr.  Challoner,  N.  Y.,  p.  24.     Ca/h.  Bel.,  Dr.  Bruno,  p.  82. 

%  Cath.  Bel.,  Dr.  Bruno,  p.  81.  Conservative  Ref.,  Kkauth,  pp.  430,  444. 
Schmidt's  Doct.  Theol.  of  Luth.  Church,  ed.  1876,  p.  554-3.  Book  of  Concord, 
Jacobs,  p.  471. 

§  Wcstviinster  Conf.  of  Faith,  p.  1S5.  Book  of  Concord,  Jacohs,  p.  174. 
Conservative  Kef.,  Kkauth,  pp.  430,  574. 


78  MEMOIRS. 

The  Lutheran  Church  holds  that  the  infant  is  planted  into 
Christ,  and  is  made  a  member  of  the  Church  of  Christ  by  Bap- 
tism.* The  indifference  and  hostility  of  others  persistently  resist 
the  manifest  intention  of  Christ;  and  by  so  doing,  they  virtually 
cast  off  the  babes  like  waifs  on  the  street.  They,  indeed,  believe, 
in  a  way,  that  the  adult  is  made  an  heir  of  Christ  and  His  merits 
by  adoption,  through  baptism  outwardly,  and  faith  inwardly; 
but  their  babes  are  made  spiritual  orphans  and  foundlings.  Par- 
ents are  the  natural  guardians  of  their  own  children,  they  have 
brought  them  into  the  world  through  no  Divine  necessity,  but  of 
their  own  action;  yet  they  ignore  their  spiritual  responsibility  to 
the  spiritual  nature  of  their  child,  which  is  just  as  real  as  the 
physical.  They  affect  to  cast  the  helpless  little  one  upon  the  all- 
embracing  love  of  God,  and  thus  evade  their  responsibility  to 
the  whole  nature  of  their  offspring.  Christian  parents  esteem 
fellowship  in  the  Church;  but  practically  exclude  their  little  ones 
from  the  same  privilege.! 

We  do  not  say  that  the  L,ord  will  not  take  up  the  children 
of  those  who  forsake  them,  but  we  do  say  they  forsake  them  and 
throw  off  on  God  their  own  responsibility,  which  should  be  as 
inalienable  as  physical  or  moral  care.  J 

Of  course,  there  is  a  doctrine  at  the  root  of  the  irresponsibil- 
ity, but  the  doctrine  is  man-made,  while  the  responsibility  is  God- 
made.  The  Lord  gave  the  Sacrament,  and  the  Lord  gave  the 
child,  and  the  Lord  gave  to  us  the  duty  to  obey.  It  is  not  a 
wild  guess  that  the  Lord  will  also  adjust  the  Sacrament  to  the 
child  if  any  adjustment  is  called  for. 

It  is  a  Lutheran  principle  that  the  adiaphoron  becomes  fun- 
damental under  certain  conditions,  much  more  then,  in  this  age 
of  biased  interpretation,  devitalized  sacraments  and  creed  discred- 
iting, infant  baptism  becomes  a  regulation. 

Instruction.  With  this  regulation  goes  another,  scarcely  less 
important,  and  scarcely  less  ignored.  This  is  instruction  in  the 
catechism. 

The  child  is  in  profound  need  of  knowing  the  will  of  God, 
so  that  he  may  do  it.  It  is  also  a  profound  need  that  the  child 
know  what  to  believe,  not  alone  for  the  knowledge  sake,  but  for 


*  El.  of  Relig.,  Jacobs,  pp.  165,  179.    Biblical  Psychology^  Delitzsch,  p.  413. 
t  Bap.  Sys.  Exam.,  Seiss,  pp.  322,  368. 
X   Conservative  Ref.,  Krauth,  p.  438. 


CUSTOMS   PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF  THE   SACRAMENTS.        79 

his  soul's  sake,  that  he  may  apprehend  Christ  aright,  make  a 
good  confession,  and  be  thoroughly  furnished  unto  all  good 
works. 

Communion  through  prayer,  comfort  in  trial,  strength  in 
adversity  are  certain  needs,  which  are  provided  for  in  wise  in- 
struction; to  say  nothing  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  his 
own  adult  life  which  need  a  solid  foundation,  and  a  vital  realiza- 
tion. 

Sponsors.  Dependent  upon  infant  baptism,  is  the  custom  of 
having  sponsors  to  stand  for  and  with  the  infant;  to  take  vows 
in  its  behalf  assuring  its  proper  up-bringing  and  training  in 
Christian  truth,  until  the  child  assumes  responsibility  for  itself. 

The  Lutheran  Church,  as  do  the  Catholic  and  Episcopal, 
recognizes  this  institution;  and  endeavors  to  have  spon.sors  fulfil 
their  whole  duty  under  the  serious  import  of  the  assumed  vows. 
But  it  is  not  to  be  supposed,  that  the  Christian  parents  lessen 
their  obligations  thereby.  They  are  the  natural  sponsors  always, 
and  without  choice;  but  other  persons  whether  relatives  or  friends 
are  also  admitted  to  the  function,  by  their  voluntary  assumption 
of  the  required  vows. 

Sponsors  must  be  believers,  in  good  standing  in  the  Church, 
preferably  members  of  the  Church  in  which  baptism  occurs 
(Catholic  Church  admits  only  Catholics,  and  sponsorship  is  an 
impediment  to  marriage;*  Episcopal  Church  asks  two  male  and 
one  female  sponsor  for  a  male  child,  two  female  and  one  male  for 
a  female  childf).  The  sponsorial  vows  are  such  that  a  member 
of  another  denomination  could  not  very  consistently  take  them, 
and  really  ought  not,  unless  their  own  belief  accords  sufficiently 
with  the  baptizing  Church  so  as  to  permit  such  care  as  is  in- 
volved.    Honor  dictates  that  the  vows  be  kept  inviolate. 

Persons  unbaptized,  persons  not  in  good  standing,  and  those 
who  have  made  a  breach  of  wedlock,  whether  parents  or  others, 
members  or  not,  are  not  fit  subjects  for  sponsorship.  Sin  lietli 
at  the  door. 

Personally,  it  would  seem  to  be  wise  if  this  custom  were  to 
go  the  way  of  all  the  world.  For — If  the  Church  is  the  earthly 
source  of  authority,  it  ought  also  to  be  spiritually  responsible  for 
its  own,  as  the  parents  are  naturally  and  spiritually.     2.   If  the 

•    The  Cath.  Chris.  Inslr.,  Dk.  Challoner,  p.  29. 
t  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  1 891,  p.  247. 


80  MEMOIRS. 

Church  prays  for  them  at  baptism,  she  ought  to  work  for  them 
afterward.  3.  The  shifting  of  the  population  at  this  day  is  in- 
imical to  care.  "Out  of  sight,  out  of  mind."  4.  In  the  event  of 
the  parents'  death,  the  laws  of  the  land  give  the  control  of  mi- 
nors into  the  hands  of  guardians,  which  does  not  legally  call  for 
spiritual  oversight,  and  may  indeed  install  a  guardian  hostile  to 
all  religion.  5.  Christenings,  which  are  misnomers  today, 
thanks  to  laxity,  may  often  be  spelled  carousals;  but  even  when 
they  are  not  so  spelled,  the  parents  of  the  child  often  have  spon- 
sors more  for  the  sake  of  the  possible  temporal  advantage  to  the 
child  than  anything  else. 

Here  it  is  well  to  note  that  infant  baptism  is  not  to  be  re- 
peated, if  reasonable  assurance  is  given  of  a  former  correct  bap- 
tism, baptismal  hallucinations,  notwithstanding.  This  is  not 
because  of  a  ''character  mdelibUis''-'^  but  because  of  the  Divine  or- 
igin of  the  Sacrament. t 

Adult  Baptism.  Adult  baptism  differs  from  infant  baptism 
in  respect  to  the  candidate,  and  not  in  respect  to  the  Sacrament. 
The  latter  is  fixed  by  the  Word.  In  respect  to  the  person  the 
difference  is  in  age,  and  the  requirement  is  that  he  have  faith, 
personal  and  publicly  confessed.  In  order  that  he  may  be  able 
to  give  a  reason  for  the  hope  that  is  in  him,  he  is  to  be  instructed 
before  baptism,  in  like  manner  as  the  one  baptized  in  infancy  is 
instructed  for  confirmation.  He  has  no  sponsors,  for  he  is  self- 
responsible.  | 

He  is  baptized  upon  the  confession  of  the  Lutheran  faith 
whereas  the  infant  is  baptized  upon  the  general  faith,  or  Apos- 
tle's Creed. 

By  baptism,  the  adult  is  made  a  member  of  the  Church,  all 
the  prerequisites  being  present.  Confirmation  of  the  adult  is  a 
subdivision  of  adult  baptism,  but  is  not  the  actual  admissionary 
rite.  Where  congregational  charters  require  confirmation,  that 
is  legal,  and  belongs  to  Caesar;  but  confirmation  is  purely  human, 
though  desirable  for  the  adult.  Nevertheless,  it  is  scarcely  con- 
sistent to  debar  from  the  I^ord's  Supper  because  the  Bishop  has 
»  Cath.  Bel.,  Dr.  Bruno,  p.  82. 

t  Book  of  Concord,  Jacobs,  p.  472.     Schmidt's  ZJo^Y.   Theol.  of  Luth.  Church, 
ed.  1876,  pp.  569-13.       VVestminsler  Con/  of  Faith,  Phiia.,  1896,  p    149. 

X  Schmidt's  Doct.  Theol.  of  Luth.  Ch.,  pp.  564-9.  Bap.  Sys.  Exam.,  Seiss, 
p.  321.     Dr.  Fry's  Seminary  Dictation  on  Pastoral  Theology. 


CUSTOMS  PERTAINING  TO   USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.         81 

not  laid  his  hands  upon  the  baptized  adult,*  for  that  supersedes 
the  Divine  institution  by  a  human  one.  The  Episcopal  Church 
excludes  from  the  Lord's  Supper  until  confirmation.  A  similar 
objection  lies  against  the  probationary  system,  which  follows  up- 
on adult  baptism  ;t  besides  this,  there  is  suggested  the  tacit  fear 
of  defection,  the  tacit  questioning  of  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spir- 
it to  keep  one,  and  the  virtual  separation  of  the  visible  from  the 
invisible  Church. 

However,  stringency  upon  adult  baptism  is  necessary,  be- 
cause the  candidate  thus  enters  the  very  life  of  the  Church,  as 
well  as  its  activity  in  and  before  the  world.  All  the  privileges  of 
Church  membership  are  his  when  once  he  becomes  a  member, 
and  he  cannot  be  deprived  of  them  for  insufiicient  causes;  and 
more  than  this  the  male  candidate,  or  member,  is  a  potential  of- 
ficer of  the  congregation,  with  full  power  to  influence  and  affect 
the  Church's  life  to  the  extent  of  his  capacity;!  wherefore  care  is 
necessary.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention  that  adult  baptism 
should  occur  in  the  presence  of  the  congregation,  at  a  regular 
Service,  and  be  administered  by  the  minister. 

Eviergcncy  Baptism.  In  this  instance,  as  in  the  preceding 
instances,  there  is  no  difference  in  the  Sacrament,  per  se.  The 
variations  are  due  to  circumstances,  and  are  in  unessentials. 

Whether  the  candidate  be  infant  or  adult  the  degree  of  ne- 
cessity, the  immanence  of  death,  for  it  is  only  in  such  cases  we 
have  emergency  baptism,  controls  the  externals.  The  esentials 
are  reducible  to  a  few  moments  of  time,  being  the  element,  the 
application  and  the  use  of  the  institutional  words.  Upon  the  oc- 
casion of  less  seriousness  more  of  the  prescribed  forms  are  to  be 
used.     This  applies  to  infants  onl}'^,  however, 

Upon  very  pressing  circumstances,  the  pastor  should  offici- 
ate, but,  if  he  cannot  be  gotten  promptly  enough,  then  a  Chris- 
tian, or  failing  a  Christian,  another  person  may  administer,  but 
always  in  the  proper  manner.  The  baptism  should  then  be  re- 
ported to  the  pastor,  with  the  evidence  of  proper  baptism,  and  he 
shall  make  proper  record  and  public  statement  in  confirmation  of 
the  act.  If  the  person  lives  and  the  baptism  be  valid,  it  shall 
not  be  repeated;  if  of  doubtful  validity,  it  should  be  properly  ad- 
ministered. 

*    Book  of  Common  Prayer,  1891,  p.  257. 

t    The  Doctrines  and  Diicipline  of  M.E.  Church,    1880,  N.  Y.,  pp.   272-279. 

X  Schmidt's  Doct.  Theol.  of  Luth.  Church,  1876,  pp.  552-14,  555. 


82  MEMOIRS. 

The  adult  person,  near  to  death,  may  be  baptized  if  he  is 
sufficiently  conscious  to  understand  the  act,  and  to  make  true  and 
proper  confession,  however  abbreviated  it  may  be.  This  virtual- 
ly requires  the  pastor  to  officiate. 

Dr.  Fry*  would  withhold  baptism  from  a  candidate  who  re- 
fused to  receive  the  Lord's  Supper,  on  the  ground  that  he  does 
not  apprehend  the  purpose  of  the  Sacrament;  in-as-much  as  the 
Lord's  Supper  should  follow  adult  baptism. 

The  Catholic  Church  admits  the  baptism  of  blood,  for  those 
martyred,  and  the  baptism  of  desire,  or  by  desire,  when  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  occasion  prevent  formal  baptism,  and  the  person 
desire  it;t  it  is  possible  in  this  Church  to  receive  three  indelible 
characters,  through  baptism,  confirmation  and  ordination. 

THE   lord's   supper. 

As  with  baptism,  so  with  the  Lord's  Supper,  there  are  es- 
sentials and  unes.sentials.  The  essentials  are  not  subject  to 
Christian  liberty,  but  the  unessentials  may  be  so.  There  are  al- 
so some  practices  which  for  the  sake  of  truth  and  doctrine  are  to 
be  rejected. 

Among  the  rejected  items  we  place  that  practice,  which  de- 
pends upon  the  purely  memorial  conception,  and  makes  a  distinc- 
tion between  the  consecration  and  distribution,  previously  men- 
tioned. The  practice  which  withholds  one  element,  which  carries 
the  Host  around,!  the  practice  which  considers  one  consecration 
a  permanent  one,§  that  offers  the  Sacrament  for  the  dead,  or 
during  the  absence  of  the  worshippers,  or  if  present  not  distribu- 
ting to  them;  also  that  the  priest  makes  the  Sacrament. 

It  is  not  a  sacrifice  which  the  priest  offers  up;  it  is  not  medic- 
inal;||  it  is  not  magical;**  it  is  not  to  be  used  to  cure  diseases,  it 
cannot  be  partaken  spiritually  while  the  Host  is  offered  up.ff 

Among  the  non-essentials  are  the  language,  English,  Ger- 
man; the  kind  of  grain,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  rice  flour;  the  shape 
of  the  loaf,  wafer  or  loaf,  round  or  square;  leavened  or  unleav- 
ened; broken  or  unbroken;  how  much  is  received;  genuflections 
at  reception;  as  to  the  wine,  whether  red  or  white,  mixed  with 
water  or  not;  if  the  bread  may  be  leavened  or  unleavened,  wine 

*  Sem.  Did.  on  Pastoral  Theol. 

t  Cath.  Bel.,  Bruno,  p.  82.     X  H'id.  117.     §  Ibid.  115,  116.     ft  Ibid.  122. 

X  Schmidt's  Z^fJc/.  Theol.  of  Luih.  Ck.,  547,  591.     ||  Ibid.  594.     **  Ibid.  547. 

II  The  Cath.  Chris.  Instr.,  Challoner,  p.  76. 


CUSTOMS   PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.        83 

may  be  fermented  or  unfermented.*  But  each  element  should 
be  genuine.  Whether  the  reception  be  in  the  hand  or  directly  in 
the  month  is  not  essential;  but  the  mouth  is  to  actually  receive  it 
one  way  or  the  other.f  Standing  or  kneeling  is  immaterial; 
though  standing  seems  to  imply  a  feast  rather  than  a  fast.  J 

In  cases  of  private  or  sick  communion,  the  Service  may  be 
abbreviated  to  the  confession,  which  also  may  be  abbreviated, 
and  the  essentials.  § 

A  rule  is  given  that  only  the  minister  may  administer  this 
Sacrament;! I  but  some  take  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  charac- 
ter or  intention  of  the  administrator  is  not  an  impediment  to  va- 
lidity;** but  of  course  this  does  not  mean  that  the  minister  may 
be  anything  he  pleases. 

It  is  a  standing  rule  that  preparatory  or  confessional  Services 
shall  precede  the  Communion, ft  so  that  members,  by  proper 
meditation  and  preparation  may  approach  the  table  worthily.  J | 

This  Service  gives  opportunity  for  self-examination  and  also 
for  the  Church  examination  through  the  Council,  where  this  fol- 
lowed, of  those  who  purpose  to  commune.  Gerhard  would  ex- 
clude those  who  do  not  examine  themselves,  those  who  cannot, 
or  do  not  discern  the  Lord's  body,  among  which  are  those  uncon- 
scious, those  who  do  not  show  forth  the  Lord's  death,  persi.stent 
heretics,  notorious  sinners,  the  excommunicated,  the  possessed, 
maniacs,  demented  and  infamous  persons. §§ 

The  Westminster  Confession  (p.  152)  says  that  after  the 
consecration  the  minister  is  to  "take  and  brake  the  bread,  to  take 
the  cup,  and  ....  to  give  both  to  the  communicants;  but  to 
none  who  are  not  then  present  in  the  congregation."  Also  (p. 
154)  "Wherefore  all  ignorant  and  ungodly  persons,  as  they  are 
unfit  to  enjoy  Communion  with  Him  (the  Lord),  so  they  are  un- 

*  The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  M .  E.  Church,  1880,  N.  Y.,  p.  284.  prcscrilies 
unfermented.  t  Ibid.  p.  291. 

t  Schmidt's  DocL  Theol.  of  Luth.  Church,  ed.  1876,  p.  582.  ||  Ibid.  pp. 

548,  593.  594-  **  I>>i-^-  pp.  548-10.  §§  Ibid.  p.  592. 

X  Dr.  Fry's  Sent.  Diet,  on  Pastoral  Theol. 

§  In  The  Doctrines  and  Discifline  of  M.  E.  Ch.,  p.  295,  the  Elder  may  omit 
all  but  the  consecratory  prayer,  the  invitation  and  the  confession,  when  time  is  short. 

II  Liturgies,  Horn,  p.  41. 

**   Book  of  Concord,  Jacohs,  p.  477.  §§   Ibid.  p.  614. 

ft   Church  Book. 

XX  In  I'he  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  M.  E.  Church,  p.  287,  the  pastor  con- 
fesses for  the  people. 


84  MEMOIRS. 

worthy  of  the  I^ord's  Table,  and  cannot,  without  great  sin  against 
Christ,  while  they  remain  such,  partake  of  these  holy  mysteries, 
or  be  admitted  thereto."  The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  the 
M.  E.  Church,  (p.  287)  admits  those  who  are  penitent,  are  char- 
itable and  in  love  with  neighbors,  and  purpose  to  live  a  new  life, 
following  the  commandments  of  God. 

The  faith  of  the  recipient  does  not  constitute  the  Sacrament 
but  affects  his  benefits,*  nor  does  it  invalidate  it. 

The  validity  of  the  Communion  rests  upon  the  two  elements 
of  bread  and  wine  being  present  and  being  distributed  and  re- 
ceived by  the  participant  and  the  use  of  the  words  of  institution 
as  given  by  Christ. f 

It  follows,  then,  that  only  baptized  and  confirmed  or  received 
members,  and  those  in  good  standing,  those  who  have  the  mind 
of  Christ  respecting  the  Sacrament,  and  the  worthy,  are  eligible 
to  it. 

The  appointed  place  is  the  church,  the  appointed  time  is  a 
regular  meeting,  without  a  general  invitation,  the  preparatory 
Service  is  the  occasion  to  settle  such  matters;  and  the  appointed 
recipients  are  those  who  are  worthily  prepared.  | 

The  act  of  consecration  seems  to  lie  in  the  distribution  and 
reception  of  the  elements  in  connection  w'ith  the  words  of  insti- 
tution. §  The  Methodist  Episcopal  consecration  would  appear  to 
be  found  in  the  consecratory  prayer;||  the  Westminster  Confession 
gives  no  formula  direct.** 

Ira   M.  Wallace. 

Morgantown,    W.    Va. 


*  Schmidt's  Dod.  Theol.  of  the  Ev.  Luth.  Church,  ed.  1876.  p.  549.     t  Ibtd. 
pp.  547-8,  587-11-  §  m^i-  PP-  547-8. 

t  Biblical   Psychology,    Delitzsch,    p.    412.      The    Cath.     Chris.   Inslr.,    Dr. 
Challoner,  N.  Y.,  p.  87.     Cath.  Bel.,  Dr.  Bruno,  pp.  100-105.     §  ^^'''^-  P-  '16. 

X  Liturgies,  Horn,  p.  ii8.  t  Ibid.  pp.  41-44,  1 18. 

§  Eletnents  0/ Religion,  TiK.  ]ACOB'i,  Tp.  171.  %  Ibid.   p.    166. 

II    The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  M.  E.  Church,  p.  289. 
Westminster  Conf.  of  Faith,  p.  152. 


♦« 


LITURGICAL   ACCURACY   AND   SPIRITUALITY. 


Before  treating  of  our  theme  itself  it  will  be  profitable,  if  indeed 
not  absolutely  necessary,  to  consider  a  few  questions  which  cer- 
tainly are  germane  to  it,  and  though  the  ground  suggested  by 
these  questions  has  already  been  covered  by  previous  papers  pub- 
lished in  the  Memoirs  of  this  Association  certain  phases  which 
have  to  do  directly  with  the  subject  in  hand  must  be,  if  only 
briefly,  touched  on. 

I.       WHY    WE    HAVE    A    LITURGY. 

The  question  whj^  we  have  a  Liturgy  is  not  now  nearl}'  so 
pressing  as  it  was  a  generation  ago;  for  this  we  are  profoundly 
thankful.  The  Lutheran  Church  is  a  liturgical  Church.  To 
quote  the  striking  and  eloquent  words  of  one  of  her  sons:  "During 
the  last  fifty  years  the  Lutheran  Church  of  this  country  may  be 
said  to  have  been  in  a  steady  process  of  recovery,  finding  herself 
again  with  all  the  treasures  that  had  been  her  inheritance  since 
the  days  of  the  great  Reformation.  She  had,  indeed,  wandered 
away  from  her  Father's  house  where  there  was  bread  enough  and 
to  spare.  She  was  begging  for  bread  at  the  door  of  strangers, 
and  perishing  with  hunger.  But  at  last  the  time  came  when  she 
said:  'I  will  arise  and  go  to  my  Father, — to  the  Rock  from  w^hich 
I  was  hewn.'  And  so  she  returned  to  the  same  experience  which 
the  reckless  and  deluded  son  in  the  parable  made  when  he  came 
home  to  the  fatted  calf,  the  best  robe,  the  ring  and  the  shoes,  the 
feast  and  the  music.  Thus  our  dear  Church,  in  the  time  of  her 
gracious  revival,  returned  to  the  sound,  substantial  Gospel  doc- 
trine of  the  fathers  and  to  the  beautiful  robe  of  her  glorious  Ser- 
vice." It  is  true  there  are  still  a  few  prodigals  who  claim  their 
right  to  do  with  the  portion  of  goods  that  falleth  to  them  as  they 
please,  who  have  no  Liturgy  or  their  own  substitute  for  a  Litur- 
gy, or  a  crippled  and  stunted  Liturgj',  but  their  number  is  surely 

(Ixxxv) 


86  MEMOIRS. 

growing  less,  and  even  aliens  no  longer  class  the  Lutheran  Church 
with  the  non-liturgical  denominations. 

The  practical  unanimity  with  which,  at  least  the  English 
portion  of  our  Church,  has  accepted  the  Common  Service,  is  the 
strongest  argument  for  the  use  of  a  Liturgy  in  congregational 
worship.  Much  more  than  in  the  Anglican  denomination  our 
use  of  a  common  form  of  Divine  Worship  is  a  proof  of  the  fact 
that  our  congregations  themselves  need  and  want  a  Liturgy,  for 
the  Episcopalian  must  have  his  Liturgy  because  his  Church  pro- 
claims its  universal  use  as  one  of  her  fundamental  and  irrefraga- 
ble laws,  while  the  Lutheran  must  have  his  Liturgy  only  because 
his  heart  cries  out  for  it;  with  him  it  is  a  matter  of  personal  con- 
viction more  than  Church-loyalty. 

At  least  this  should  be  so.  And  yet  we  can  hardly  ignore 
the  fact  that  in  some  of  our  congregations  the  Liturgy  owes  its 
place  and  use  more  to  the  sense  of  loyalty  to  the  Church  which 
has  provided  it  and  urges  its  use  than  to  a  real  desire  and  love 
for  it  on  the  part  of  the  congregation.  Here  then  the  question 
"Why  have  a  Liturgy?"  is  still  important  and  an  answer  very  nec- 
essary, and  we  venture  to  give  an  answer  though  the  answer  has 
been  given,  one  would  think,  often  enough. 

1.  We  need  and  have  a  Liturgy  because  we  need  and  must 
have  congregational  worship.  "The  authority  of  Christ  as  dis- 
tinctly requires  common  prayer  as  it  requires  prayer  in  secret. 
If  He  said:  'Thou,  when  thou  pray  est,  enter  into  thy  closet,'  He 
also  said:  'After  this  manner  pray  ye,  Our  Father  Who  art  in 
Heaven.'  The  last  as  clearly  implies  a  social  act  as  the  first  im- 
plies a  solitary  act;  and,  in  enjoining  the  duty,  He  also  gave  the 
form  of  words  to  be  made  use  of .  .  .  .  The  first  devotional  ut- 
terance, therefore,  of  the  disciples,  was  common  prayer,"  It 
should  be  clear  to  every  one  that  there  can  be  no  true  congrega- 
tional worship  without  words  and  forms  which  express  not  pri- 
vate and  personal  but  public  and  universal  needs,  which  convey 
universal  gifts. 

2.  We  need  and  have  this  particular  Liturgy,  because  it  is 
rooted  in  the  fundamentals  of  congregational  worship  found  in 
the  true  Church  of  Christ  from  the  days  of  the  Apostles  and  is 
an  expression  of  faith  as  well  as  of  devotion,  an  assurance  of  Di- 
vine blessing  (reception  of  Divine  gifts)  as  well  as  an  offering  of 
Divine  honor  in  words  of  praise,  prayer  and  confession. 


LITURGICAL   ACCURACY   AND   SPIRITUALITY.  87 

In  a  series  of  lectures  on  "The  Prayer  Book  and  the  Chris- 
tian Life"  Archdeacon  Tiffany  says:  [In  it]  "the  worshipper 
voices  his  prayers  and  praises  in  the  language  of  other  men  and 
other  times.  No  objection  need  lie  against  such  worship  as  ar- 
chaic and  artificial,  as  a  crass  conservatism  which  cramps  worship 
by  restricting  its  expression  to  an  ancient  formula,  and  by  depre- 
ciating the  utterance  of  present  wants  in  the  language  of  the 
present  hour,  for  the  fundamental  wants  of  human  nature  and 
the  essential  adoration  of  the  heart  are  the  same  in  all  ages. 
What  has  once  expressed  them  well  has  capacity  still  to  utter 
them.  Common  worship  can  only  voice  the  fundamental  and, 
because  fundamental,  the  common  wants  of  men.  The  special 
exigency  of  each  individual  must  find  its  expression  in  the  closet. 
'The  heart  knoweth  its  own  bitterness,  and  the  stranger  inter- 
meddleth  not  with  its  joy.'  In  the  congregation  we  must  express 
what  we  share  in  common,  one  with  another.  If  ours  is  to  be 
common  worship,  not  individualistic,  a  common  form  must  fash- 
ion it.  It  cannot  depend  upon  any  man's  mood,  nor  express 
itself  through  any  one  man's  interpretation.  The  demand  of 
common  worship  is  for  common  utterance.  Now  what  common 
utterance  can  promise  so  much  completeness  as  that  which  is 
common,  not  merely  to  one  community  or  to  one  age,  but  which 
is  replete  with  the  aspiration  and  supplication  of  all  the  ages; 
which  is  not  a  modern  manufacture  but  an  ancient  growth;  which 
condenses  into  itself  the  sighing  and  singing  of  hearts  long  since 
at  rest,  together  with  the  exaltations  and  the  plaints  of  those  still 
compassed  about  with  the  trials  and  the  joys  of  this  present 
time? 

"There  was  temptation  enough  at  the  time  of  its  [the  Prayer 
Book's]  formation  to  cut  off  altogether  from  past  usages  which 
had  been  so  overladen  with  abuse.  But  the  liturgical  instinct 
was  keen  and  subtle  enough  to  respond  to  the  vibrant  touch  and 
living  association  of  the  old  forms  of  devotion.  The  Reformers 
did  not  think  they  were  cutting  themselves  off  from  the  true  life 
of  the  past.  They  were  reaffirming  it  rather  by  their  excision  of 
so  much  cumbrous  and  illegitimate  overgrowth,  which  hid  the 
form  and  perverted  the  spirit  of  that  past.  They  felt  the  more 
drawn  to  the  heroes  of  the  age  of  primitive  simplicity,  in  that 
they  were  striving  to  restore  that  primitive  simplicity.  They 
would  not  make  or  declare  themselves  ecclesiastical  orphans  by 


88  MEMOIRS. 

rejection  of  the  fathers.  The  fires  of  devotion  which  burned 
anew  in  them  leaped  in  response  to  the  enkindling  devotions  of 
the  olden  time.  Thus  out  of  that  past  they  drew  those  matchless 
forms  and  set  them  to  our  lips,  so  that,  with  hearts  attuned  to 
the  same  sanctity  of  desire,  the  mouth  might  speak  with  the 
same  melody  of  utterance." 

The  closing  paragraph  of  this  eloquent  defense  of  and  tribute 
to  the  Liturgy  leads  us  directly  to  the  third  point  we  wish  to 
make  and  this  is  really  the  point  of  our  whole  subject: 

3.  We  need  and  have  our  Liturgy  because  its  proper  use  is 
the  surest  method  of  begetting  and  developing  a  deep  spirituality 
in  the  congregation. 

If  this  cannot  be  demonstrated  then  every  use  of  liturgical 
forms,  whether  accurate  or  inaccurate,  is  vain.  It  will  not  help 
the  Liturgy  to  prove  that  it  satisfies  the  aesthetic  sense,  that  it  is 
art,  a  thing  of  beauty  and  a  joy  forever.  Some  men  have  no 
aesthetic  sense  and  even  its  perfect  gratification  may  leave  the 
soul  empty  and  starving.  Nor  are  men  savad  by  art.  True  we 
are  bidden  to  worship  the  Lord  in  the  beauty  of  holiness;  but  it 
is  the  beauty  of  H01.INKSS.  Holiness  is  the  one  supreme  desider- 
atum of  worship.  It  is  the  one  great  object  of  God's  work  for 
man,  of  God's  revelation  to  man.  The  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  is 
the  Holy  Christian  Church,  its  members  are  the  Communion  of 
Saints.  To  save  men  not  merely  from  final  destruction,  from 
eternal  doom,  from  hell-fire,  but  to  save  men  from  present  de- 
struction, from  the  world  and  the  flesh  and  the  devil,  from  the 
bondage  of  sin  and  the  service  of  Satan,  to  convert  and  regenerate 
and  sanctify  them,  for  this  Christ  gave  His  life,  for  this  the  Holy 
Ghost  now  works  in  His  Church  with  Word  and  Sacraments. 
Only  the  true  faith  can  make  truly  holy,  but  only  true  holiness 
proves  the  faith  true.  "Sanctify  them  in  Thy  Truth" — the 
Truth  must  everywhere  and  always  sanctify.  Where  prayer  and 
preaching  and  sacraments  do  not  make  for  holiness  there  they 
are  perfectly  useless,  nay  even  harmful,  giving  souls  a  false  se- 
curity as  though  salvation  came  ex  opere  opcratuni. 

Now  this  is  precisely  the  charge  which  the  opponents  of  a 
liturgical  form  of  worship  have  ever  made  against  it.  They  were 
satisfied  that  it  hampered  the  Christian  life,  they  were  sure  that 
it  made  of  human  hearts  the  dry,  down-trodden  ground  by  the 
way-side  into  which  no  seed  could  fall  where  the  fragrant  flowers 


tiTURGICAL   ACCURACY   AND  SPIRITUAI^ITY.  89 

and  precious  fruits  of  the  Spirit  could  not  possibly  grow.  To 
them  every  form,  every  set  order,  was  a  spirit  of  darkness,  to  be- 
guile human  souls  and  build  up  a  wall  between  them  and  their 
God.  And  even  among  those  who  whether  merely  for  the  sake 
of  conformit}^  and  loyalty  or  because  they  really  desire  some  form 
of  worship  are  using  the  prescribed  order  of  the  Common  Service, 
there  are  not  wanting  critics  who  now  and  again  raise  a  cry  of 
warning  against  the  tendency  to  emphasize  the  I^iturgy  and  es- 
pecially liturgical  accuracy  in  our  congregations.  Some  go  so 
far  as  to  see  a  positive  danger  to  the  pure  doctrine  of  our  Church 
in  this  liturgical  revival,  while  others  deplore  the  fact  that  so 
much  zeal  and  energy,  so  many  words  and  such  a  vast  quantity 
of  printer's  ink  should  be  wasted  on  a  matter  which  seems  to 
them  so  insignificant.  There  might  be  some  truth  in  this  criti- 
cism could  it  be  proved  that  the  pure  faith  once  delivered  to  the 
saints  had  ever  suffered  in  a  period  of  liturgical  revnval  and  ref- 
ormation, or  that  faithful  study  of  and  accurate  use  of  true  forms 
of  worship  had  ever  produced  indifference  to  the  commandments 
of  God,  had  ever  quenched  the  fire  of  personal  love  of  and  devo- 
tion to  the  Master.  But  both  history  and  personal  experience 
prove  the  very  opposite.  The  faithful  use  of  a  pure  and  catholic 
Liturgy  in  the  Church  has  ever  been  the  sign  of  her  adherence  to 
the  pure  and  catholic  faith,  and  when  her  faith  was  pure  her  life 
was  pure  and  the  liturgical  age  was  the  age  of  spiritual  experience 
and  spiritual  growth.  In  whatever  manner  we  test  this  state- 
ment we  will  find  it  true.  The  departure  from  pure.  Scriptural, 
Apostolic  and  catholic  forms  of  worship,  the  introduction  into  the 
Church's  Liturgy  of  impure  elements,  marked  the  age  of  doc- 
trinal error  and  spiritual  decaj^,  while  the  total  abandonment  of 
all  liturgical  forms  marked  the  age  of  rationalism.  A  pure  Litur- 
gy could  not  live  in  the  atmosphere  of  superstition,  nor  could  it 
live  in  the  atmosphere  of  rationalism.  These  facts  are  significant. 
If  we  make  much  of  our  Liturgy,  if  we  form  associations  for  li- 
turgical study  and  for  the  propagation  of  right  knowledge  in 
matters  liturgical  we  do  it  because  we  know  that  "therebj'  the 
Church  universal,  with  all  its  pastors  and  ministers  and  members, 
will  be  preserved  in  the  pure  doctrine  of  God's  .saving  Word, 
that  thereby  faith  toward  God  will  be  strengthened,  and  charity 
increased  in  us  toward  all  mankind."  To  us  the  Liturgy  is  any- 
thing but  an  end  in  itself,  anything  but  an  opjis  opcratum,  it  is 


do  MEMOIRS. 

and  must  ever  be  a  means,  though  withal  a  holy  and  mighty  one, 
to  the  one  end  we  all  desire,  a  firmer  hold  on  the  faith  once  de- 
livered to  the  saints,  life  more  abounding  in  the  beautiful  fruits 
of  the  Spirit. 

II.       WHY    INSIST   ON    LITURGICAL   ACCURACY? 

Of  course  the  mere  arrangement  of  a  Service  in  the  form  of 
responses  by  pastor  and  people  will  not  produce  these  great  ef- 
fects. Where  liturgical  forms  have  no  meaning,  or  where  their 
meaning  is  not  intelligible  there  we  have  no  right  to  expect  spir- 
itual results.  St.  Paul  rightly  insists  that  prayer  should  be  made 
"with  the  understanding."  It  were  indeed  far  better  to  have  no 
forms  at  all  than  mere  formality,  since  the  letter  killeth  while 
the  spirit  alone  giveth  life.  Surely  it  ought  not  to  be  necessary  at 
this  time  to  enter  again  on  an  exhaustive  explanation  of  the  plan 
and  meaning  of  our  Liturgy,  of  the  two  fundamental  ideas  of  all 
true  worship,  the  sacrificial  and  the  sacramental  which  it  so 
beautifully  combines.  Yet  when  one  considers  the  barbarous 
manner  in  which  the  Liturgy  is  still  treated  in  many  quarters, 
when  one  witnesses  the  emasculation  it  frequently  suffers,  the 
way  in  which  its  veins  are  opened  and  its  blood  is  let  and  its 
limbs  are  amputated,  a  protest  in  behalf  of  a  perfect  Liturgy,  a 
plea  for  liturgical  accuracy  is  surely  not  out  of  place. 

I .  Liturgical  accuracy  is  necessary  because  without  it  litur- 
gical worship  is  irrational. 

That  the  form  of  worship  embraced  in  our  Liturgy  has  lit- 
tle or  no  meaning  to  many  who  hear  it  and  participate  in  it  even 
where  it  is  perfectly  and  accurately  used  is  no  doubt  true.  We 
will  refer  to  the  remedy  necessary  here  later  on.  But  where  in- 
excusable ignorance,  let  us  say,  of  the  officiating  minister,  per- 
petrates such  outrages  on  the  Liturgy  as  those  hinted  at  above, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  the  Liturgy  has  lost  all  its  meaning  and  is 
looked  upon  by  the  average  worshipper  as  an  unmitigated  evil, 
for  some  reason,  inexplicable  to  his  lay-mind,  necessary,  to  be 
endured  as  patiently  as  possible,  to  be  gotten  over  as  quickly  as 
possible,  to  be  heartily  hated  were  the  truth  known.  In  such  a 
case  forms  of  worship  not  only  are  powerless  to  touch  the  heart 
and  sanctify  the  will  but  they  are  dangerously  powerful  in  pro- 
ducing just  the  opposite — they  invite  and  encourage  inattention 
and  irreverence,  they  help  to  chill  and  harden  the  heart — they 


LITURGICAL   ACCURACY   AND    SPIRITUALITY.  91 

simply  kill  the  spirit  of  devotion.  But  how  different  the  effect 
when  the  perfect  Liturgy  is  perfectly  used  and  where  its  plan 
and  purpose  is  perfectly  understood.  There  the  worshipper  has 
an  experience  of  God's  love,  an  assurance  of  his  salvation  in 
Christ  Jesus.  He  comes  with  a  heart  oppressed  by  the  sense  of 
guilt.  He  confes.ses  his  transgressions  to  Him  Who  alone  can 
forgive  and  Who  has  solemnly  promised  to  forgive  sin.  He  hears 
God's  own  declaration  of  forgiveness  pronounced  by  God's  own 
representative,  His  minister  of  whom  God  says:  He  that  heareth 
you  heareth  Me.  Now  he  can  praise  God  in  the  beautiful  old 
songs  of  the  Church,  now  he  can  ask  God  for  the  particular  bless- 
ing of  this  particular  Service  in  the  Collect  for  the  Day,  now  he 
can  li.sten  to  God's  Word  read  and  preached,  confess  the  faith 
that  is  in  him,  join  in  the  petitions  of  the  General  Prayer  for  all 
sorts  and  conditions  of  men,  now  he  can  gladly  offer  his  gifts, 
now,  above  all,  he  is  ready  to  enter  the  holy  of  holies  and  come 
to  the  altar  to  receive  the  personal  pledge  of  God's  love  and  mer- 
cy to  him  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ.  It 
is  surely  now  no  idle  song,  that  grateful  Nunc  Dhnittis,  he  has 
indeed  seen  God's  Salvation  and  can  depart  in  peace  with  the 
blessing  of  the  Triune  God.  Is  he  not  a  better  man  than  when 
he  came?  Has  his  spiritual  life  not  been  quickened?  Was  it  the 
sermon  only  which  did  it?  Was  it  the  Sacrament?  Was  it  the 
music,  heard  and  sung?  Was  it  not  the  entire  perfect  and  beau- 
tiful Service,  his  petitions  and  God's  gracious  gifts,  his  praise 
and  God's  loving  benediction  which  contributed  to  this  great  re- 
sult? Truly  the  very  accuracy  with  which  every  provision  of  the 
lyiturgy  was  carried  out  was  necessary  in  its  achievement. 

2.  Liturgical  accuracy  demands  liturgical  knowledge.  Not 
merely  knowledge  of  the  right  forms  of  a  truly  liturgical  Service, 
but  knowledge  of  their  history  and  knowledge  of  their  meaning. 
One  of  the  most  suggestive  titles  of  the  papers  published  by  this 
As.sociation  is  "A  Laity  Liturgically  Well-informed."  Where 
the  Liturgy  is  not  understood  we  doubt  if  there  will  be  any 
strong  inclination  for  its  accurate  use,  and  even  if  there  were,  its 
value  must  certainly  be  greatly  impaired,  if  not  altogether  lost. 

We  cannot  blame  our  people  for  their  lack  of  interest  in  the 
Service,  for  their  listless  participation  in  it  when  they  have  but 
the  vaguest  idea  what  it  all  means.  The  treasurer  of  Queen 
Candace  was  indeed  reading  the  Scriptures,  perhaps  merely  from 


92  MEMOIRS. 

a  sense  of  loyalty,  perhaps  also  because  he  admired  their  literary 
style  and  poetic  finish,  but  he  received  very  little,  if  any  spiritual 
benefit  from  that  occupation,  until  Philip  came  and  explained 
that  wonderful  revelation  to  him,  and  he  was  very  glad  too  to 
receive  that  instruction;  he  was  very  frank  in  the  confession  of 
his  ignorance.  "Understandest  thou  what  thou  readest?"  said 
Philip.  "How  can  I,  except  some  man  should  guide  me?"  said 
the  honest  eunuch.  We  have  no  right  to  blame  our  congrega- 
tions for  their  apathy  in  matters  liturgical  when  we  have  never 
taken  the  least  pains  to  guide  them  into  their  meaning  and  show 
them  their  spiritual  significance.  There  is  a  text  in  the  Old 
Testament  on  which  any  of  our  congregations  might  have  a  ser- 
mon or  a  series  of  sermons  with  great  profit  and  it  is  this  "What 
mean  ye  by  this  Service?"  The  Service  has  a  meaning;  this 
meaning  is  lost  when  the  Service  is  not  used  accurately,  but  even 
liturgical  accuracy  must  be  supplemented  by  liturgical  instruction, 
and  if  we  expect  spiritual  results  from  our  liturgical  worship  we 
must  see  to  it  that  this  instruction  be  given.  This  is  our  reason- 
able Service. 

III.      WHAT   DO   WE   MEAN  BY   I^ITURGICAI,   ACCURACY? 

Perhaps  this  question  ought  to  have  been  met  and  answered 
first  of  all.  Though  it  may  seem  to  answer  itself  yet  the  answer 
is  after  all  not  so  simple.  Opinions  may  indeed  differ  widely  on 
this  very  point.  One  thing  of  course  is  plain:  liturgical  accuracy 
demands  a  perfect  and  consistent  following  of  the  rubrics.  Of 
this  we  have  already  spoken.  But  are  the  rubrics  always  so  clear 
that  he  who  runs  may  read?  Is  not  the  spirit  and  soul  of  the 
Service  frequently  rather  quenched  than  made  to  live  and  glow 
by  a  mere  formal  use  of  the  rubrics?  Do  the  rubrics  indeed  give 
that  complete  information  which  will  insure  perfect  liturgical  ac- 
curacy? I  open  my  Church  Book  and  find  the  following  instruc- 
tion given  for  the  beginning  of  the  Main  Service:  "The  Minister, 
standing  before  the  Altar,  shall  begin  the  Service  as  here  follow- 
eth,  the  Congregation  all  standing."  The  rubric  of  the  German 
Book  is  a  Httle  more  explicit;  it  says:  "Zu  Aufang  des  Gottesdi- 
enstes  kann  die  Gemeinde:  'O  heilger  Geist  kehr  bei  uns  ein,' 
Oder  ein  ahnliches  lied  singen.  Darauf  tritt  der  Pfarrer  vor  den 
Altar.  Die  Gemeinde  erhebt  sich  und  bleibt  bis  zum  Schluss  der 
Collecte  stehen."     But  how  is  the  minister  to  get  to  the  Altar? 


LITURGICAL  ACCURACY  AND   SPIRITUALITY.  93 

Shall  he  enter  the  chancel  during  an  organ  prelude  or  choir  an- 
them? Shall  he  enter  alone  or  with  the  choir?  Shall  he  an- 
nounce the  hymn  which  the  German  rubric  says  may  be  sung,  or 
shall  it  be  announced  simply  by  the  hymn-board?  These  may 
seem  small  matters,  insignificant  details.  We  would  not  unduly 
exalt  them,  yet  if  liturgical  accuracy  is  important,  these  things 
too  have  a  certain  importance.  Again,  what  shall  be  the  posture 
of  the  minister  in  the  purely  sacrificial  parts  of  the  Service?  The 
rubric  states  that  he  shall  be  at  the  altar,  but  shall  he  face  the 
congregation  or  shall  he  face  the  altar?  Is  there  any  law  which 
settles  this  question  which  has,  as  it  seems  to  us,  quite  needlessly 
agitated  the  minds  and  hearts  of  many  of  us  in  these  days?  Cer- 
tainly there  cannot  well  be  two  sorts  of  accuracy.  If  our  method 
is  accurate  any  other  method  that  differs  from  it  in  any  way  is 
by  reason  of  that  very  difference  in  the  point  wherein  it  differs 
inaccurate.  Now  we  hold  that  a  careful  and  intelligent  study  of 
the  lyiturgy,  even  where  the  rubrics  are  not  as  clear  as  they 
might  be,  will  result  in  a  uniform  practice,  in  the  one  form  of 
liturgical  accuracy.  As  the  rubrics  say  nothing  of  the  opening 
hymn  and  the  manner  in  which  the  minister  is  to  enter  the  chan- 
cel we  must  concede  perfect  liberty  in  this  point.  The  Service 
may  begin  without  a  hymn,  simply  with  the  Invocation.  And 
yet  experience  has  proved  that  an  opening  hymn  is  of  great  val- 
ue in  tuning  the  hearts  of  the  congregation  to  one  melodious 
harmony,  in  joining  the  various  individuals  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed into  one  harmonious  whole.  Again  the  solemn  entrance 
of  pastor  and  choir  while  this  hymn  is  being  sung,  suggesting  as 
it  does  the  onward  march  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  has  a  symbol- 
ical significance  which,  if  properly  understood,  must  prove  to  be 
spiritually  uplifting.  When  Christ  entered  Jerusalem  in  triumph 
there  was  a  processional  and  a  recessional.  There  were  the  peo- 
ple who  went  before  and  the  people  who  followed  after,  and  as 
they  went,  before  and  after,  Christ  went  with  them;  He  was  the 
center  of  their  songs  of  prayer  and  praise.  No  criticism  can  be 
properly  made,  from  the  liturgical  point  of  view,  against  this 
beautiful  and  salutary  practice.  It  has  been  weighed  in  the  bal- 
ance and  not  found  wanting.  It  is  not  forbidden  by  the  rubric, 
it  is  moreover  in  entire  harmony  with  the  heart  and  soul  of  the 
Liturgy,  it  has  worked  and  is  working  a  deepening  of  the  spirit- 
ual experience  of  worshippers. 


94  MEMOIRS. 

But  while  this  particular  form  of  opening  and  closing  the 
Service  is  one  of  those  things  of  which  St.  Paul  says  they  must 
be  proved  and  held  fast  only  if  they  are  good,  we  cannot  so  judge 
of  the  posture  of  the  minister  during  the  Service.  It  ought  to 
be  evident  that  the  very  form  of  the  Liturgy  has  decided  that 
question.  Liturgical  accuracy  demands  that  the  minister  should 
distinguish  by  his  very  posture  between  the  sacrificial  and  the 
sacramental  parts  of  the  Service.  "Does  the  rubric  say  so?" 
cries  one.  "Is  it  so  nominated  in  the  bond?  I  desire  above  all 
to  be  liturgically  accurate,  but  I  must  have  a  plain  command  to 
do  this  thing,  else  I  will  never  do  it."  The  rubric  does  clearly 
intimate  that  this  is  the  proper  and  liturgically  accurate  posture. 
What  does  it  say?  Before  the  Versicles  which  introduce  the 
confession  of  sins  it  says:  "Then,  all  kneeling  or  standing,  shall 
be  sung  or  said."  Very  few  of  our  churches  make  use  of  the 
first  form  prescribed  here;  we  do  not  kneel  during  confession. 
But  if  we  did,  and  the  rubric  says  we  may,  how  would  the  min- 
ister kneel? — for  they  must  all  kneel.  Evidently  if  the  minister 
at  this  part  of  the  Service  is  to  kneel  at  the  altar,  he  can  only 
kneel  facing  the  altar.  Any  other  posture  would  not  merely  be 
preposterous,  but  almost  if  not  quite  impossible.  Now  if  the 
minister,  when  he  kneels  in  confession,  must  turn  to  the  Altar, 
we  conclude  that  the  same  is  meant  when  he  stands.  Not  only 
do  the  very  words  of  the  Liturgy  here  demand  it,  but  the  rubric 
takes  it  as  a  matter  of  course.  This,  if  not  a  direct  command,  is 
at  least  a  broad  hint,  as  to  accuracy  in  posture,  which  the  rubrics 
give,  for  every  part  of  the  Service,  and  we  claim  that  the  most 
intelligent  use  of  the  Liturgy  demands  this  form,  and  that  spirit- 
ual results  will  follow  where  it  is  devoutly  and  intelligently  so  used. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  elaborate  here  on  this  question.  It 
has  been  exhaustively  treated  before,  all  objections  to  the  posture 
here  advocated  as  demanded  by  the  Liturgy  have  been  met  and 
answered.  We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  no  spiritual  good  can 
follow  where  this  plain  purpose  of  the  Liturgy  is  ignored,  but  we 
must  declare  that  the  greatest  spiritual  good  does  here  attend 
perfect  liturgical  accuracy.  The  writer  cannot  speak  for  all,  but 
he  can  and  will  speak  for  himself.  He  must  declare  that  the 
Liturgy  has  meant  infinitely  more  to  him,  that  he  has  received 
far  greater  spiritual  uplifting  since  he  understood  how  it  was  to 
be  used  and  used  it  in  that  manner.     What  a  comfort  it  is  to  the 


LITURGICAL    ACCURACY    AND   SPIRITUALITY.  95 

minister  that  he  may  become  part  of  the  congregation,  identified 
with  them  during  the  sacrificial  part  of  the  Service.  How  thank- 
ful is  he  that  he  may  turn  his  eyes  for  a  moment  away  from  the 
many  eyes  that  are  always  watching  him  and  look  to  Christ  and 
to  His  Cross.  If  there  is  one  individual  who  needs  to  confess  his 
sins,  surely  it  is  the  minister.  If  there  is  one  who  needs  pardon 
and  peace  and  strength  he  is  the  one.  And  it  is  an  unspeakably 
precious  time  to  him  when  he  may  shut  out  the  world,  shut  out 
the  sight  even  of  his  congregation  with  all  its  distractions  and  be 
for  a  moment  the  humblest  of  sinners  who  dares  not  even  lift  up 
his  eyes  but  smites  upon  his  breast  with  the  confession:  I^ord 
have  mercy  upon  me.  If  the  posture  of  the  minister  at  the  Altar 
shall  never  help  the  spirit  of  devotion  in  the  congregation,  yet  is 
it  of  very  great  spiritual  benefit  to  their  minister.  It  is  the  one 
time  in  all  the  Service  when  he  also  truly  worships.  Let  him 
make  the  most  of  it.  Quench  not  that  fountain  whence  he  turns 
to  lave  his  guilty  soul  and  slack  his  spirit's  thirst. 

It  should  not  be  necessary  to  state  that  liturgical  accuracy 
demands  the  most  precise  and  exact  fidelity  to  the  very  words  of 
the  Service.  And  yet  even  in  so  simple  a  matter  the  Liturgy  is 
sinned  against,  and  the  sin  is  most  frequently  committed  where 
one  would  least  expect  to  find  it,  in  that  golden  crown  of  the 
Liturgy,  the  Communion  Service.  Here  especially  is  liturgical 
accuracy  necessary,  because  the  validity  of  the  Sacrament  de- 
pends on  its  accurate  administration.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  but 
here  above  all,  the  Liturgy  has  a  great  doctrinal  significance,  and 
liturgical  accuracy  here  means  doctrinal  accuracy.  What  right 
or  excuse  has  any  one  to  use  his  own  form  of  consecrating  the 
elements,  or  vari(Z  lecHones,  in  administering  the  Communion? 
Yet  men  who  are  accurate  liturgists  in  every  other  place  are  fre- 
quently most  inaccurate  here.  The  only  explanation  of  this 
glaring  inconsistency  seems  to  be  the  fact  that  in  certain  parts  of 
the  Communion  Service  it  is  difficult,  if  indeed  not  impossible  to 
hold  in  hand  and  read  from  the  Order  of  Service  the  very  words 
presented.  Would  it  be  taxing  the  brains  of  some  of  us  too  much 
to  spend  a  half  hour  in  committing  to  memory  those  portions  of 
the  Service?  Liturgical  inaccuracy  here  has  indeed  no  excuse; 
it  is  an  act  of  disloyalty  to  the  Church;  it  always  disturbs  some 
one's  devotion;  it  may  inadvertently  lead  to  the  commission  of 
doctrinal  error. 


96  MEMOIRS. 

But  the  Service  of  our  Church  is  a  Service  of  song;  the  Lit- 
urgy is  set  to  music.  Can  any  one  doubt  that  the  benefits  of 
the  Liturgy  are  affected  by  the  music  in  which  it  is  rendered? 
Surely  Hturgical  accuracy  to  produce  deep  and  lasting  spiritual 
results  must  be  musically  accurate.  Again  and  again  the  whole 
effect  of  our  Liturgy  has  been  spoilt  because  though  the  words 
were  accurate  enough  the  music  to  which  they  were  sung  was 
most  lamentably  inaccurate.  We  have  neither  the  time,  nor  the 
space,  nor  the  ability  to  discuss  here  the  spiritual  power  that  God 
has  put  into  music.  No  one  will  deny  that  there  is  such  a  pow- 
er. Music  is  the  atmosphere  of  the  spirit- world,  and  song  the 
language  of  Heaven.  When  the  Triune  God  established  the 
foundations  of  the  world,  and  laid  the  cornerstone  thereof,  the 
morning  stars  sang  together,  and  all  the  sons  of  God  shouted  for 
joy,  and  when  John  saw  the  New  Jerusalem  he  heard  one  constant 
strain  of  Heavenly  music,  the  song  of  Heaven,  as  the  voice  of 
many  waters,  and  as  the  voice  of  great  thunder,  and  as  the  voice 
of  harpers  harping  with  their  harps,  and  as  the  voice  of  millions 
of  angels  and  redeemed,  singing  the  song  of  Moses  and  the  Lamb, 
swelling  the  great  chorus  of  triumph  in  praise  of  Christ,  King  of 
kings  and  Lord  of  lords.  The  Liturgy  of  Heaven  is  set  to  Heav- 
en's own  music  and  of  course  it  must  be  perfect.  Perfect  our 
music  on  earth  can  never  be,  but  shall  it  not  be  worthy  of  Him 
Whose  mercy  we  implore.  Whose  pardon  we  receive.  Whose 
praise  we  utter  in  our  Church  Service?  The  music  must  fit  the 
Service  else  it  kills  all  devotion.  Not  what  some  godless  organ- 
ist or  unspiritual  chorister  may  deem  the  most  fetching  musical 
setting  for  the  Service,  but  what  devout  souls  with  the  gift  of 
David  have  composed  and  set  to  these  great  words  is  their  proper 
musical  garb.  May  God  speed  the  time  when  we  shall  all  have 
the  same  Church  Service  with  music,  as  we  all  have  the  same 
Church  Service  without  music  now.  Perhaps  in  nothing  is  litur- 
gical knowledge  and  accuracy  more  needed  than  in  the  sphere  of 
music.  If  we  have  no  gift  of  music,  not  even  an  ear  for  music, 
let  us  all  the  more  loyally  accept  from  those  who  have,  their 
judgment,  the  results  of  their  efforts,  and  have  and  worship  with 
a  Liturgy  as  accurate  in  its  devotional  music,  as  it  is  in  its  de- 
votional thoughts  and  words. 

We  have  tried  to  show  the  spiritual  power  of  a  Liturgy  right- 
ly used.     We  firmly  believe  that  every  minister  and  every  con- 


UTURGICAL   ACCURACY   AND  SPIRITUALITV.  97 

gregation  who  strives  for  liturgical  accuracy  is  thereby  striving 
for  and  attaining  a  deeper  spiritual  experience.  The  Holy  Spir- 
it, in  this  too,  is  guiding  them  into  all  truth,  teaching  them  how 
to  pray,  blessing  them  with  answer  to  the  prayers  He  has  put 
into  their  hearts  and  upon  their  lips;  thus  are  they  made  "lively 
stones,  built  up  into  a  spiritual  house,  an  holj-  priesthood,  to  of- 
fer up  spiritual  sacrifices,  acceptable  to  God  by  Jesus  Christ,  a 
chosen  generation,  a  royal  priesthood,  an  holy  nation,  a  peculiar 
people,  that  show  forth  the  praise  of  Him  Who  hath  called  them 
out  of  darkness  into  His  marvellous  light." 

H.  Douglas  Spaeth. 

Albany,   N.    Y, 


Vol.   VI. 


CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN 
THE  HISTORY  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EITURGY. 


Any  attempt  to  trace  in  a  brief  paper  the  influences  which  have 
contributed  to  the  formation  of  our  Common  Service,  and  which 
have  left  their  mark  upon  it,  must  of  necessity  be  imperfect. 
Influences  are  extremely  subtle  and  might  be  discovered  where 
least  expected,  perhaps  in  an  innocent  rubric.  Then  too  the  in- 
fluences are  so  varied  in  character  that  it  becomes  difficult  to 
classify  them:  some  belong  to  a  school,  some  to  an  age,  some  to 
a  person;  some  arise  from  doctrinal  questions,  others  from  prac- 
tical or  purely  aesthetic  needs.  A  further  difficulty  is  met  in  the 
possibility  that  what  might  seem  to  be  the  working-out  of  an  old 
influence  may  be  an  independent  return  to  an  old  form. 

Imperfect  as  the  attempt  may  be,  it  may  yet  be  of  interest, 
and  perhaps  not  without  value.  Our  Common  Service,  it  need 
hardly  be  mentioned  here,  is  not  a  modern  invention,  but  the 
result  of  a  historic  development.  Into  this  development  have 
entered  many  elements  from  the  days  of  the  Apostles — or  even 
earlier — until  the  present  day.  Even  now  modifications  in  ru- 
brics and  rendering,  if  not  in  text,  are  suggested  and  made,  the 
tracing  of  which  to  their  sources  is  most  interesting.  In  such  a 
long  period  of  development  we  cannot  expect  to  find  one  direct 
line  of  evolution.  In  a  certain  sense  of  course  the  line  is  easily 
traced  from  the  Eiturgy  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  through 
the  Roman  Mass,  Luther's  Forimda  MisscB  and  Deutsche  Messe, 
the  Kirchenordnungen  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  to  the  Common 
Service.  But  a  glance  at  comparative  tables  such  as  are  given  in 
Kostlin's  Geschichte  des  christlichen  Gottesdienstes  will  convince 
any  one  that  these  have  not  evolved  one  from  the  other  without 
undergoing  many  modifications  due  to  local,  doctrinal  or  practi- 
cal influences.  Yet  since  there  is  a  development  of  one  from  the 
other  it  would  be  marvellous  indeed  if  traces  were  not  left  of  the 


2  MEMOIRS. 

older  as  well  as  of  the  more  recent  influences.  These  traces  are 
of  interest  as  showing  the  connection  of  the  most  modern  Service 
with  the  whole  history  of  the  Church:  they  are  like  the  scars  of 
battle  and  of  age  upon  some  historic  building.  They  are  also  of 
value:  by  them  we  can  estimate  the  meaning  and  importance  of 
those  features  of  the  Service  marked  by  them,  their  permanent 
value  or  relative  indifference. 

Like  Christianity  itself,  Christian  worship  had  two  lines  of 
preparation  for  itself  in  the  ancient  world,  so  that  we  must  reck- 
on with  two  pre-Christian  influences,  the  Jewish  and  the  Gentile. 
Of  these  the  Jewish  is  naturally  the  more  direct;  yet  in  many 
points  the  two  coincide  so  nearly  that  it  is  diflScult,  if  not  alto- 
gether impossible,  to  distinguish  them.  In  modern  times  there 
has  been  a  tendency  to  exaggerate  both,  in  connection  with  the 
wider  attempt  to  reduce  Christianity  either  to  a  Jewish  sect  or  to 
a  Greek  philosophy. 

JEWISH   INFLUENCES, 

The  Jewish  influences  may  be  distributed  into  two  classes, 
those  directly  derived  from  the  old  Testament  Scriptures,  and 
those  due  to  the  later  Synagogue  and  Temple  worship.  To  dis- 
tinguish these  is  not  an  easy  matter,  for  many  features  have  been 
modified  in  passing  through  the  Synagogue,  yet  are  purely  Old 
Testament  contributions. 

From  the  Old  Testament  comes  first  of  all  a  group  of  words 
retained  in  their  Hebrew  form:  Avien,  Hallelujah^  Hosanna. 

The  Amen  has  its  liturgical  use  in  the  O,  T.,  but  entered  the 
Christian  Church  from  the  Synagogue.  "From  I  Cor.  14:  16  it 
is  seen  that  the  use  of  the  Amen  as  a  response  in  benedictions 
came  into  the  Christian  congregation  from  the  Synagogue,  as  also 
that  the  adoption  of  the  word  into  Christian  usage  is  connected 
with  this."*  For  Jew  and  Christian  the  Amen  is  the  confirma- 
tion and  appropriation  of  the  prayer,  expressing  "the  confidence 
of  the  hearers  that  the  prayer  will  be  heard,  "f  Of  the  Amen 
Ainsworth  says:  "The  Hebrew  word  is  used  in  the  Greek,  En- 
glish and  all  other  languages,  to  betoken  unity  of  faith  and 
spirit." 


*  Cremer,    Woerterbuch. 
t  Meyer,  on  /  Cor.  14:  16. 


CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN   THE   LITURGY.  3 

The  Hallchijah  also  has  its  liturgical  origin  in  the  O.  T.  evi- 
denced b}'  the  retention  of  the  Hebrew  form  in  the  LXX,  and  its 
occurrence  in  Rev.  19:  i,  6.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  Christian 
liturgies  in  the  Lit.  Basil  and  Chrysost.* 

The^  Hosan72a  is  usually  derived  from  Ps.  118:  25. f  Hence 
Luther  gives  the  form  Hosianna  which  is  found  in  the  Kirchen- 
buch.  The  difiiculty  of  deriving  the  shorter  form  from  the  long- 
er, and  the  change  of  meaning  from  the  "Save  now"  of  the 
Psalm  to  the  "Hail"  of  the  N.  T.,  has  led  Thayer  to  make  the 
strange  suggestion  that  the  Hosanna  was  not  consciously  bor- 
rowed from  the  Psalm,  but  is  an  independent  form. J  Drews 
however  connects  the  liturgical  use  of  the  Hosanna  with  the  sing- 
ing of  Psalm  118:  25  ff  after  the  paschal  meal  of  the  Jews.§ 

To  the  O.  T.  we  further  owe  the  Psalms,  which  appear  in 
various  forms  in  the  Service:  Versicles,  Introits  and  entire  Psalms. 
The  liturgical  use  of  the  Psalms  is  derived  from  the  Temple  and 
Synagogue  Services,  although  "there  is  no  evidence  that  the 
entire  Psalter  was  used  in  the  public  worship  of  the  Jewish 
Church." II  As  some  of  the  Psalms  are  evidently  written  for  re- 
sponsive use  we  may  trace  a  responsive  Service  to  the  O.  T.,  (it 
certainly  is  found  in  the  later  Jewish  Services),  as  also  the  par- 
ticipation of  the  laity  in  the  Service  can  be  traced  at  least  to  the 
Synagogue,  in  which  the  lessons  were  read  by  members  of  the 
congregation  and  the  sermon  could  be  preached  by  any  one  capa- 
ble of  edifying  the  people. 

The  Sandus  we  owe  to  Isaiah  6:  3  and  Psalm  118:  26,  but  its 
liturgical  use  comes  not  from  the  Jews,  but  from  the  Greek 
Christians.  The  Surstim  corda  is  referred  by  Bright  man  to  Lam. 
3:  41,  and  the  "Let  us  give  thanks  to  the  Lord  our  God"  "re- 
minds us  of  the  prayer  used  by  the  Jews  at  meals,  also  at  the 
Sabbath  meals. "•[ 

The  Benediction  (Num.  6:  24-26)  comes  directly  from  the 
O.  T.,  although  it  was  used  also  in  the  Synagogue,  even  with  the 
added  peculiarity  that  "in  the  absence  of  a  priest  in  the  congre- 


*    RiETSCHEL,  366. 

t  So  also  RiETSCHEL,  379  and  Drews,  PRE'  ii:  552. 

X  Hastings,  BD,  II:  418  f. 

§  PRE'  11:  552. 

II    KiRKPATRiCK,  Psalms,  XCIX. 

IT    RiETSCHEL,  379  Cf.  251   ff. 


4  MEMOIRS. 

gation,  the  Benediction  was  not  bestowed,  but  implored  by  a 
member  of  the  congregation."-'^ 

Some  additional  details  might  be  referred  to  Jewish  influ- 
ence. For  example,  the  leader  in  prayer  turns  toward  the  sanctu- 
ary, his  back  to  the  people,  but  in  blessing  the  priest  faces  the 
people;  the  attitude  of  prayer  is  standing. f 

One  important  point  is  open  to  much  discussion :  whether  the 
institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  connected  with  the  "Cup  of 
Blessing' '  of  the  Passover,  and  so  the  Jewish  influence  be  seen  in 
that  central  feature  of  our  Service.  Kostlin  so  maintains  with 
Keim  and  Seyerlein  against  Heinrici.|  Bickell  and  Skene  have 
even  gone  so  far  as  to  derive  the  entire  liturgy  of  the  later 
Eucharist  from  the  Passover  rite,  an  attempt  characterized  by 
Rietschel  as  "an  artificial  construction  without  every  historical 
basis.  "§ 

GREEK   INFLUENCE. 

Christianity  had  its  origin  among  the  Jews,  hence  we  expect 
a  long  list  of  traces  of  Jewish  influence  in  its  worship.  Both  Jews 
and  Christians  were  opposed  to  Heathenism  and  would  not  will- 
ingly adopt  its  forms.  We  need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  to 
find  fewer  traces  of  Greek  influence,  nor  wonder  that  some  of 
these  are  debated.  But  inasmuch  as  Christianity  soon  gained  a 
foothold  among  Gentiles  who  were  unacquainted  with  Jewish 
forms,  and  yet  found  among  Gentile  Christians  expression  of  its 
life  in  similar  forms,  we  may  grant  at  least  the  possibility  that  in 
spite  of  the  similarity  the  forms  may  have  an  independent  origin. 

To  the  Greek  language,  although  it  is  the  Greek  of  the  N. 
T.,  we  owe  at  least  one  expression  which,  retained  in  the  Kirch- 
enbuch,  has  fallen  out  of  the  Church  Book, — the  Kyrie. 

Edwin  Hatch,  making  perhaps  a  one-sided  study  of  the  in- 
fluences of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  upon  the  Christian  Church, || 
says  that  Greek  Rhetoric  "created  the  Christian  sermon."  He 
refers,  however,  to  the  character  of  the  sermon  as  an  oration, 


*  SCHUERER,  Gesckiclite,  II,  3S2. 

t  For  the  Jewish  Service,  cf.  Schuerer,  Geschichte,  27,  and  EoERSHEiM,  Life 
of  Jesus,  I,  439  ff. 
+   Geschichte,   12. 
§  Liiiirgik,  234. 
II    HiBBEKT  Lectures,   1888,  p.  113. 


CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN   THE   LITURGY.  5 

which  has  its  proto-type  as  well  in  the  methurgeman's  sermon  of 
the  Synagogue.* 

Most  of  the  Greek  influences,  those  due  to  the  Mysteries 
and  Religious  Associations,  have  been  lost  in  our  Service.  Hatch 
finds  a  survival  of  them:  "In  the  splendid  ceremonial  of  Eastern 
and  Western  worship,  in  the  blaze  of  lights,  in  the  separation  of 
the  central  point  of  the  rite  from  common  view,  in  the  procession 
of  torch-bearers  chanting  their  sacred  hymns,"  but  rightly  says: 
"The  tendency  to  an  elaborate  ceremonial  which  had  produced 
the  magnificence  of  those  mysteries  and  cults,  and  which  had 
combined  with  the  love  of  a  purer  faith  and  the  tendency  towards 
fellowship,  was  based  upon  a  tendency  of  human  nature  which 
was  not  crushed  by  Christianity"  (p.  309).  In  the  revival  of 
such  tendencies  we  need  not  see  the  influence  of  Greek  Heathen- 
ism, human  nature  will  explain  them  far  better.  We  may  say 
this  also  of  the  one  trace  left  of  the  airana  disciplina,  especially 
in  German  and  Church  of  England  Churches,  the  withdrawal  of 
non-communicants  before  the  Communion  Service. 

NEW   TESTAMENT   INFLUENCE. 

The  New  Testament  is  by  far  the  most  important  influence 
pervading  the  whole  Service  and  modifying  the  elements  received 
from  earlier  sources.  It  furnishes  first  of  all  the  principles  of 
worship,  requiring  that  it  be  a  worship  in   spirit   and  in   truth. 

From  the  N.  T.  we  therefore  derive  that  protest  against 
formalism  and  lip-service  which  is  constantly  renewed  and  needs 
to  be  persistently  emphasized  in  connection  with  even  the  most 
perfect  liturgy.  It  may  be  worthy  of  note  that  the  N.  T.  as- 
cribes worship  to  a  charism,  so  that  it  was  directly  a  gift  of  God; 
and  while  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  look  for  a  renewal  of  the 
N.  T.  charisms  in  the  N.  T.  form,  it  is  most  reasonable  to  expect 
for  all  times  that  those  who  are  set  apart  to  lead  the  worship 
should  be  not  only  specially  prepared,  but  speciallj^  gifted  as  well. 

The  N.  T.  has  provided  the  principles,  and  also  the  chief 
elements  of  the  Service.  The  reading  of  Scripture, — of  the  use 
of  the  N.  T.  writings  there  is  a  trace — the  singing  of  Psalms  and 
spiritual  songs,  the  sermon  as  a  living  message  to  men,  above  all 
the  Lord's  Supper  and  Baptism  as  sacraments,  the  former  espe- 
cially as  a  part  of  the  worship,  are  directly  to  be  attributed  to  the 

*  Cf.  Edersheim. 


6  MEMOIRS. 

N.  T.  The  lyord's  Prayer,  the  Nunc  Dimiitis,  the  Apostolic 
Benediction,  iheKyrie,  the  Hosanna,  the  Hallelujah,  the  Lessons, 
the  Words  of  Institution,  the  Agmis  Dei,  are  all  directly  taken 
from  the  N.  T.,  while  some  of  the  Introits,  Responses  and  Sen- 
tences are  at  least  in  part  so  derived,  and  the  Collects,  the  Decla- 
ration of  Grace,  the  Gloria  Patri,  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  the 
Creed,  and  even  the  General  Prayer,  are  based  upon  N.  T.  prom- 
ises and  expressions.  So  extensive  is  the  influence  of  the  N.  T. 
that  it  can  hardly  be  classed  among  contributive  influences — it  is 
practically  the  source  of  our  Common  Service. 

GENTILE  CHRISTIANS. 

To  the  influence  of  Gentile  Christians  may  be  traced  especial- 
ly the  time  for  worship — the  Sunday,  which  among  the  Jewish 
Christians  was  celebrated  alongside  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  but 
among  Gentile  Christians  was  set  in  contrast  to  the  Sabbath. 

ANCIENT   CHURCH. 

The  Church  before  the  Middle  Ages,  known  as  the  old  Cath- 
olic Church,  presents  a  transition  period,  from  the  simplicity  of 
the  Apostolic  Age  to  the  ceremonial  richness  of  the  later  Catholic 
Church.  It  is  marked  by  a  growing  emphasis  upon  the  ofiice  of 
the  minister,  due  to  the  claims  of  Montanism  of  a  revived  proph- 
ecy. The  Bishop  becomes  a  priest,  the  bearer  of  an  Apostolic 
grace,  the  Service  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  sacrifice,  and  the 
Service  of  the  Word  is  simply  introductory  to  the  Service  of  the 
Sacrament.  In  the  mention  of  these  points  we  note  influences 
revived  in  modern  liturgical  movements.  The  restriction  of  ab- 
solution and  benediction  to  the  ordained  minister,  the  insistence 
of  some  that  the  Service  is  incomplete  without  the  Communion, 
the  emphasis  sometimes  laid  on  the  office  and  acts  of  the  minis- 
ter, point  back  to  the  Old  Catholic  Church,  or  may  flow  from 
similar  opposition  to  modern  Montanistic  conceptions  of  a  revived 
prophecy  independent  of  the  organized  Church. 

Among  the  elements  of  the  Service  derived  from  the  Old 
Catholic  Church  we  note  the  Preface  to  the  Communion  Service,* 
the  Response,  "The  Lord  be  with  you,"  "And  with  thy  spirit," 
the  Apostolic  Benediction  in  connection  with  the  sermon,  the 
Sandus,  Gloria  in  Excelsis  and  Hosanna,  the  latter  two  as  saluta- 
*  Found  in  the  Ethiopian  Lit.  and  Apost.  Const.  VIII. 


CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED    IN   THE   LITURGY.  7 

tion  of  the  invisibly  present  Lord,  the  sentence  as  the  form  of 
closing  the  Service,  "Depart  in  peace,"*  the  General  Prayer.f 

To  the  early  Church  can  also  be  traced  the  custom  of  stand- 
ing during  the  reading  of  the  Gospel,  J  the  Response  Deo  Gratias 
after  the  Lesson, §  the  responsive  use  of  the  Psalms  between  the 
Lessons;  1 1  the  custom  of  lighting  lamps  or  candles  during  the 
reading  of  the  Gospel, ^j  and  the  Bidding  Prayer,**  In  connec- 
tion with  this  Bidding  Prayer  occurs  the  interjectional  use  of  the 
Kytie  by  the  congregation,  which  has  its  parallel  in  the  "Erhore 
uns,  lieber  Herre  Gott"  of  the  Kirchenbuch. 

THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

In  attempting  to  trace  the  influence  of  the  Catholic  Church 
we  meet  with  many  complications.  We  must  note  first  of  all  the 
general  influence  of  Catholicism,  then  the  particular  influences, 
if  such  can  be  traced,  of  Greek  and  of  Roman  Catholicism;  but 
each  of  these  has  again  been  influenced  by  mediaeval  extra-eccle- 
siastical affairs  and  by  heresies.  The  last  would  be  of  special  in- 
terest, could  the  influences  of  heresies  be  traced  in  detail:  we 
have  already  seen  that  the  growth  of  the  priestly  and  sacrificial 
view  of  worship  was  influenced  by  the  Montanist  revival  of 
prophecy;  later  extravagances  and  errors  left  similar  impress  up- 
on the  Church. 

It  may  be  well  first  to  note  the  general  distinctive  character- 
istic of  Catholic  worship,  and  look  for  traces  of  its  influence  in 
our  modern  Service,  The  specifically  Catholic  element  is  the 
"high  and  excessive  estimation  of  the  act  of  worship  itself  as 
such,  the  conception  of  the  cultus  as  a  service  ordained  in  fixed, 
objective  form  by  God,  and  therefore  in  an  objective  sense  ho- 
ly, "ft  Wherever  we  find  a  tendency  to  legalism  in  the  Liturgy 
or  its  use,  or  to  the  opus  operatitm  idea  of  a  service  not  in  spirit 
and  in  truth,  we  have  an  out-cropping  of  the  Catholic  influence, 

*  Ethiopian  Lit. 

t  See  the  parallel  with  the  General  Prayer  of  the  Morning  Service  in  R.   M. 
Smith,  Sources,  in  Memoirs  of  the  Lit.  Assoc,  I,  \i.  53. 
X  Apost.  Const.,  II,  57. 
§  Augustine,  Strmo,  60.     Rietschel,  299. 

II  Found  in  Tertullian,  Apost.  Const.,  II;  Augustine;  Rietschel,  366. 
t  Fourth  Cent.,  Jekome,  Rietschel,  139. 
••  Apost.  Const.,  VIII. 
tt  Koestlin,  58, 


8  MEMOIRS. 

unless  we  prefer  to  lead  this  also  back  to  its  source  in  human 
nature.  In  our  Liturgy  such  worship  without  the  heart  is  well 
provided  against,  but  in  practice  it  will  always  break  through, 
and  needs  special  attention,  especially  because  some  perfectly 
correct  and  proper  forms,  e.  g.,  the  Baptismal  Service,  are  in 
themselves  liable  to  such  misinterpretation. 

To  Catholicism  is  due  the  tendency  to  excessive  symbolism, 
carried  out  with  thoroughness  in  the  Greek  Church  and  connected 
with  the  separation  of  the  active  worship  from  the  congregation. 
Connected  with  the  opus  operatum  idea  this  finds  its  modern  re- 
sult in  opposition  to  the  lyiturgy,  a  timidity  of  the  people  to  take 
part  in  the  worship,  a  tendency  to  see  in  worship  the  work  of  the 
minister,  which  has  a  meaning,  but  a  meaning  often  but  dimly 
understood.  On  the  other  hand  it  may  produce  services  so  elab- 
orate and  ceremonials  so  symbolic  that  the  congregation  cannot 
take  part  or  is  unable  to  appreciate  the  symbolism.  The  sacri- 
ficial view  of  worship,  though  not  in  the  gross  form  of  a  blood- 
less sacrifice,  but  rather  in  the  form  of  a  meritorious  value  as- 
cribed to  the  sacrifices  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving,  has 
found  large  foothold  in  Protestantism.  Even  the  silence  of  the 
Word  of  God  is  only  partly  overcome,  for  Protestant  Churches 
have  to  some  extent,  by  substituting  orations  and  lectures  for  the 
preaching  of  the  Word,  fallen  back  into  a  new  kind  of  Catholi- 
cism. 

The  distinction  between  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
worship  may  be  stated  thus:  The  Greek  Church  sees  in  its  wor- 
ship a  symbolic  drama,  which  is  meaningless  without  a  congrega- 
tion as  spectators,  although  because  of  its  intricacy  meaningless 
also  to  the  congregation:  the  Roman  Church  has  in  its  worship  a 
real  drama,  which  needs  no  spectators.*  Protestants  are  not  apt 
to  be  tempted  to  return  to  the  Roman  real  sacrifice  without  a 
congregation,  but  there  is  a  growing  temptation  to  multiply 
forms  and  symbols  in  the  fashion  of  Greek  Catholicism, 

GREEK   CHURCH. 

To  the  Greek  Church  we  owe  the  use  of  the  Creed  in  the 

regular  Service,  introduced  by  Petrus  Fullo,  Bishop  of  Antioch 

(about  471)  to  combat  Eutychianism,  by  Bishop  Timotheus  in 

Constantinople  in  511,     Again  we  note  the  influence  of  heresy. 

*  See  KoESTLiN,  61  ff. 


CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN   THE  UTURGY.  » 

A  similar  influence  is  seen  in  the  modification  of  the  Gloria  from 
the  original  "Glory  to  the  Father  m  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spir- 
it" to  ''Glory  to  the  Father  afid  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit," 
and  the  addition  "As  it  was  in  the  beginning"  etc.,  in  the  con- 
flict with  Arianism.* 

To  the  Greek  Church  we  owe  the  development  of  Church 
music.  "It  was  especially  the  Antiochene  Church  that  exerted 
a  decisive  influence  upon  the  development  of  liturgical  song. 
Here  it  is  said  that  Ignatius  {'\ii(>)  already  introduced  responsive 
choirs,  that  form  of  hoi)'  song  which  Ambrose  transplanted  to  the 
Occident."!  But  antiphonal  singing  "existed  already  among 
the  heathen  in  the  arrangements  of  the  Greek  chorus.  It  was 
practiced  with  much  elaboration  of  detail  in  the  Psalmody  of  the 
Jews,  as  appears  from  the  account  which  is  given  of  the  Egyptian 
Therapeuts.  Its  introduction  into  the  Christian  Church,  there- 
fore, was  a  matter  of  course  almost  from  the  beginning."! 

ROMAN   CHURCH. 

The  strongest  pre- Reformation  influence  traceable  in  the 
histor)^  of  the  Liturgj^  is  that  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  natural- 
ly so,  for  the  Reformation  grew  up  within  the  Roman  Church, 
and  inherited  its  Service  as  far  as  it  could  be  used;  and  that  Ro- 
man service  was  the  ripe  fruit  of  a  liturgical  development  which 
had  absorbed  much  from  the  provincial  liturgies  it  had  superced- 
ed. Some  of  these  provincial  influences  can  still  be  traced,  but 
many  have  been  sacrificed  to  the  uniformity  of  the  Roman  Church 
and  can  now  be  traced  only  to  Rome. 

Among  the  peculiarities  of  the  Gallican  Liturgy  which  have 
modern  parallels,  we  may  mention  the  self-communion  of  the 
priest  (approved  b}^  L,uther  in  the  Formula  Missce,  else  where 
disapproved  by  him),§  and  the  reception  of  the  bread  into  the 
hand — which  is  found  already  in  Cyrill  of  Jerusalem. ||  Special 
mention  is  made  of  the  single  cup,  in  distinction  from  the  Arian 
usage  which  allowed  the  king  a  separate  chalice. ^[  "In  Rome 
the  receiving  of  the  host  with  the  hand  was  done  away  already 

♦    RiETSCHEL,  355. 
t    KOESTLIN,  89. 

X  LiGHTKOOT,  Epistles  of  Ignatius,  p.  31. 
§  Cf.  Daniel,  Cod.  Lit.,  II,  88  n. 

It    RiETSCHEL,   287. 

H  Ibid.  315  f. 


10  MEMOIRS. 

in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  .  .  .  The  change  in  distribu- 
tion was  very  probably  influenced  by  the  fear  of  the  easier  profa- 
nation of  the  elements."* 

Roman  influence  is  to  be  noted  not  only  in  various  features 
derived  from  the  Mass,  but  in  the  structure  of  the  Liturgy  itself. 
The  threefold  distinction  of  an  introductory  confessional  Service, 
a  Service  centering  in  the  Word,  and  a  Service  centering  in  the 
Sacrament,  is  clearly  derived  from  the  Mass,  although  each  of 
these  parts  has  undergone  great  modifications:  the  introductory 
Service  is  now  congregational,  in  the  Mass  it  belongs  to  the 
Priest;  the  Word  Service  reaches  its  climax  not  in  the  Gospel, 
but  in  the  sermon.  This  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  "Sermon  is 
the  application  of  the  Word  that  is  read,"t  and  that  "a  number 
of  our  Orders  provide  for  this  (the  sermon)  under  the  direction: 
'Explanation  of  the  Gospel.'  "I  In  theory  the  Word  of  the 
Gospel  is  still  the  climax,  in  practice  the  Sermon  is  that  climax. 
Daniel  §  referring  to  Luther's  suggestion  that  the  Sermon  pre- 
cede the  Mass,  says:  "It  can  rightly  be  said  that  the  entire  wor- 
ship of  our  Church  would  have  entered  an  entirely  different  way 
if  this  opinion  of  Luther  had  always  and  in  all  places  been  ap- 
proved among  all.  For  we  should  not  have  been  entangled  in 
that  pernicious  error  according  to  which  the  Sermon  forms  not 
only  the  chief  part  of  worship,  but,  that  I  may  so  say,  the  only." 
The  Sacrament  is  no  longer  an  objective  sacrifice,  but  a  Com- 
munion. 

The  following  elements  of  the  Common  Service  are  taken 
from  the  Roman  Mass: 

The  Invocation,  the  Versicle  (Ps.  121:  2),  the  Confiteor 
(much  modified),  the  Introit,  the  Gloria  Patri  in  its  use  as  a  N. 
T.  crown  to  the  Psalms,  the  Kyrie  as  a  separate  prayer,  the  Col- 
lects, the  Pericopes  (with  numerous  changes),  the  Responses: 
Glory  be  to  Thee  and  Praise  be  to  Thee  in  connection  with  the 
Gospel.  It  is  note-worthy  that  in  the  Communion  Service  proper 
the  Common  Service  has  returned  back  of  the  Mass  and  used 
forms  long  and  widely  used  in  the  Christian  Church  or  added 
newer  forms  grounded  in  or  taken  from  Scripture.     The  Agnus 

*    RiETSCHEL,   391  ff. 

t  Dr.  Jacobs,  "The  Lutheran  Liturj^ies"  in  Christian  Worship,  p.  167. 
X  Dr.  Jacobs,  Lutheran  Movement,  p.  302. 
§    Cod.  Lit.,  p.  85  n. 


CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN   THE  LITURGY.       11 

Dei  is  found  already  in  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James  in  connection 
with  the  breaking  of  the  bread,  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  the 
Mass  by  Pope  Sergius  (fyoi);  the  three-fold  repetition  can  be 
traced  to  the  twelfth  century,  with  the  miserere  nobis  also  the 
third  time;  the  dona  nobis  pacem,  according  to  Innocent  III  was 
added  to  the  third  member  of  the  Agnus  in  time  of  great  tribula- 
tion, but  may  be  connected  with  the  older  rite,  in  which  the  kiss 
of  peace  followed  the  Ag7ius  Dei.^ 

THE    REFORMATION. 

The  Reformation  injQuence  is  seen  primarily  in  a  return  to 
N.  T.  principles,  and  the  rejection  of  the  Catholic  conception  of 
an  ex  opere  operate  worship.  Hence  followed  a  recasting  of  the 
Liturgy  into  the  older  form  of  a  congregational  Service,  its  trans- 
lation into  the  language  of  the  people,  and  a  modification  of  the 
various  elements  into  conformity  with  Scripture.  As  the  refor- 
mation of  the  Liturgy  also  fell  to  Luther,  there  are  a  few  features 
traceable  to  his  influence. 

LUTHER. 

Chief  among  these  is  the  use  of  the  Aaronitic  Benediction, 
(Num.  6:  24  S),  which  "until  then  had  never  been  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal use  except  in  a  peculiar  manner  in  the  Mozarabic  Liturgy,  "f 
Daniel  calls  it:  ' ' Pulcruni  sane  ecclesicB  LutherancB  peculiuvi  et  verum 
ailhis  divini  iyicrementuviyX  Of  great  importance  also  are  the 
addition  of  the  Church  Hymn  and  the  revival  of  the  Sermon. 
The  Hymn  has  its  liturgical  position  in  the  Deutsche  Messe  as  an 
opening  Hymn.  The  Creed  as  a  confession  of  the  people  and  the 
singing  of  a  Hymn  in  the  intervals  of  the  Distribution  also  come 
from  Luther,  while  the  Prayer  of  Thanksgiving  after  the  Com- 
munion is  his  composition.  Beyond  this  Luther's  influence  was 
far-reaching,  since  his  liturgical  writings  developed  principles 
rather  than  fornnilaled  liturgies,  and  these  principles  affected  the 
form  of  other  liturgies. 

LUTHERAN   CHURCH    OF  THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

In  the  Preface  to  our  Common  Service  we  have  this  state- 
ment: "The  Rule  prescribed  by  the  three  General  Bodies  afore- 

*    RiETSCHEL,  388.  t    Ibid.  402. 

X   Cod.  Lit.,  II,  89,  n.  5. 


12  MEMOIRS. 

said,  according  to  which  those  charged  with  the  preparation  of 
this  Service  were  to  be  guided,  and  by  which  all  questions  arising 
were  to  be  decided,  was:  'The  Common  Consent  of  the  pure 
Lutheran  Liturgies  of  the  Sixteenth  Century;  and,  where  there 
is  not  an  entire  agreement,  the  Consent  of  the  largest  number  of 
those  of  greatest  weight.'  "  The  consensus  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century  Liturgies  is  therefore  the  decisive  or  normative  influence 
in  the  formation  of  our  Common  Service,  through  which  all  the 
older  elements  have  been  transmitted.  But  new  elements  have 
also  been  added  by  these  Liturgies.  For  example,  the  rubric 
requiring  the  consecration  of  additional  elements  should  they  be 
required,  the  formula  of  distribution,  the  Nunc  Dimittis  after  the 
distribution,  (which  does  not  belong  to  the  consensus,  however), 
etc. 

The  use  of  the  Words  of  Institution  as  the  means  of  conse- 
cration present  an  interesting  history.  The  indispensableness  of 
the  Words  of  Institution  Luther  bases  on  Augustine's  saying: 
''''accedit  verbum  ad  elenienhi7n  et  fit  sacra77ientii7n,^'  which  Augus- 
tine applied  to  Baptism,  and  there  not  to  the  Words  of  Institu- 
tion, but  to  the  Gospel  in  general.*  Luther's  first  conception 
was  that  these  words  were  a  declaration  to  the  congregation,  a 
conception  found  in  a  number  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  Liturgies, 
in  the  Form.  Concord.,  Chemnitz  and  Gerhard. f  But  in  the 
Form.  Misses,  1523,  and  later,  Luther  conceives  of  the  Words  as 
a  benediction  or  consecration,  and  as  such  they  have  come  into 
the  Common  Service,  just  as  they  are  in  the  Roman  Mass.  This 
has  necessitated  the  rubric  above  mentioned,  which  the  Roman 
Church,  having  no  danger  of  exhausting  the  elements,  did  not 
need. 

REFORMED    CHURCH. 

The  influence  of  the  Reformed  Church  has  been  felt  in  two 
ways.  It  is  still  in  many  places  very  evident  in  the  lack  of  all 
liturgy,  and  an  opposition  to  liturgical  forms  as  savoring  of  Ro- 
manism. But  the  Reformed  influence  very  early  exerted  itself 
upon  the  Liturgy  itself.  The  Apostles'  Creed  was  substituted 
for  the  Nicene  first  by  the  Reformed  Churches  %  and  came  into 

*  Drews,  PRE  5:  411,  quoted  in  Rietsciiel,  301, 

t    RiETSCHEL,  433. 

:J:  ZwiNGU,  1525,  but  also  in  Doeber's  Messordnung  oi  the  same  year. 


CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES  NOTED   IN   THE  LITURGY.       13 

modern  liturgies  as  late  as  1821.*  "The  reading  of  the  Service 
in  a  colloquial  tone  was  a  species  of  mutilation  and  iconoclasm 
introduced  by  the  Reformed  type  of  theology,  and  quite  on  a  par 
with  its  other  vicious  attacks  upon  Ecclesiastical  Art."t 

To  Reformed  influence  some  might  be  tempted  to  ascribe  the 
interpretation  of  the  so-called  Declaration  of  Grace  as  an  Absolu- 
tion, and  the  use  of  the  General  Absolution.  But  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  Declaration  confessedly  has  the  form  of  an  Absolu- 
tion, and  in  the  Sixteenth  Century  lyiturgies  is  called  an  Absolu- 
tion, and  is  retained  as  such  in  Niirnberg,  1533  by  Osiander  who 
there  rejects  the  "OfFne  Schuld"  after  the  Sermon,  there  seems 
good  reason  to  reconsider  the  matter.  Osiander  rejects  the 
"Offne  Schuld"  on  the  ground  that  coming  immediately  after  the 
Sermon  it  obscures  the  absolving  character  of  the  preached  Gos- 
pel. The  same  objection  will  not  hold  against  the  Absolution  at 
the  opening  of  the  Service  nor  against  the  General  Absolution  in 
a  special  Confessional  Service.  Or,  if  the  objection  be  supposed 
valid,  then  equal  objection  could  be  raised  against  various  repeti- 
tions in  the  Liturgy,  in  which  the  same  blessing  is  repeated  or 
the  same  confession  made,  as  if  the  first  were  not  valid.  On  the 
other  hand  if  the  objection  to  the  General  Absolution  as  such 
holds  in  one  place  it  holds  in  all,  and  the  Lutheran  Church, 
which  retains  the  Confession  for  the  sake  of  the  Absolution,  has 
no  Absolution  in  connection  with  the  Confession. 

CHURCH    OF    ENGLAND. 

It  would  seem  most  natural  that  a  German  people  in  trans- 
ferring their  Liturgy  to  the  English  Language  would  be  strongly 
influenced  by  a  Church,  once  considered  the  English  Lutheran 
Church,  which  has  a  Liturgy  somewhat  similar,  and,  as  Dr.  Jacobs 
has  shown,  largely  derived  from  Lutheran  sources.  It  is  some- 
what surprising  therefore  to  find  how  limited  is  the  influence  of 
the  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  being  limited  virtually  to 
the  beautiful  translations  of  the  Collects,  (where  the  same  Col- 
lects occur),  and  some  Collects  of  English  origin. 

A  question  of  considerable  obscurity  will  always  be  the 
determination  of  the  extent  to  which  the  liturgically  developed 

*  Prussian  Agende. 

t  Archer  and  Reed,   The  Choral  Service  Book,  p.  xix. 


14  MEMOIRS. 

worship  of  the  Episcopalian  Church  has  influenced  the  revival  of 
liturgical  taste  and  customs  in  the  American  Lutheran  Church. 

PIETISM. 

To  the  Pietism  of  Spener's  time  may  be  ascribed  the  end  of 
Private  Absolution,  although  this  might  with  equal  correctness 
be  ascribed  to  corrupt  practices  connected  with  the  Private  Abso- 
lution itself.  With  the  cessation  of  Private  Absolution  the  intro- 
duction of  General  Absolution  became  necessary.  If  the  form 
adopted  can  be  traced  to  Reformed  sources,  the  idea,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  found  early  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  extends  be- 
yond it  to  the  Middle  Ages. 

To  Pietism  may  also  be  traced  the  large  development  of  Free 
Prayer,  substituted  for  the  General  Prayer,  for  which  room  is 
left  in  the  rubrics  of  the  Common  Service  only  under  the  heading 
of  "any  other  suitable  Prayer,"  which  would  rule  out  many 
"free  Prayers."  If  Luther  thought  it  wise  to  prescribe  the 
"Postille"  for  the  preacher  in  the  Deutsche  Messe  of  1526,  "weil 
der  geistreichen  Prediger  wenig  sind,"  we  may  certainly  approve 
of  the  prescribed  General  Prayer  on  the  ground  that  there  are 
few  "geistreiche  Beter." 

RATIONALISM. 

While  there  may  be  evidences  of  some  influences  of  Ration- 
alism left  in  our  Liturgy,  they  must  be  so  minute  as  to  have  es- 
caped notice.  The  custom  of  singing  a  "Hauptlied"  with  direct 
bearing  on  the  sermon — Predigtlied — dates  from  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  and  may  possibly  have  come  from  such  influence.  Ex- 
cept in  a  purely  formal  rendering  of  the  Service,  the  only  loop- 
hole for  rationalistic  influence  now  lies  in  the  sermon, — and  then 
it  must  be  a  sermon  out  of  all  harmony  with  its  setting  if  it  can 
be  rationalistic. 

AMERICAN    I^UTHERAN    CHURCH. 

To  the  American  Lutheran  Church  as  represented  in  the 
three  General  Bodies  must  be  ascribed  the  production  of  our 
Common  Service  in  the  English  Language.  But  in  preparing  the 
Service  no  mere  translation;  nor  even  a  compilation  of  Sixteenth 
Century  Liturgies  sufficed.  There  are  elements  which  appear  in 
none  of  the  latter.     The  Offertory  (from  Ps.   51:    17-19  and  Ps. 


CONTRIBUTIVB  INFI^UENCES  NOTED   IN   THE   LITURGY.       15 

51:  10-12)  is  new,  the  suggestion  being  found  in  Schoberlein.* 
The  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  Service  might  also  reveal 
independent  work  on  the  part  of  the  Committee,  which  could  be 
discovered  only  by  a  detailed  comparison  with  all  the  materials. 
The  Common  Service  as  a  whole,  especially  in  its  English  form, 
is  due  to  an  American  influence,  differing  as  it  does  from  all 
German  Liturgies,  especially  in  the  removal  of  local  peculiarities: 
in  its  German  form  it  bears  as  distinctive  an  American  influence, 
extending  even  to  the  new  translation  of  the  Collects,  made  with 
special  reference  to  their  probable  use  with  music. 

PRESENT    DAY    INFLUENCES. 

Looking  at  the  liturgical  work  of  to-day  we  may  roughly 
sum  up  the  influences  as  follows:  There  are  two  forms  of  critical 
influence,  one  of  which  criticises  to  reject,  the  other  to  reform. 
A  third  tendency  occupies  itself  with  developing  the  Liturgy  as 
it  is  by  archaeological  and  historical  study  of  it,  and  a  revival  of 
its  musical  and  aesthetic  rendering. 


*  R.  M.  Smith,  Sources,  p.  52. 

W.  A.  Lambert. 
Saltsburg,  Pa. 


REMARKS  ON  SOME  OF  OUR  LITURGICAL  CLASSICS. 


Recent  studies  and  discoveries  have  thrown  light  on  the  history 
of  the  Lutheran  Service.  Luther's  Formida  MisscE  of  1523,  fol- 
lowing his  treatises  of  15 16-1523,  was  evoked  by  a  demand  for  a 
revision  of  the  Service.  His  criticisms  on  the  Mass  had  been 
eagerly  and  widely  accepted.  In  accordance  with  his  teaching 
the  idea  that  it  was  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  was  rejected,  and  the 
demand  for  a  Service  in  the  language  of  the  people,  in  which 
fuller  instruction  in  the  Word  of  God  should  be  given,  was 
continually  growing.  Many  had  attempted  translations  of  the 
prayers  and  offices  of  the  Church,  and  among  these  have  been 
preserved  "Orders"  for  the  use  of  those  who  felt  themselves,  or 
actually  were,  shut  out  from  the  Communion  but  desired  to  par- 
ticipate in  it.  Carlstadt  had  tried  to  put  Luther's  principles  into 
practice  in  152 1.  Thomas  Muenzer  at  Alstedt  celebrated  a  Ger- 
man Mass  and  afterwards  published  it.  Kantz  at  Nordlingen 
published  the  first  "Evangelical  Mass."  Almost  of  the  same 
date  as  the  Fornmla  Missce  is  Nigri's  German  Mass  at  Strassburg, 
the  startingpoint  of  the  Strassburg  type  of  Service.  The  princi- 
ples of  the  Formula  Missce  were  soon  combined  with  Kantz' s 
work,  as  in  the  Pseudo-Bugenhagen  of  1524,  and  Kantz' s  with 
Nigri's,  and  these  again  with  the  Fornmla  Misses,  at  Nuremberg. 
All  this  is  evidence  of  the  widespread  and  insistent  demand  for  a 
reformation  of  the  Service  and  the  provision  of  a  German  Mass, 
Luther's  Formula  Missts  is  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  a  compli- 
ance with  this  demand.  When  it  was  published,  Kantz' s  and 
Nigri's  Masses  were  in  existence.  It  professes  to  tell  how  the 
Service  was  at  that  time  performed  at  Wittenberg.  Nigri's  and 
Bucer's  principles  were  cotemporary  with  it.  It  is  to  be  regard- 
ed then  as  in  some  sense  a  critique  on  what  had  already  been  un- 
dertaken, as  well  as  on  the  old  Mass;  and  reasons  must  be  found 

(xvii) 


18  MEMOIRS. 

why  Luther  did  not  accept  and  applaud  the  work  already  done. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  ignored  or  rejected  it. 

We  are  not  ready  to  admit  Smend's  suggestion  that  Luther 
did  not  accept  these  attempts  at  reformation  for  something  like 
vanity,  or  the  desire  to  arrogate  to  himself  a  sole  leadership. 
Smend  himself  shows  that  the  Strassburg  Orders  ran  a  course  of 
their  own  in  spite  of  a  subsequent  influence  of  the  Formula  Missce. 
He  is  able  to  detect  that  influence  in  several  easil}^  distinguisha- 
ble parts.  The  Nuremberg  Service  derived  from  them  certain 
divergencies  from  the  Strassburg  type.  This  is  enough  to  show 
that  Luther  was  not  wrong  in  scenting  another  spirit. 

On  one  point  Luther's  motive  was  clear.  While  he  wished 
for  a  German  Mass,  he  was  afraid  that  his  disciples  would  go  too 
fast.  He  wished  to  retain  as  much  of  the  old  Service  as  he  could 
in  accordance  with  evangelical  principles.  He  even  did  not  wish 
to  give  up  the  use  of  the  Latin  tongue  altogether,  so  far  as  it 
might  be  retained  to  edification.  Bugenhagen  shows  some  an- 
noyance in  the  letter  he  wrote  complaining  of  the  Kantzian  Mass 
that  had  been  published  under  his  name,  because  adherents  of 
the  forward  movement  called  the  Latin  Service  retained  at  Wit- 
tenberg with  German  Lections  and  Sermon  no  German  Mass  at 
all.  Luther  put  a  high  value  on  the  traditional  music  of  the 
Service  and  could  not  think  it  possible  to  use  it  to  literal  prose 
translations.  I  do  not  think  this  ever  has  been  done  successfully 
in  the  German  Churches.  To  translate  a  Service  of  Worship  it 
is  not  enough  to  set  down  the  meaning  of  sentences  so  that  they 
shall  be  clear  to  an  attentiv^e  mind.  This  is  the  fault  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  versions  of  German  Hymns  which  have  been  incor- 
porated into  our  Church  Book.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Dr. 
Beale  Schmucker  felt  the  same  hesitation  in  regard  to  the  Matin 
and  Vesper  Services:  he  doubted  whether  they  were  possible 
without  the  traditional  music  and  whether  the  traditional  music 
could  be  set  to  any  available  translation.  Every  language  has  a 
genius  of  its  own;  and  the  genius  of  a  language  is  the  genius  of 
the  people  whose  utterance  it  is.  It  is  not  enough  even  to  trans- 
fuse the  thoughts  into  German  words  and  idioms.  No,  the 
Word  of  God  must  be  wrought  into  the  German  people  and 
evoked  from  them  again.  And  the  new  texts  thus  born,  repro- 
ducing the  substance  of  the  old,  but  in  a  form  as  unlike  the  old 
Latin  forms  as  the  German  worshipper  is  unlike  the  Latin,  as 


REMARKS   ON   SOME   OF   OUR   LITURGICAL   CLASSICS.  19 

Luther  was  unlike  yEneas  S3'lvius,  as  the  lyatin  forms  were  un- 
like the  Greek,  must  have  a  musical  setting^  of  their  own.  What 
would  we  Americans  have  done  with  the  Lutheran  Service  if  it 
had  not  been  Enj^lished  for  us  by  centuries  of  use?  And  Luther 
was  not  far  wrong  when  he  put  the  sacred  texts  into  German 
rhymes  as  freely  as  the  forty-sixth  Psalm  was  rendered  in  Ein* 
Feste  Burg.  Of  course  he  missed  the  mark  sometimes,  as  in 
Jesaia  dcm  Propheten  das gcscliah;  but  not  often.  His  translations 
of  the  Collects  show  that  he  alone  of  the  Germans  can  be  ranked 
with  Cranmer  for  liturgical  sensitiveness  and  command  of  the 
language  of  devotion.  Luther  revolted  from  the  harsh,  inartistic 
wooden,  impossible  versions  of  the  first  attempts  at  a  German 
Mass.  Of  some  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  put  the  material  of 
worship  into  German  Smend  says,  "The  prayers  breathe  a  glow- 
ing mysticism  and  a  deep  tremulous  longing  utters  itself  in  the 
meditations.  Nor  is  it  seldom  we  perceive  a  play  upon  words 
and  notions  such  as  marks  a  very  leisurely  worshipper  and  is  far 
from  simplicity."  They  speak  of  \h.Q.  Zarten  Fronleichnam  und 
Edlest  Bhit,  of  the  Rosinfarbes  Blut,  of  Christ.  It  is  interesting 
to  compare  their  prose  versions  of  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  which 
never  found  a  place  in  German  worship,  and  perhaps  occasioned 
the  readiness  with  which  Luther  adapted  himself  to  the  tradition- 
al permission  to  use  or  omit  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  at  the  will  of 
the  minister.  Luther  and  Bugenhagen  were  impatient  of  the 
notion  that  it  was  wrong  to  have  the  Service  in  Latin.  They 
were  not  willing  to  force  upon  the  people  a  change  that  would  be 
felt  by  every  one,  and  would  be  offensive  to  sober  people  of  good 
taste  as  well  as  to  those  attached  to  the  old  Order.  At  the  centre, 
they  also  felt  all  the  difiiculties  besetting  their  work  more  than 
their  eager  imitators  could.  Luther  therefore  would  have  "put 
the  brakes"  on  the  reform.  But  he  was  driven  by  it.  And, 
finally,  the  German  Mass  showed  the  utmost  he  was  able  to  ac- 
complish in  that  time  and  the  way  he  thought  it  ought  to  be 
done. 

Another  reason  for  the  rejection  of  these  immature  essays  at 
liturgical  construction  lay  in  a  well-grounded  distrust  of  their 
principles.  Our  first  impulse  on  reading  the  Masses  of  Muenzer 
is  to  admire  the  courage  and  taste  shown  and  their  evident  re- 
spect for  the  ancient  form.  He  was  a  respectable  hymnist.  We 
are  told  that  the  musical  setting  of  the  parts  is  not  without  mer- 


20  MEMOIRS. 

it.  He  shows  considerable  liturgical  knowledge.  Yet  Luther  is 
certainly  to  be  pardoned  for  suspecting  anything  from  Carlstadt's 
or  Muenzer's  hand.  We  do  not  know  whether  he  ever  gave  to 
these  concepts  any  attention.  But  lest  we  may  condemn  the 
great  reformer  for  rejecting  the  work  other  men  were  doing,  who 
were  eager  to  work  out  principles  for  which  he  had  contended, 
let  us  look  at  Muenzer's  Masses  more  closely. 

Here  we  find  traces  of  a  pantheistic  mysticism.  For  in- 
stance, in  comment  on  the  Sanctis  Muenzer  says:  "We  sing  the 
Sa^idus  that  we  may  know  how  a  man  should  be  prepared  in  or- 
der to  receive  the  Supper  without  injury  to  his  soul.  He  should 
and  must  know  that  God  is  in  him;  he  must  not  imagine  that  He 
is  a  thousand  miles  away  from  him;  but  as  Heaven  and  earth  is 
full,  full,  of  God,  and  as  the  Father  continually  begets  the  Son 
in  us,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  does  nothing  else  than  glorify  the 
Crucified  in  us."  ....  He  seems  to  make  the  validity  of  the 
Sacrament  depend  on  the  faith  of  the  participants.  .  .  .In  one 
place  he  says  that  oxAy  patient  men  are  worthy  of  the  Saviour  of 
life.  .  .  .  Muenzer  exhibited  his  liturgical  knowledge  in  a  free 
combination  of  materials  from  many  Masses.  He  practically  re- 
jected all  the  Services  for  the  days  of  the  saints. 

The  Project  of  Kantz  has  many  points  of  divergence  from 
the  Order  suggested  in  the  Forimila  MisscB.  The  latter  begins 
with  the  Introit.  The  former  (and  indeed  all  these  early  forms) 
has  a  Confession  of  Sins  and  an  Absolution,  answering  to  the 
Confiteor  of  the  Mass.  It  has  been  discovered  that  the  pre-Refor- 
mation  Service  at  Wittenberg  had  a  Co7ifiteor.  Luther's  omission 
of  this,  in  spite  of  these  apparently  unobjectionable  forms,  must 
have  been  due  to  an  unwillingness  to  admit  anything  that  sa- 
voured of  the  old  distinction  between  the  priest  and  the  other 
worshippers.  Kantz  does  not  retain  much  of  the  old  Order, 
while  the  Fortnula  Missce  evidently  aims  to  keep  all  it  can.  But 
in  one  point  Kantz  goes  further  in  this  direction  than  Luther 
would  allow.  Here  we  find  after  the  Sanchis  this  prayer  of  Con- 
secration: "O  most  Merciful  Father,  help  that  this  bread  and  this 
wine  may  become  and  be  to  us  the  true  Body  and  the  innocent 
Blood  of  Thy  dear  Son  Jesus  Christ,  Who  on  the  day  before  His 
Passion,  etc."  After  the  Agnus  Dei  is  said,  "O  Lord  Jesus, 
Thou  eternal  Son  of  the  Father,  Thou  Saviour  of  the  world. 
Thou  true  and  living  God  and  Man,  redeem  us  through  this  Thy 


REMARKS    ON    SOME   OF   OUR    LITURGICAL    CLASSICS.  21 

holy  Body  and  rosy  (in  other  editions,  precious)  Blood  from  all 
sins."  After  the  Priest  receives  the  Sacrament,  he  takes  a  Host 
in  his  hand  and  shows  it  to  the  communicants,  saying,  "See,  Be- 
loved, this  is  indeed  the  holy  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
Who  suffered  bitter  death  for  you.  Receive  and  eat  it  that  it 
may  feed  and  nourish  and  keep  you  unto  eternal  life."  .  .  With 
the  Cup  he  says,  "See,  this  is  indeed  the  precious  treasure  of  the 
costly  Blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  wherewith  ye  are  re- 
deemed. Receive  it  and  divide  it  among  yourselves  to  the  wash- 
ing away  of  your  sins."  The  Niinc  Dimiitis  is  added,  to  be  said 
on  bended  knee. 

It  is  easy  to  detect  the  doctrinal  elements  which  render  this 
immature  performance  objectionable. 

When  we  come  to  the  Strassburg  Masses,  we  find  many 
questionable  features.  Nigri's  form,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, is  little  more  than  a  translation  of  the  Missal  in  use  in 
the  Latin  Service.  There  is  here  also  an  insistence  on  the  idea 
of  our  own  Offering  of  our  bodies  as  a  living  sacrifice.  The  tra- 
ditional pericopes  are  discarded,  and  hand  in  hand  with  this  is  a 
gradual  abandonment  of  the  Church  Year.  The  disuse  of  the 
traditional  pericopes  was  advised  by  Muenzer  also.  An  early 
project  of  a  German  Mass  ascribed  to  Oecolampadius  chooses 
lections  intended  to  make  the  Lord's  Supper  no  more  than  a 
commemoration  of  the  Death  of  Christ.  When  he  wrote  the 
Forfnu/a  Misses  Luther  was  not  averse  to  the  change  from  the 
traditional  pericopes  but  was  not  prepared  to  take  the  step;  but 
in  the  interval  between  then  and  the  composition  of  the  German 
Mass  (1525),  he  had  decided  to  stand  by  the  old  Order.  He  was 
also  unwilling  to  give  up  the  celebration  of  the  Feasts  of  otur 
Lord.  As  the  Strassburg  reform  proceeded,  the  Holy  Supper 
was  more  and  more  relegated  to  a  second  place  in  the  worship  of 
the  Congregation,  and  everything  was  made  secondary  to  in- 
struction in  the  W^ord  of  God.  Luther  in  his  German  Mass 
seems  to  intimate  that  those  who  always  are  seeking  some  new 
thing,  are  already  getting  tired  of  the  new  Service,  and  expresses 
a  dread  of  the  use  enthusiasts  may  make  of  the  liberty  of  teach- 
ing it  grants  them. 

The  Strassburg  scheme  had  no  influence  at  Wittenberg. 
But  at  Nuremberg  it  had.  It  came  to  Nuremlierg  combined  with 
the  proposition  of  Kantz.     It  has  been  said  that  the  Nuremberg 


22  MBMOIRS. 

reform  of  the  Service  belongs  to  the  Strassburg  type.  Its  diver- 
gence from  the  Wittenberg  Order  was  recognized.  The  Witten- 
berg Reformers  decHned  a  proposition  to  consult  with  reference 
to  a  uniform  Service.  It  did  not  seem  to  them  desirable  that 
Christian  liberty  in  such  matters  should  be  covered  up  by  uni- 
formity in  worship.  The  separate  development  at  Nuremberg 
finally  made  itself  felt  in  the  Saxon  series  of  Orders  through  the 
Mecklenberg  Order  of  1552,  the  Mecklenberg  Order  of  1540  hav- 
ing been  based  on  Brandenburg-Niireniberg  1553.  To  the  earli- 
est Nuremberg  Order  we  owe  the  Exhortation  in  the  Communion 
Service,  probably  the  composition  of  Osiander,  and  to  the  Orders 
of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  coming  to  Nuremberg  by  way 
of  Strassburg,  our  Confession  of  Si^is  and  Declaration  of  Grace,  and 
the  Nunc  Dimittis. 

It  would  not  be  just  to  say  that  the  German  Mass  of  1526 
represents  lyUther's  final  conclusion  on  the  Service.  The  Witten- 
berg Order  of  1533  is  far  more  ornate,  and  the  Saxon  of  1539  is 
more  characteristic  of  the  Normal  lyUtheran  L,iturgy. 


Edward  T,  Horn. 


Reading,  Pa. 


PREACHING   AND  THE   DAY. 


Does  the  Day  influence  the  Sermon,  or  is  the  Sermon  independ- 
ent of  the  Day?  Is  the  Sermon  something  distinct  from  the  rest 
of  the  Service  or  an  integral  part,  and  as  such  influencing  or  in- 
fluenced by  the  other  parts?  Is  our  Worship  an  harmonious 
whole  or  made  up  of  indiscriminate  acts  having  no  inter-relation 
or  bearing  no  efTect  upon  each  other?  Is  this  Worship  which  is 
such  a  great  part  of  the  Church's  life,  based  on  a  distinct  plan 
with  a  definite  object  in  view  or  simply  an  outpouring  of  the  mo- 
mentary emotion,  or  an  expression  of  personal  thought,  will  or 
experience?  If  based  on  a  distinct  plan  does  this  leave  any  im- 
print on  the  structure  of  the  Service  and  does  this  seek  and  de- 
mand expression? 

Let  us  keep  these  questions  in  view  and  let  them  guide  the 
consideration  of  the  subject. 

There  is  such  a  thing  as  a  Lutheran  Cultus.  The  Lutheran 
Church  observes  the  Ecclesiastical  Year.  It  is  the  Ecclesiastical 
Year  in  which  the  Cultus  thrives.  But  neither  the  Cultus  nor 
the  Church  Year  are  of  distinctly  Lutheran  manufacture;  nor  do 
they  date  simply  from  the  Reformation  era.  While  there  are 
many  things  that  may  be  brought  forward  as  marks  of  the  Re- 
formers, as  results  of  their  thought  and  touch,  still  there  is  noth- 
ing that  has  not  come  from  a  former  age,  that  does  not  trace  its 
foundation  to  earliest  times  and  date  from  the  days  of  the  pure 
and  unadulterated  orthodox  practice.  However  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  a  Lutheran  standard  from  which  we  must  consider  all 
matters  and  a  Lutheran  point-of-view;  but  these  are  nothing 
more  than  the  standard  and  view-point  of  the  Early  Church. 
Lutheran  Cultus  means  Christian  Cultus.  Lutheran  practice 
means  Christian  practice, — Apostolic,  post- Apostolic,  Greek  or 
Latin,  early  or  later  Roman,  or  what  you  will.     Therefore  any 

(xxiii) 


24  MEMOIRS. 

question  which  we  consider,  based  on  our  CuUus  or  Church  lyife 
of  the  present  day,  must  also  consider  the  pure  antecedents  from 
which  it  sprang  and  which  it  acknowledges  as  source  and  stand- 
ard. The  Lutheran  Church  is  in  the  hereditary  line  of  the  Ages, 
and  whatever  they  brought  forth  that  is  not  contrary  to  the  Word 
of  God  and  pure  practice,  is  hers  by  hereditary  right. 

Christian  Worship  or  the  Cultus,  from  the  earliest  times, 
whether  expressed  in  simplest  form  or  grandest  ceremonial,  has 
always  expressed  itself  harmoniously ,  as  a  dignified,  unified,  log- 
ically progressing  act.  The  various  parts  which  contributed  to 
the  structure,  were  so  arranged  that  they  would  either  eloquently 
and  pointedly  express  their  messages  to,  or  act  as  guides  for,  the 
people.  One  step  followed  the  other  preparing  for,  and  leading 
to,  the  climax,  and  therein  the  Office  ended.  The  Apostolic  ad- 
monition: "I^et  all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order"  (I  Cor. 
14:  16),  as  well  as  the  Apostolic  examples  were  faithfully 
followed;'-'^  and  this  admonition  is  the  essence  of  all  liturgical, 
structural  law  and  necessarily  means  harmony.  This  is  borne 
out  by  the  remains  of  the  earliest  traces  of  a  Christian  Liturgyf 
and  has  never  been  forsaken  by  the  Church  through  all  her  cen- 
turies of  growth  even  amid  innovations  and  false  doctrines. 

Christian  Church  I^ife  was,  first  of  all,  a  simple  outpouring  of 
the  momentary  emotion,  but  this  very  thing  was  the  basis  of  the 
structure  of  the  Christian  Year.  By  "momentary  emotion"  noth- 
ing is  meant  that  might  convey  the  slightest  suggestion  of  cer- 
tain practices  of  the  present  day.  The  expression  of  the  Worship 
was  limited  to  the  one  plain,  pre-eminent  Fact.  It  was  simpl}-  the 
Day  and  its  memory  that  engaged  their  thought;  and  these  days 
were  limited  to  a  weekly  cycle;  and  that  was  their  atmosphere. 
Every  lyord's  Day  brought  to  them  the  memorial  of  the  Day  of 


*  Neale  while  granting  the  non-Apostolic  authorship  of  the  Early  Greek  Litur- 
gies, nevertheless  claims  that  they  are  based  on  Apostolic  forms.  "These  liturgies," 
he  says,  "though  not  composed  by  the  Apostles  whose  names  they  bear,  were  the 
legitimate  development  of  their  unwritten  tradition  respecting  the  Christian  Sacrifice, 
the  words  probably,  in  the  most  important  parts,  the  general  tenor  in  all  portions, 
descending  unchanged  from  the  ApostoHc  authors."  The  Genet-al  Introduction  to 
the  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church,     p  319. 

t  See  Greek  Liturgies. — Renaudot,  Liturgiarum  Orientalium.  2  ed.  1847. 
Daniel,  Codex  Liturgicus.  Vol.  IV.  Neale  and  Littledale,  The  Lits.  of  St. 
Mk.,  St.  Jas.,  etc.  3  ed.  '75.  Englished  also  by  Neale  and  Littledale  and 
in  Ante  Nicene  Fathers,     ^'ol.  VIL 


PREACHING    AND    THE     DAY.  25 

Resurrection;  and  soon  with  that,  the  fourth  and  sixth  days  (dis- 
tinguished as  feria)  assumed  the  character  of  memorials  of  the 
Suffering,  and  the  Crucifixion  and  Death  of  Christ,  making  in 
itself  a  harmony  and  following  a  distinct  purpose.*  Starting 
from  this,  but  never  forgetting  or  forsaking  it,  the  yeariy  recur- 
rence and  remembrance  of  the  Great  Days  and  their  Facts  grad- 
ually grew  into  a  set  celebration.  And  as  the  Lord's  Day  was 
the  first  day  observed,  weekly,  so  that  Day  which  celebrated 
that  Fact  was  the  first  festival  to  be  celebrated  annually ;  but  it 
does  not  stand  alone,  any  more  than  did  the  Lord's  Day.  The 
events  closely  related  to  it  appear  with  it,  making  a  season  of 
preparation  for,  and  following  it  with  a  season  wherein  its  partic- 
ular spirit  was  brought  home  and  applied.  Then  soon  another 
Day  and  its  groups  of  lesser  dependent  feasts  (a  distinction  which 
was  made  even  in  earliest  times)  arises,  until  after  but  a  few  cen- 
turies of  Church  life,  we  find  the  Christian  Year  celebrating  the 
great  central  Days  with  their  pre-  and  post-,  seasons,  observed 
throughout  the  Church  with  greater  or  less  fidelity.  This  is  a 
matter  of  simple  ecclesiastical  history. 

The  one  had  its  effect  upon  the  other.  True,  it  was  but 
gradual,  but  nevertheless  it  was  powerful.  Hymns  f  are  found 
celebrating  the  facts  of  the  Great  Days;  Homilies  by  the  Early 
Fathers,  setting  forth  Christian  life  in  the  light  of  these  Events; 
these  even  before  we  have  any  remains  of  a  complete  Liturgy. ;{: 
The  earliest  Service-book  that  has  come  down  to  us,  the  Roman 
Sacramentary  known  as  the  Leonianum,%  points  very  plainly  to 
an  harmonious  structure  and  makes  ample  provision  for  the 
changing  spirit  of  the  great  Seasons,  of  course  in  no  wise  as  fully 
and  completely  as  later  Sacramentaries.  Yet  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  this,  the  oldest  of  Roman  liturgical  antiquities,  does  not 

*  RiETSCHEL,  Lehrbuch  d.  Liiurgik,  p.  i66  §  i8. 

t  On  Early  Hymns  cf .  Bennett,  Christian  Archeology,  c.  8,  p  272  seq. ; 
AUGUSTI,  Denkwuerdigkeiten,  V,   234;      Alt,    Christ.  Cu/tus,  I,  421. 

X  We  speak  of  the  Western  Section  of  the  Church,  since  it  is  the  Roman  an- 
tiquities more  particularly,  that  are  to  be  considered  as  antecedents  to  our  use. 

§  MURATORI,  Liturgia  Ko/nami,  Vol.  I;  published  separately  by  Feltoe,  Sac- 
ramentarium  Leonianum.  Cambridge  Press.  '96.  Probst,  Die  aeltesten  roem^ 
Sacramcntarien  und  Ordines  erklaert,  for  criticism.  The  Gelasianuin  is  pub- 
lished by  Wilson.  Oxford  Press.  '94.  And  with  the  Gregorian  may  also  be  found 
in  Muratori,  which  also  compares  and  gives  the  others  mentioned.  The  Mozarabic 
is  published  by  Migne.     Paris.     1850. 


26  MEMOIRS. 

limit  its  variables  to  one  set  for  a  particular  Day  or  occasion;  but 
frequently  provides  two  and  even  more  sets,  all  of  which  bear 
upon  the  one  fact  of  the  Day. 

A  little  later  we  come  upon  a  group  of  Sacramentaries,  An- 
tiphonaries  and  lycctionaries,  out  of  which  we  can  construct  a 
complete  and  detailed  structure  in  which  not  only  the  great  Days 
are  illuminated  by  special  observances  and  appointments,  but  the 
feria,  the  passage  from  Lord's  Day  to  I^ord's  Day,  are  empha- 
sized and  provided  for  in  much  the  same  manner.  We  speak  of 
the  Sacramentaries  of  Gelasius  and  Gregory;  the  Ambrosian, 
Mozarabic  and  Galilean  Office-books;  the  Antiphonary  ascribed 
to  Gregory*  in  various  forms  and  othersf  and  various  manuscript 
Lectionaries-I  The  oldest  of  these  MSS  goes  back  as  far  as  the 
year  700;  Probst  §  would  give  ih^  Gelasiaimm  an  even  greater 
age;  and  since  most  of  these  MSS  are  not  much  younger,  (the  9th 
Century  at  latest),  we  have  a  rather  high  age  for  a  completed 
fabric.  1 1  We  said  these  MSS  contribute  a  complete  and  detailed 
structure.  How  is  this  shown?  In  the  Propjia*^  and  other  vari- 
ables; and  the  richness  and  variety  as  well  as  aptness,  of  Introits, 
Collects,  Lections,  Antiphons,  Graduals,  Responsories,  Offer- 
tories, Collects  ante-,  and  post-,  nomina,  Prefaces,  Post-commun- 
ions, Hymns,  etc.,  are  abundant  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  Chris- 
tian Year  did  have  an  effect,  and  that  not  a  weak  one,  upon  the 
expression  of  the  Worship,  and  that  those  who  composed  the 
variables  and  appointed  them  did  so  under  this  influence.  What 
more  natural,  than  that  Feast  and  Fast  centered  in  the  life  of 


*  Berno  Augiensis,  (ti045)  says  in  his  de  rebus  ad  miss,  perl.,  c.  i:  that 
Gregory  was  the  *^ordinaior  libri  Saeramentarum  et  Anliphonarujn." 

t  Rancke,  Das  Kirchliche  Pericopensysleiti.     p  Ii6  seqq. 

X  Ibid,  p  126   seqq. 

§  Probst,  D.  aelt.  Roem,  Sac,  etc.     p   156  §  34. 

II  Rancke  recognizes  it  as  a  complete  system  by  9th  Century.  Pericopensystem. 
p.  406.     Thesis  14. 

IF  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  completeness  of  the  Propria  etc.  in  these  earhest 
liturgical  remains  presupposes  their  use  in  an  earlier  period.  In  other  words,  if  a 
Sacramentary,  coming  to  us  from  the  early  part  of  the  8th  Cent,  contains  full  Pro- 
pria, it  is  not  presumptuous  to  suppose  that  they  were  in  use  the  latter  part  of  the 
7th  Cent,  or  earlier.  They  would  not  necessarily  come  into  use  for  the  first  time 
with,  and  be  a  complete  and  personal  work,  as  a  whole,  of  the  one  editing  the 
Sacramentary.  He,  no  doubt,  drew  from  older  sources.  Then  it  follows  that  some 
earlier  minds  embraced  the  idea  of  an  harmony  in  structure,  at  least,  and  so  ex- 
pressed it  in  the  dress  of  the  Service. 


PREACHING    AND    THK    DAY.  27 

Christ  and  His  teaching,  should  influence  and  express  itself  i7i 
the  worship  of  that  Christ  and  about  His  gift  to  His  Church,  the 
Sacrament. 

The  structure  of  the  Service  proper  has  undergone  many- 
changes.  There  seem  to  have  been  two  Services  or  a  twofold 
Service  in  Apostolic  times.  One  a  purely  preaching  Servdce, 
missionary  and  catechetical  in  its  character, — simple  yet  unified; 
the  other  celebrating  the  Supper.  This  custom  was  followed  in 
the  early  post- Apostolic  period;  but  gradually  the  two  were  weld- 
ed into  one,  till  we  find  the  Chief  Service  embracing  both,  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Mass  resulting.  Yet  while  they  had  become  one, 
the  distinction  was  not  lost.  There  were  other,  lesser  Services, 
as  well  on  week-days  which  had  as  their  purpose  instruction  in 
the  Word;  and  for  the  clergy — though  attendance  on  the  part  of 
the  laity  was  urged  as  well — there  was  the  arrangement  of  the 
day — the  Canonical  Hours;*  and  these  again  were  appointed  with 
reason. f 

The  earliest  liturgical  remains  while  uniting  the  two,  still 
mark  the  distinction  by  dividing  the  Service  into  the  missa  cate- 
chumenorum  and  the  missa  fidelium ;  but  the  structure  is  such  that 
the  progress  from  the  one  part  to  the  other  is  not  attended  with 
a  distinct  break  but  leads  up  to  the  Celebration  as  the  final  and 
climacteric  act.  The  first  part  is  the  Service  of  the  Word  in 
which  the  reading  of  the  Word  and  the  preaching|  by  the  Bishop 
or  Presbyter  appointed  by  him,  is  the  height  reached;  the  second, 
the  Celebration  not  separate  but  as  a  logical  advance.  In  the 
first  the  Word  is  declared  generally;  in  the  second  applied  indi- 


*  RiETSCHKL,  Lehrbuch.  p  169.  Battifol,  History  of  the  Rom.  Breviary. 
c.   I — "The  Genesis  of  the  Can.  Hours." 

t  "Offer  up  your  prayers  in  the  morning,  at  the  third  hour,  the  sixth,  the  ninth, 
the  evening  and  at  cock-crowing:  in  the  morning,  returning  thanks  that  the  Lord 
has  sent  you  light,  that  He  has  brought  you  past  the  night  and  brought  on  the  day; 
at  the  third  hour,  because  at  that  hour  the  Lord  received  the  sentence  of  condemna- 
tion from  Pilate;  at  the  sixth,  because  at  that  hour  He  was  crucified;  at  the  ninth, 
because  all  things  were  in  commotion  at  the  crucifixion  of  the  Lord,  as  trembling  at 
the  bold  attempt  of  the  impious  Jews,  and  not  bearing  the  injury  offered  to  their 
Lord;  in  the  evening,  giving  thanks  that  He  has  given  you  the  night  to  rest  from 
the  daily  labors;  at  cock-crowing,  because  that  hour  brings  the  good  news  of  the 
coming  on  of  the  day  for  the  work  proper  for  the  light."  Cons.  Apos.  Bk.  VHI, 
c.  34. 

X  Various  passages  lead  us  to  suppose  that  the  lection  contributed  to  the  text  of 
the  sermon. 


28  MEMOIRS. 

vidually.  The  first  part  did  not  suffer  for  lack  of  attention  or 
honor,  nor  did  they  fail  to  appreciate  its  true  and  great  value. 
The  rich  remains  of  homilies  by  the  Fathers  of  those  days  show 
us  how  active  they  were  in  the  preaching  of  the  Word  and  how 
they  looked  upon  this  as  one  of  the  highest  acts  of  worship. 

With  the  growth  and  introduction  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
"Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,"  the  Service  is  made  to  feel  its  effect.  It 
changed  the  view-point,  brought  a  foreign  spirit  into  the  wor- 
ship, which  evinces  itself  in  the  ideas  of  "propitiation"  and 
"merit";  and  the  edifying  of  the  people  is  sadly  neglected.  Yet 
the  structure  remains  unchanged,  becoming  more  and  more  set- 
tled on  the  outlines  of  the  past,  until  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the 
Great,  it  reaches  its  own  climax. 

It  was  Gregory  who  filled  out  the  earlier  structure  which 
had  already  been  enriched  by  Leo  and  Gelasius,*  providing  a 
complete  set  of  Propria,  by  adding  to  the  treasure  of  the  past. 
He  is  the  acknowledged  father  of  the  present  system.  In  his 
work  the  influence  of  the  Church  Year  is  very  apparent.  It  was 
strong  in  Gelasian  times.  It  was  evident  in  Leonine  times.  It 
shows  itself  far  earlier  in  no  indistinct  manner. 

What  is  there  to  show  for  this? 

To  go  back  all  the  way — there  are  a  number  of  passages  in 
the  New  Testament  which  speak  of  the  "First  Day  of  the  week' ' — 
"the  Lord's  Day" — in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  the  supposition 
that  it  was  observed  as  a  day  of  special  worship,  f  Following 
this,  in  post- Apostolic  times,  this  observance  can  be  recognized 
as  a  settled  institution,!  and  a  stated  time  for  the  assembling  of 
the  people  for  worship.  In  these  evidences  the  character  of  the 
Day  is  also  made  evident.  Almost  as  old  is  the  observance  of  the 
week,  in  particular  the  Stational  Days,§  reasons  being  given  for 
this  custom  as  well.     As  early  is  the  growth  of  the  daily  hours 


*  Walafrid  Strabo,  De  Rebus  Ecd.  c.  22.  M.  S.  L.  114,  p  946,  quoted 
at  length  in  Probst,  De  aelt.  Roem.  Sac.  p  148,  note  2.  John  the  Deacon, 
Life  of  Gregory,  II,  17,  for  which  see  Duchesne,  Christian  Worship,  p  126,  n.  5. 
For  a  criticism  of  these  pp  see  Probst,  p  148  seq.  and  301  seq. 

t  Acts  20:  7;   I  Cor.  16:  2. 

t  Justin  Martyr,  (ti66),  Apol.  c,  67.  For  text  see  Hering,  Huelfsbuch 
zur  Einfuehrung  in  d.  Lit.  Studium.  p.  7.  (Tertullian,  de  cor.  mil.  3.  Ante 
N.  F.  Ill,  94,  de  fuga.  A.  N.  F.  IV,  125.)  Pliny's  Letter  (111-113;.  Hering, 
p  3.     Rietschel,  154  §  17.     Bingham,  Bk.  XIII,  c,  9,  §  i  seq. 

§  Rietschel  and  Bfngham  as  above. 


PREACHING    AND    THE    DAY.  29 

for  prayer,  tracing  the  inception  of  their  observance  to  Apostolic 
times*  and  very  early  accompanied  with  the  reason  for  their  use. 

The  Festivals  followed ;  and  again  we  note  that  the  oldest 
and — almost  from  the  earliest  times — the  most  widely  observed  is 
that  which  celebrates  the  Fact  which  marked  the  observance  of 
the  First  Day,  the  Pascha.  There  appear  to  be  evidences  of  it  in 
Apostolic  times.  In  a  few  years  it  is  found  all  over  the  Church. 
Soon  differences  arise  over  its  proper  date — as  early  as  i6o  A.  D. 
between  Polycarp  of  Smyrna  and  Anicetus  of  Rome.  Pentecost 
and  the  festival  season  of  the  inter  fifty  days  come  into  being  soon 
after.  The  Feast  of  the  Ascension  appears  in  the  4th  Century; 
that  of  the  Epiphany  is  found  in  the  Eastern  Section  at  the  end 
of  the  3rd.  The  Nativity  in  the  East  is  observed  earlier  still,  in 
the  West  it  is  authorized  by  Julius  of  Rome  (337-352).  j  And 
these  are  mentioned  as  Festival  groups. 

In  the  meantime  the  Service  is  developing,  becoming  a  digni- 
fied and  expressive  Ceremonial.  Prominent  in  it  is  the  place  the 
reading  of  the  Word  assumes.  At  first  the  number  of  Lections 
varied,  embracing  the  "Law  and  the  Prophets"  with  the  writings 
of  Evangelists  and  Apostles;  %  then  Old  Testament,  Epistle  and 
Gospel, §  and  then  confined  to  two|| — Epistle  and  Gospel.  And 
although  at  first  the  choice  of  these  lections  is  dependent  upon 
the  will  of  the  Bishop,^  yet  from  the  earliest  times  the  Festivals 
and  Eessons  exerted  an  influence  in  this  direction  which  was  not 
resisted.  Set  Lessons  are  placed  on  these  Days.  There  is  an  ap- 
pointment in  Origen**  for  the  Passion  tide,  another  by  Am- 
brose, ft  In  Augustine  we  note  the  very  marked  passage  where- 
in he  tells  of  how  the  congregation  in  one  of  the  Churches  evinced 
its  displeasure  when  the  Passion  was  read  according  to  St.  John 
instead  of  that  customary  according  to  St.   Matthew;^  and  that 


*  Acts  3:  i;  2:  46.  Bingham,  XIII,  9,  sec.  8.  Rietschel,  149.  Batti- 
FOL  as  above. 

t  For  the  Festivals  see  Rietschel,  172,  19  seq. 

X   Const.  Apos.  VIII,  5.    Tert.,  de prase,  heret,  36.  For  text,  Rietschel,  224. 

§    Const.  Apos.  II,  57. 

II  Augustine,  Ser.  de  Verb.  Apos.  176.  *■* Apostolum  audivimus,  .  .  evangel- 
ium  attdivimus.^' 

H  AUGUSTI,  Denkwuerdigkeiten,  VI,  106.     Cf.  V,  239,  240. 

•♦  Origen,  In  Jobum,  lib.  I.     Cf.  August:,  VI,  iii. 

tt  Ambrose,  Ap.  33.     Cf.  Augusti,  VI,  iii. 

XX  See  Nebe,  Evang.  Perikopen.     I,  6. 


80  MEMOIRS. 

there  were  lections  that  were  customary  is  adduced  from  a  num- 
ber of  passages  from  the  writings  of  the  same  Father.*  Basilf 
in  one  of  his  homihes  on  Baptism  in  I,ent,  notices  the  lessons 
which  were  read  that  day  and  mentions  them.  Maximus  Tauri- 
ensis  in  one  of  his  Epiphany  homilies  mentions  the  appointments 
for  that  Festival. I  From  the  writings  of  Chrysostom,  we  gather 
that  the  people  knew  what  the  lycctions  would  be,  since  he  urges 
them  to  read  them  beforehand. §  And  Augustine  tells  us  that 
"some  lessons  were  so  fixed  and  appropriated  to  certain  times  and 
seasons  that  no  others  might  be  read  in  their  stead;"  1|  and  men- 
tions in  particular,  in  referring  to  the  Festival  of  Easter,  when 
for  four  days  successively  the  Resurrection  History  is  read  ac- 
cording to  the  four  Evangelists.^  On  the  day  of  the  Lord's 
Passion,  the  history  of  His  sufferings  was  read  according  to  St. 
Matthew;*^^  and  for  the  fifty  days  between  Easter  and  Pentecost, 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  appointed. ft 

Still  more  to  the  point,  these  Lections  were  preached  upon; 
and  we  possess  homilies  from  various  sections  of  the  Church  on 
the  same  texts,  which  were  read  for  like  occasions.  Of  these 
Lections  not  a  few  remain  in  use  to-day.  For  example:  An  homi- 
ly by  Athanasius  is  based  on  the  Gospel  for  the  Nativity  (Lk.II;) 
one  also  by  Chrysostom,  wherein  he  mentions  that  the  celebration 
of  this  Festival,  though  but  lately  introduced  in  their  midst,  had 
"long  been  celebrated  from  Thrace  to  Spain."  J :j:  There  are  also 
five  by  Ambrose  on  the  same  Text.  On  the  Gospel  for  the 
Epiphany  (Matt.  2:  1-12)  there  is  one  by  Basil  in  which  he  de- 
scribes the  history,  and  four  by  Ambrose  on  the  two  texts  (Matt. 
3:  13-17  and  John  2:  i-ii — the  account  of  the  baptism  of  Christ 
and  the  first  miracle)  used  together.     On  the  Palm  Sunday  Gos- 

*  AuGUSTi,  VI,   108  seq.     Nebe,  I,  6. 

t  Basil,  Horn,  ij  de  Bap.  and  in  Horn.  21  in  Lacizis.  Bingham,  Bk.  XIV,  3. 

X  Bingham,  XIV,  3.  Maximus  Tauriensis,  Horn.  4  in  Epipk.  The  les- 
sons are:   Isa.  60;   Matt,  2;   John  i. 

§  Chrysostom,  in  John  11,  also  58.     M.  S.  L.  59. 

II  Augustine,  Expos,  in  I  Joan,  in  Prccfat.  See  AuGUSTi,  VI,  108-9  fo"^ 
text. 

H  Text  given  AuGUSTi,  VI,  109.  Augustine,  Ser.  de  Tempore,  139,  140, 
141,  144,  148. 

**  Nkbe,    Evang.  Perikopen.  I,  6. 

tt  Augustine,  Text,  Tract  VI  in  Joan,  in  Augusti,  VI,   109. 

XX  This  with  the  fact  that  the  Gospel  used  was  Lk.  ii,  might  allow  us  to  deduce 
that  this  was  the  Lection  as  widely  used. 


PREACHING    AND    THE)    DAY.  31 

pel,  one  by  Epiphanius  who  also  has  one  on  the  Epistle  for  the 
Ascension  (Acts  i:  i-ii).  For  Pentecost,  there  is  one  by  Greg- 
orj'  Naz.  on  Acts  2:  1-13,  used  in  such  a  manner  that  there  can 
be  no  doubt  as  to  its  use  as  the  Festival  IvCCtion.* 

Is  it  possible  to  show  whether  the  various  Lessons  had  any 
relation  to  each  other,  or  to  the  Day  or  Season? 

Augustine  says  in  Ser.  i6§  de  Ve?'b.  Apos.:  "We  have  heard 
the  Apostle,  we  have  heard  the  Psalm,  we  have  heard  the  Gos- 
pel,— all  the  Divine  lessons  agree' '^  {consonanf) .  Again  he  uses 
the  lessons  together:  "We  have  heard  the  first  lesson  from  the 
Apostle, — then  we  have  sung  a  Psalm, — after  this  came  the  les- 
son from  the  Gospel,  we  will  discourse  upon  these  three  lessons, 
as  far  as  time  permits."^  Chrysostom  devotes  an  entire  homily 
to  the  reason  for  the  use  of  Acts  between  Easter  and  Pentecost.§ 

We  do  not  adduce  these  evidences  as  proof  of  the  existence 
of  a  set  L,ectionary  arranged  thematically,  but  we  believe  there  is 
sufficient  evidence  here  for  us  to  recognize,  ist,  that  the  idea  of 
harmony  between  Day  and  I^esson,  or  Season  and  Lesson — wider 
still — the  Service,  was  strong;  and  2nd,  the  beginning,  in  these 
appointments,  of  what  very  soon  after  takes  the  form  of  the  Sys- 
tem of  Pericopes. 

The  earliest  Lectionary  remains  bring  this  very  important 
part  of  the  Service  to  us  in  a  system  of  Epistle  and  Gospel  ap- 
pointments for  the  entire  year,  and  these  are  known  as  Pericopes. 
A  Pericope  is  a  particular  portion  of  Holy  Scripture  chosen  for 
an  especial  purpose,  considered  complete  in  itself  and  used  as  a 
Service  Lection.  || 

The  most  interesting  of  the  antiquities  is  the  so-called 
''Comes"  of  Jerome  (1384),  known  to  us  however,  in  a  number 
of  recensions  only.     In  other  branches  of  the  Church   traces  of 


*  Many  ancient  homilies  are  given  in  Augusti,  Vols.  I-III. 

+  Apostoium  audivimus^  Psalimirn  attdivitntts,  evangeluim  audivimus,  conso~ 
nant  omn-es  divirus  Uctioiies,  quoted  from  Palmer,  Origines  Lit,  Vol.  II,  47,  note 
"o."     Ser.  ibj  de  Verb.  Apos.     Benedic.  ed.  V,   796. 

X  Primatn  leciionetn  audivi/nus  Apostoli — Deinde  contavunus  Psalmutn — post 
haec  evangelica  lectio.  Has  tres  lectiones,  quantum  pro  tempore  possumus,  pertracte- 
mus.     Ser.  jyb  de  Verb.  Apos.  V,  839. 

§  Chrysostom,  Horn.  63,  Cur  in  rente.  Acta  legantur.  See  Bingham,  Bk. 
XIV,  3,  where  a  resume  of  the  homily  is  given. 

II   AUGUST!,  Denkwucrdigkeiten,  VI,    197. 


32  MEMOIRS. 

Other  and  independent  Lectionaries  are  found.  Claiidianus  Mani- 
ercus  (C450)  prepared  one  for  the  Church  at  Vienna.*  Gennadi- 
usf  tells  of  another  prepared  by  Musacus  of  Marseilles  (0458) 
and  the  passage  referring  to  it  is  of  extreme  interest  because  it 
shows  that  the  opinion  then  prev^alent  was  that  the  Lection  was 
not  an  independent  part  of  the  Ser\'ice  but  something  demanded, 
and  depended  upon,  b}-  the  entire  Office.  One  idea  permeated  the 
Service.  It  was  an  harmonious,  united  whole.  It  further  shows 
these  Lections  to  be  the  appointed  texts  for  preaching. 

Walafrid  Strabo^  (9th  Centurj^  believed  the  Pericopes  to 
have  been  in  use  in  Apostolic  times,  but  this  is  chimerical.  Bin- 
terim§  carries  them  back  to  the  3rd  Century  and  agrees  with 
Bona||  that  the  system  was  completed  by  Jerome. 

As  proof  for  this,  there  exists  a  "prologue"  reputed  to  have 
come  from  the  hand  of  Jerome, "^  which  is  generally  accepted  as 
genuine,  and  which  deals  with  the  subject  of  the  Pericopes. 
Further,  the  recensions  of  the  Comes,  which  are  all  second-hand 
or  more.** 

Jerome  gives  two  reasons  in  his  prologue  for  calling  the  work 
the  Comes.  First  it  carries  this  name  for  the  clems  because  it  is 
the  companion  and  7na7iducator  through  the  year's  Offices.  Sec- 
ond, it  is  to  be  the  guide  and  adviser  for  every  Service,  and  since 
the  work  (as  it  is  believed)  consisted  simply  of  Epistle  and  Gos- 
pel appointments  for  the  various  Days,  it  is  easy  to  see  what  is 
meant.  He  adds  still  more  pointedly:  it  is  to  have  caput  causam- 
que  ratio7iabilem,-\^  in  mentioning  the  choice  and  arrangement  of 
his  Lections;  and  instead  of  beginning  with  Sepiuagesi?na  or  the 
Passwfi,  it  seemed  more  logical  to  begin  at  the  beginning.  So  he 
breaks  with  custom  and  begins  with  the  Vigils  of  the  Nativity — 
the  first  definite  recognition  of  an  order  or  sequence  in  the  Church 
Year.  This  might  be  the  caput.'  Now  the  cajisa  ratiojiabilis — no 
Pericope  was  to  be  loosely  connected  with  the  other.  They  were 
to  be  as  members  of  each  other,  a  living  organism,  and  comprise 
a  rounded-out  and   harmonious  system.     Further,    everywhere 


♦  AuGUSTi,  VI,   143.  t  Ibid.     Also  Nebe,  I,   II. 

X  De  reb.  eccl.     c,  22.     For  text  see  AuGUSTi,  VI,  199. 

§  BiNTERiM,  DenkzvuerdigkeiUn,   IV,  i,  228-230;  2,  323. 

II  Bona,  de  reb.  Hi.  Ill,  c.  6,  p  624.     Augusti,  VI,  2(X). 

II  'RAticv.K,  Fericopensysiem.  Appendix,  I,  cf.  p  259.  **  Ibid,  p   126  seqq. 

tt  On  this  compare  Nebe,  I,  8  and  Rancke,  260  seq.    Nebe's  is  the  later  work. 


PREACHING    AND    THE    DAY.  33 

there  was  to  appear  a  reasonable  basis  for  the  choice,  why  this 
certain  Pericope  and  not  another  was  used.  He  observes  with 
great  care,  the  ecclesiastical  Season.  He  tells  us  he  sought: 
'*si7ig7ilis  fesiivitatibus,  quod  aptum  vel  compete?is  esset,  .  .  qucB  lec- 
tisprcesentifestivitaticongruat.''  The  rule  he  laid  down  for  him- 
self seems  to  have  been:  ''''Omnia  secztndum  tempus  esse  legetida.'^ 

This  is  all  the  more  of  interest  to  us,  if  the  recensions  of  the 
Pericopes  are  connected  with  Jerome,  since  these  recensions  em- 
body our  present  system  to  a  great  degree.-^ 

We  have  quoted  these  simply  to  show  that  the  Ecclesiastical 
Year  influenced  a  very  important  part  of  the  liturgical  Structure 
to  no  slight  degree;  but  now  is  this  influence  felt  in  other  parts 
of  the  Ofiice,  or  have  the  Pericopes  any  effect  on  the  remainder 
of  the  lyiturgy? 

We  have  a  very  ancient  use  in  the  Lections  and  the  Lection- 
ary,  and  a  central  and  weighty  point  of  the  Ofiice  affected  by 
them.  It  is  the  reading  of  God's  Word  to  His  Church.  It  is 
put  upon  the  highest  plain  and  observed  orderly  and  systematic- 
ally and  with  imposing  ceremonial.  We  have  the  evidences  of 
their  influence  as  well.  The  Office  of  the  Word  is  no  weak,  un- 
clothed, senseless  act.  From  the  Word  read  as  centre,  in  the 
spirit  of  the  Day  or  Season,  the  Service  was  filled  out  and 
equipped  with  its  other  variables,  [ntroit  precedes  it;  Collect, 
Gradual,  Responsories,  Sequences,  Tractates  surround  it;  other 
variables  follow  it;  and  their  rich  and  apt  relation  are  not  only 
proof  of  the  influence  but  of  W\<i  hfirmony  in  the  Structure. 

The  use  of  the  Introit  is  carried  back  to  Pope  Coelestin 
(422-432), t  who  is  supposed  to  bave  appointed  the  one  hundred 
and  fifty  Psalms  to  be  sung  on  the  various  days,  and  from  this 
time  forward  they  assume  special  reference  to  the  Day.  Leo,  the 
Great  (440),  adds  to  and  arran;;es  the  Psalmody.  In  583  Pope 
Vigiliu.s  writing  to  Bishop  Profuturus,  .«:ending  the  Ordinary  of 
the  Mass,  notifies  him  that  it  was  customary  to  add  to  it  in  vari- 
ous ^\^ces  formularies  peculiar  to  the  solemnities  of  the  Day.X 

With  reference  to  the  Collects  many  of  which  are  of  great 

•  The  recensions  are  given  with  other  lectionory  aniiquities  in  the  Appendices 
to  Ranckk's  Pericopensysiem.  See  also  Tables  in  Nkbk,  I,  102  and  cf.  Wikganu, 
Das  Homiliarium  Karls  des  Grossen.      1897.     p   17  seq.  also  75. 

t  Duchesne,      Christian    Worship,     p.    115.       Lib.    Pontif.     i,    230,    231. 

RlETSCIIF.L,     357.  X    DuCHKSNf:,    p  97. 


34  MEMOIRS. 

antiquity,*  their  contents  is  the  greatest  proof  of  their  aptness  of 
appointment.  Among  other  reasons  given  for  the  use  of  the 
term  "Collect"  is  that  of  Pseudo-alcuin  who  gives  this:  ''colleda 
didam  est  a  colledione,  eo  qtiod  ex  audoritate  Divinarum  Scriphir- 
arum  sit  colleda  qucs  in  ecclesia  leganiur, ' '  and  Daniel  agrees  with 
this.f  They  are  variously  described  as  being  "composed  gener- 
ally out  of  Epistle  and  Gospel  taken  together  or  with  some  refer- 
ence to  them;"  as  "the  very  quintessence  of  the  Gospel;"  as 
"reflecting  the  spirit  of  Epistle  and  Gospel;"  and  the  weekly 
Collect  is  looked  upon  as  "the  means  by  which  the  ordinary  Of- 
fice is  continually  linked  to  the  Eucharistic. ' '  % 

From  the  earliest  times  the  Lections  are  accompanied  by  the 
singing  of  Psalms  and  verses. §  We  find  the  Hallelujah  and 
Gradual  variously  applied;  sung  only  in  seasons  of  joy,  and  dis- 
placed in  Advent  and  Lent  by  other  selections  (Tractates,  etc.). 
Rupert  Tuitensis  speaking  of  the  Psalms  as  Respo7isorii  says  they 
derived  this  name  from  this:  "that  they  answered  to  the  Lessons, 
being  sung  immediately  after  them."l| 

Then  with  Offertories,  Prefaces,  Post-Communions,  Benedic- 
tions, all  varying  with  the  occasion,  there  is  an  abundance  of  ev- 
idence of  an  influence  and  the  Service  made  to  express  it. 

We  have  seen  that  many  homilies  remain,  based  on  the  lec- 
tions, dating  from  the  early  centuries.  Leo  the  Great  leaves 
many  more;  a  still  richer  supply  descends  from  Gregory;  and  we 
cannot  refrain  from  mentioning  the  so-called  Augustinian  ''Ser- 
mones  de  Tempore, ^^  many  of  which  are  not  Augustinian  but  of 
later  date — (by  some  attributed  to  Csesarius  of  Aries);  but  who- 
ever wrote  them  used  many  of  these  lessons  and  did  not  fail  at 
times  to  bring  out  a  very  pointed  reference  as  to  their  connection 
with  the  Day.  And  we  find  that  these  Pericopes  are  not  cast  off 
with  the  passing  of  the  years,  but  on  the  other  hand  are  more 
and  more  widely  adopted;  and  when  the  sermon  is  conspicuous 
only  by  its  absence,  what  is  left  to  do  the  preaching  but  these 
Propria  and  their  aptly  chosen  companions! 


*  Probst,  Lit.  des  4ten  Jahrh,  459,  carrying  some  of  the  prayers  of  the  Le- 
onianum  back  to  the  time  of  Pope  Damasus  (366  j. 
t   Cod.  Lit.  I,  26. 

%  Freeman,  Principles  of  Divine  Service,  i,  144-5;    i>  3^7« 
§  Cf.  the  Lit.  of  Chryss  in  this  connection. 
II  De  div.  off.  I,  15. 


PREACHING    AND    THE     DAY.  35 

In  the  time  of  Charles,  the  Great,  we  enter  a  period  and 
section  of  the  Church  that  brings  the  matter  closer  home  to  our- 
selves. It  is  well  known  how  his  father  Pipin  and  he  dispos- 
sessed the  old  Gallican  Order  and  introduced  the  Roman  through- 
out their  domain,  and  showed  his  deep  interest  in  the  advancement 
of  all  matters  relating  to  learning  and  the  Church.  He  orders 
in  his  ''Capihdare  Aq2iisgra7iense' '  c.  4,  in  the  year  801,  "z^/  om- 
nibus festis  et  diebus  do77iinicis  umis  quisqtie  sacerdos  evangelium 
Chrisie  prcedicet;''^^  and  that  there  should  be  no  excuse  or  failure 
to  comply  with  this  law,  he  provides  for  the  issuing  of  an 
^'Homiliar"\  in  which  every  Pericope  is  covered  by  an  homily 
from  one  of  the  Fathers;  and  later,  orders  them  translated  that 
they  may  be  preached  in  the  liyigtiani  rtisticayn  and  understood  by 
the  people;  and  we  note  in  this  that  it  is  not  the  Lection  that  is 
chosen  but  the  homily  for  the  existing  Lection,  and  that  again  in 
many  cases  they  contain  special  reference  to  the  spirit  of  the  Day, 
Allowing  this,  is  to  suppose  that  a  consideration  of  such  matters 
guided  the  compiler,  Paul  the  Deacon;  nor  would  the  spurious- 
ness  of  such  passages  militate  against  this,  since  it  would  show* 
that,  no  matter  whose  hand  had  written  them,  the  Day  was  con- 
sidered. 

From  our  own  liturgical  antiquities  we  know  that  the  Lections 
oi  \.\\Q  Homiliar  oi  Charles  the  Great,  as  published  in  Luther's 
timet  is  the  basis  of  his  Kirchen  Postille,  and  that  he  followed 
their  Order  which  varied  in  some  respects  from  the  Roman;  which 
fact  accounts  for  the  variations  in  the  two  systems  at  the  present 
day.  However  there  is  a  strong  word  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the 
Homiliar  in  this,  that  one  of  the  recensions  of  the  Comes,  that 
known  as  the  Pamelian,  based  on  an  Sth-gth  Century  MS.  agrees 
with  it  in  many  places;  and  this  recension  is  valued  very  highly 
by  critics. 

To  come  to  the  Reformation  Period.  Luther  retains  the  old 
Lections  and  though  at  times,  he  expresses  himself  very  forcibly 
against  certain  appointments,  never  makes  any  change.  We  also 
read  very  frequently  in  the  introductions  to  his  Posiilles,  his  opin- 

♦  Quoted  by  Nebe,  I,    18. 

t  Cf.  Ibid.   I,    19  seq. ;    and  m  particular,  Wiegand,  Das.  Horn.  K,  d  Gross. 

X  Rancke,  132.  The  comparison  between  the  editions  of  the  Horn,  of  Lu- 
ther's period  and  the  earliest  MSS.  is  made  by  Wiegand,  p  75,  showing  a  number 
of  divergences. 


36  MEMOIRS. 

ion  as  to  the  purpose  or  choice  of  the  Lesson  for  the  particular 
Day. 

In  Von  Ord.  Gottesdienst  in  d.  Gemeyne  (152^)^  he  writes: 
"Des  Sonntags  aber  soil  solch  versamlung  ftir  die  gantzen  ge- 
meine  geschen  .  .  .  und  da  selbst  wie  biss  her  gewonet  Messz 
und  Vesper  singen,  als  dass  man  zu  beider  tzeytt  predige  der 
gantzen gemeine,  desMorgens  ^2& geuolich  evangelium,  des  Abents 
die  Epistel."  The  Reformation  KOO  that  do  not  appoint  the 
Gospel  for  Mess  Predigten  are  the  exceptions.  Kliefoth  gives 
resumes  of  the  schedules  of  many  of  the  Orders,  and  this  is  the 
case,  Gospel  always  appointed. f 

Gerber's  History  of  Ceremonies  in  Saxony  (in  many  respects 
a  very  remarkable  book  though  instructive)  states  "die  Texte  zu 
unsern  Predigten  sind  die  verordneten  Evangelia  et  Episteln, 
etc."t 

Later  Orders  reconstructed  or  newly  composed,  while  leaving 
the  matter  more  to  the  choice  of  the  clergy,  nevertheless  empha- 
sized the  old  custom,  and  that  this  was  no  slight  influence,  the 
many  works  and  Postilles  on  the  old  Epistles  and  Gospels  wit- 
ness. 

We  have  digressed,  but  with  the  desire  to  find,  if  possible, 
some  evidence  of  the  appoint^nent  of  the  Gospel  as  preaching 
text  for  the  Chief  Service,  before  we  endeavored  to  touch  upon 
our  other  question:  "Is  there  any  influence  exerted  by  the  Gos- 
pel: is  it  the  centre  of  any  harmony?" 

A  quotation  from  Rupert  Tuitensis  is  pointed  here:  "Sanc- 
tum evangeliimi  principale  est  oviniiim,  quce  dicuntiir  ad  misses 
officium,  sicut  enim  caput  prcEminent  corpori  et  illi  cetera  viem,bra 
subserviunt,  sic  evangelium  toti  officio  prcB7ni7iet  ut  omnia,  qticz  ibi 
leguntur  vel  canuntur,  intellectuali  ratione  illi  consentiiint. ' '  §  With 
this  another  from  Nebe:  "Wie  kein  Punkt  unseres  Lebens  ein 
Atom  ist  und  am  allerwenigsten  in  dem  inneren  Leben  des  Geistes 
irgend  ein  Atomismus  angenommen  werden  darf ,  so  miissen  auch 
die  Gottesdienste,  in  welchen  das  geistliche  Leben  seine  Hohe- 
punkte  erreicht,  ein  ander  die  Hand  bieten  und  ein  lebendiges 
Ganze  bilden  Die  rothe  Faden,  welcher  alle  Gottesdienst  Durch- 


*  Daniel,   Cod.  Lit.  II,  79. 

t  Kliefoth,  Lit.  Abhandhm^eii,  4,   (7)  475. 

+  Gerber,  Kirchen   Ceremonien  in  Sac/isot.   (1732)  p  406,   §  9. 

§  De  div.  off.  I,  37. 


PREACHING    AND    THE    DAY.  37 

lauft  und  dadurch  die  einzelnen  Perikopen  zu  einem  Systeme  an 
eniander  reiht  und  die  heiligen  Feiertage  zu  einen  heiligen  Cy- 
klus  vereinight,  ist  die  Idee  des  Kirchenjahres.  Die  Idee  is  der 
regulative  Faktor  der  Perikopen  f^"-  and  if  so  and  the  sermons 
are  based  on  them,  the  least  that  could  be  expected  would  be, 
that  they  should  show  some  little  of  the  spirit  of  the  Day. 

For  such  a  conception  of  the  Year  and  its  Lessons  we  need 
not  come  to  modern  times.  Such  commentators  on  the  Mass  as 
Sicard  of  Cremona,  Amalarius,  the  Pseudo-alcuin,  Berno  v. 
Reichenau,  Micrologus  and  Durandus  all  claim  it  and  in  connec- 
tion with  various  Days  and  Seasons  show  it,f  and  draw  on  all  the 
Propria,  especially  the  Collect,  for  this  purpose.  Rancke,  to  sat- 
isfy himself  as  to  the  truth  or  falseness  of  the  idea  of  an  harmony 
in  the  Propria,  in  the  third  Part  of  his  work  on  the  Pericopensys- 
tcm  (p  264  seq.)  takes  up  one  Day  after  another  examining  the 
P?'opria  in  detail,  comparing  Introits,  Antiphons  and  Verses  with 
Collect  and  Lections  and  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  in  many 
cases  a  very  strong  harmony  exists  and  that  the  Propria  and  va- 
riables were  chosen  to  this  end.  The  Lenten  Season  lends  itself 
to  this  very  readily  (p  332  seq.)  as  do  all  Festival  Periods;  but  in 
the  long  Trinity  Season  (with  but  few  exceptions  when  an  im- 
portant Saint's  Day  is  met  or  at  the  Embers)  he  finds  very  faint 
traces.  Schoberlein  however  finds  this  latter  cycle  very  pointed 
and  complete,;}:  and  covers  the  entire  Year  in  this  manner. 

Other  moderns  have  applied  the  expression  of  this  directly 
to  the  work  of  the  Sermon.  Among  them  are  Lisco,  Strauss, 
Alt,  Matthaus,  Werner,  Nebe,  Schoner.§  There  are  a  number 
of  works  in  English,  though  not  of  our  Church,  which,  while  not 

*  Nkbe,  I,  31. 

t  Sicard  of  Cremona,  MitraU\  IV.  M.  S.  L.  213,  191.  Text  in  Rietschel, 
217.  Amalarius,  in  connection  with  Advent  and  the  Nativity,  de  ord.  antiph.  c  76. 
M.  S.  L.  105,  1312.  Rietschel,  214,  in  his  de  off.  eccl.  I,  37,  speaking  of  the 
Litaneia  Alaior  Amalarius  gives  the  reasons  for  its  celebration  and  bases  them  up- 
on the  Lections  and  Prayers  of  the  Mass.  On  the  Sabbat,  vacat.  I,  9.  Alcuin,  on 
Sepiuagesiina,  de  div.  off.  c  9;  also  Amalarius,  de  eccl.  off.  I,  i.  Ven.  Beds 
sees  a  deep  purpose  underlying  the  number  and  choice  of  the  Lections  for  the 
Ember  Days,  quoted  by  Rancke  at  length,  p  273,  notes.  Amalarius,  de  eccl.  off. 
II,  3,  also.  Rancke,  274,  n.  3.  Durandus,  /Rationale,  IV,  follows  Sicard  of 
Cremona. 

X  Schoebeklein,  Lil.  Ausbau.  295  seq. 

§  LiSCO,  Kirchenjahr.  Stkauss,  D.  Evan.  Kirchenjahr.  Alt,  Christlichen 
CuUus,  V.   II.     MaTTHAeus,   D.  Evan.  Perikopen  d.  Christlichen  Kirchjs.     Wer- 


38  MEMOIRS. 

treating  the  Church  Year  thematically,  consider  the  Lections  and 
Collect  in  the  light  of  their  harmony.'''' 

We  have  tried  to  show  through  the  citation  of  these  various 
antiquities,  that  the  development  of  the  Christian  Cultus  tends  to 
an  united  and  harmonious  whole,  the  mode  adopted  to  express 
the  Church's  worship.  Then,  that  this  Church  in  her  life  en- 
deavored to  live  so  that  in  her  Year  she  would  set  before  the  eyes 
of  her  children,  all  the  Facts  and  Events  in  the  Work  of  Salva- 
tion; not  in  the  form  of  a  dramatic  Service,  as  that  of  the  Greek 
Church,  but  in  detail  living  close  to  the  Days  and  their  memory; 
and  gathering  therefrom  their  import,  their  lessons,  anew.  Then 
the  endeavor  was  to  show  the  influence  of  one  on  the  other,  and 
how  it  seemed  to  centralize  and  crystallize  itself  in  the  Lections; 
the  Lections  marking  the  Day  and  the  Days  forming  the  structure 
of  the  Year,  the  Year  that  brings  out  the  Facts  of  the  Lord's 
work  for  the  Church  and  the  Church's  life  in  the  Lord;  then  the 
Lessons  would  be  the  connection  between  the  Service  and  the  Year, 
and  with  the  other  variables  dependent  upon  the  Lessons  for  their 
choice  or  composition,  we  have  a  definite,  purposeful  relation  es- 
tablished. Now  if  these  Lections  are  what  they  seem  to  be,  not 
weak  but  of  such  tremendous  import;  if  they  have  a  purpose  in 
view  and  are  not  placed  there  simply  because  Scripture  must  be 
read  and  these  passages  seem  as  good  as  others,  but  are  the  litur- 
gical lessons;  is  the  Church  faithful  that  does  not  attempt  to  re- 
produce this  experience  and  gain  the  riches  they  hold,  and  live 
her  life  in  their  light,  not  an  empty  and  weak  one,  but  one  in- 
spired by  a  Year's  harmony  and  fullness  of  God  and  His  work 
and  our  salvation?  And  of  the  many  places  where  this  may  be, 
and  is,  shown;  what  is  better  adapted  to  express  this  than  the 
Sermon,  where  the  entire  harmony  may  be  brought  out?  Here  is 
the  liturgical  Gospel,  set  on  such  a  Day  of  such  a  Season.  Sure- 
ly that  Day  or  Season  brings  its  emotions.     We  do  not  experience 


NER,  D.  Logik.  d.  Ch7-isiHchen  Kirchjs.  SCHOENER,  Das.  Evan.  Kirchenjahr. 
Cf.  Agenda  fuer  d.  Evan.  Luth.  Gemeinden  in  russichen  Eeiche,  (1898)  p.  60,  for 
"group  Introits"  arranged  thematically  for  Trinity  Season.  Cf.  Nebe,  Introduction 
to  Ev.  Peri. 

*  DOANE,  Mosaics  or  Harmony  of  Col.  Ep.  and  Cos.  Kyle,  The  Collects, 
where  in  the  introduction  to  each  he  shows  the  thought  running  through  the  Propria. 
COXE  AND  Whitehead,  Thoughts  on  the  Service.  Also  commentators  on  the  Book 
ef  Cojtimon  Prayer,  c  9.  Proctor;  Evan.  Daniell,  cf.  the  sections  on  "Col- 
lects," "Epistles  and  Gospels." 


PREACHING    AND    THE     DAY.  39 

the  joy  of  the  Nativity  in  the  Passion  Season;  and  how  quickly 
the  deep  thoughts  and  feehngs  of  that  Period  give  place  to  the 
Easter  spirit.  In  such  atmosphere  that  Lesson  stands,  and  about 
it,  its  Introit  with  its  announcement  and  answer,  its  Collect  with 
its  crystallized  petition,  its  Responses,  its  Hymns,  etc.,  all  of 
which  depend  2ipon  it.  Then  should  the  Sermon  be  a  stranger 
to  it?  What  better  announcement  of  the  P'act  than  the  Divine 
Word?  What  better  comment  upon  it  than  Word  illuminating 
Word  (Introit);  than  Word  echoing  Word  (Verses,  etc.)?  What 
better  application  of  it  than  in  the  use  of  the  Prayer?  The  Ser- 
mon is  not  an  independent  part  of  the  Service,  but  has  its  logical 
place;  and  the  unfolding  of  the  Service  demands  its  presence.  It 
is  part  and  parcel  of  the  Structure,  part  of  its  harmony,  which 
would  be  no  more  unbroken  without  it  than  with  it,  treating 
something  at  odds  with  the  rest  of  the  Service. 

If  the  Church  would  live  her  Year,  bring  it  home  to  her 
children,  there  is  no  half-way  position,  she  must  live  it  to  the 
full.  She  niust  live  it  as  she  has  it  with  everything  capable  of 
expressing  it  in  active  service. 

Preaching  and  the  Day?  Preach  the  Day  and  all  that  illu- 
minates it,  and  Christ  will  be  preached  for  He  is  Centre  of  it  all. 
The  Fathers  did  not  neglect  Him  when  the  Service  was  founded, 
nor  when  the  Lections  were  chosen,  nor  fail  to  show  His  Church 
daily,  that  "of  Him  and  through  Him  and  unto  Him  are  all 
things."      "To  Him  be  the  glory  forever!     Amen!" 


PaUI,    ZEI.1.ER    StRODACH. 


Easton,  Pa. 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP   IN   THE  APOSTOLIC   AGE. 


The  endeavor  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  worship  of  the  first 
Christians  is  one  which  has  often  been  made,  with  but  indifferent 
success,  for  all  the  diflficulties  which  beset  the  path  of  the  histo- 
rian of  the  Apostolic  Age  show  themselves  in  double  measure 
when  we  come  to  the  study  of  one  of  the  small  problems  that  are 
bound  up  with  the  larger  ones.  Not  the  smallest  of  these  diflS- 
culties  is  the  inability  of  the  investigator  to  divorce  himself  from 
preconceived  ideas  of  what  Christian  worship  in  the  Apostolic 
Age  ought  to  have  been.  When  we  find  that  our  sources  are  of 
the  scantiest,  that  the  author  of  the  book  of  Acts  is  more  intent 
upon  preserving  the  facts  which  connect  with  the  growth  of  the 
Church  and  the  means  by  which  that  growth  was  brought  about, 
than  with  the  details  of  the  life  within  the  communities  that  arose 
in  the  Roman  Empire  as  a  result  of  the  preaching  of  the  new 
faith;  that  St.  Paul  was  more  concerned  in  preventing  the  inroads 
of  false  doctrine  and  false  moral  ideas  among  his  converts  than 
with  the  determination  of  the  forms  of  their  congregational  life; 
and  that  for  all  information  on  such  subjects  as  that  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  present  investigation  we  are  dependent  upon  occa- 
sional, often  indirect,  and  seldom  more  than  casual  allusions  in 
the  New  Testament,  it  becomes  evident  at  once  that  the  tendency 
of  the  writer  to  find  one  form  of  worship  or  another  in  these 
earliest  days  will  have  the  widest  scope,  and  that  the  most  diver- 
gent conclusions  can  be  given  at  least  a  semblance  of  probability. 
We  need  not  bring  forward  as  examples  the  contrast  between  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican  authorities,  who  seek  in  every- 
thing to  justify  later  practices  by  Apostolic  usage,  and  the  evan- 
gelical school,  whose  attempt  is  to  prove  that  the  Services  of  the 
Reformation  time  in  their  own  Churches  conformed  to  Apostolic 
precedent,  nor  between  both  of  these  and  the  modern  destructive 

(xli) 


42  MEMOIRS. 

critics  who  would  relegate  not  Christian  worship  itself,  but  every 
form  of  Christian  worship  to  a  period  subsequent  to  the  Apostolic 
Age;  for  the  same  kind  of  a  contrast  is  observable  even  between 
men  who  occupy  essentially  the  same  dogmatical  ground,  like 
Th,  Harnack*  and  Kliefoth.f  To  criticise  the  results  of  these 
researches  is,  however,  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper,  except  in 
so  far  as  it  may  be  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  the  subject 
which  is  before  us. 

The  sources  with  which  we  have  here  to  deal  are,  in  the 
main,  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  though  illustrative 
matter  and  corroborative  evidence  for  some  of  the  results  obtained 
therefrom  may  legitimately  be  drawn  from  the  earliest  writing  of 
the  post- Apostolic  period.  The  congregations  concerning  which 
we  have  the  fullest  accounts  in  the  New  Testament  are  those  at 
Jerusalem  prior  to  the  death  of  James,  and  that  at  Corinth  about 
twenty  years  later. J  Our  information  concerning  the  first  of 
these  Churches  is  derived  from  the  early  chapters  of  the  book  of 
Acts;  concerning  the  second,  from  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians. 
In  both  we  find  definite  references  to  the  congregational  worship, 
which  seems  in  the  two  congregations  to  bear  a  very  different 
character.  The  question  therefore  arises  at  once — Are  we  to  re- 
gard the  procedure  in  these  two  instances  as  types,  the  one  of  the 
Jewish-Christian,  the  other  of  the  Gentile-Christian  worship,  and 
collate  with  the  first  the  cultic  ideas  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews and  the  Epistle  of  James,  with  the  other  the  traces  of  litur- 
gical usage  which  we  find  here  and  there  in  other  Pauline  letters, 
or  are  we  to  consider  their  relationship  as  one  of  antecedent  and 
consequent  and  conceive  them  as  differing  as  earlier  and  later 
forms  of  the  same  services?  The  former  is  the  opinion  of  Th. 
Harnack,  the  latter  that  of  Kliefoth.  The  present  writer  would 
endorse  neither  view  wholly.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
service  of  which  we  can  form  a  fairly  consistent  picture  from 
I  Cor.  xi-xiv,  was  typical  for  the  Pauline  congregations  and 
eventually  for  the   Church  in  the  Roman  Empire;   the  setting 


*  Th.  Harnack,  Der  Gemeindegottesdienst  hn  apostolischen  und  nachaposto- 
lischen  Zeitalter,     Dorpat.     1854. 

+  Kliefoth,  Ursprungliche  Goitesdiensfordtmng.  Schwerin.  1858.  {^Litur- 
gische  Abhandl.    I -5.) 

X  For  an  admirable  presentation  of  conditions  in  the  latter  congregatio'n,  v. 
DOBSCHUETZ,  Die  UrchrislUchen  Gemeinden,     Leipzig.     1902.     pp.    17-64. 


CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN  THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE.  43 

which  it  gives  us  for  such  passages  as  Eph.  iii,  i6  and  Col.  iii, 
1 6,  as  well  as  the  correspondence  of  its  elements  with  what  we 
find  in  the  Didache  and  the  epistle  of  Pliny,  would  seem  to  es- 
tablish this  fact  beyond  dispute.  Neither  can  it  be  denied  that 
the  service  in  Corinth  must  have  had  some  things  in  common 
with  the  service  in  Jerusalem,  or  that  Jewish  usages  were  influ- 
ential in  the  forms  of  each.  On  the  other  hand  the  worship  of 
the  Corinthian  Church  contains  elements  that  could  not  have  ex- 
isted in  Jerusalem  and  other  elements  which  rest  upon  conceptions 
Pauline  in  their  origin  and  never,  so  far  as  we  know,  current  in 
the  congregation  there.  It  is  therefore  fair  to  treat  these  two 
forms  of  Christian  worship  as  types  of  Jewish  and  Gentile  Chris- 
tian congregations,  if  we  also  bear  in  mind  that  the  terms  Jewish 
and  Gentile  Christian  stand  simply  for  phases  of  development, 
and  are  mutually  exclusive  only  in  their  extreme  expressions — in 
Ebionism  and  Gnosticism. 

Coming  more  directly  to  the  subject  in  hand  it  is  necessary, 
first  of  all  to  determine  what  it  was  that  transpired 'in  the  Ser- 
vices at  Jerusalem  and  at  Corinth.  We  begin  naturally  with  the 
Services  in  Jerusalem. 

A.      THE   CHURCH   IN  JERUSALEM. 

In  Acts  ii,  46  we  have  our  first  clear  reference  to  stated  as- 
semblies of  Christians  and  that  verse  forms  the  starting-point  for 
a  discussion  of  the  worship  of  this  congregation.  It  reads  as  fol- 
lows:— *"And  day  by  day,  continuing  stedfastly  with  one  accord 
in  the  Temple,  and  breaking  bread  at  home,  they  did  take  their 
food  with  gladness  and  singleness  of  heart."  From  this  it  is 
claimed  that  there  were  in  Jerusalem  two  distinct  assemblies  for 
worship,  and  that  these  assemblies  were  held  daily. f  The  first 
of  them  was  in  the  Temple,  where  they  took  part  in  the  service, 
attending  especially  on  the  Scripture  readings  and  prayers,  but 
not  on  the  sacrifices,  which  they  conceived  to  be  done  away  in 
Christ.  The  other  was  held  at  the  house  of  one  or  another  of 
the  disciples.     At  this  first  service  they  were  present  in  a  body 

•  Quotations  are  from  the  Revised  English  Version. 

t  Kliefoth,  op.  cit.  p.  237  ff  adduces  grounds  for  the  belief  that  of  these  as- 
semblies only  one  was  held  daily,  the  other  once  a  week,  on  Sunday,  but  his  posi- 
tion seems  to  be  untenable.  The  theory  advanced  by  Drews,  PRE  V,  560  ff  and 
RiETSCHEL,  Liturgik,  I,  p.  232,  that  the  Lord's  Supper  was  instituted  not  as  a 
Passover  meal,  but  a  Sabbath  meal  would  lend  support  to  this  view. 


44  MEMOIRS. 

(ofioOvfiaBov)  and  must  have  distinguished  themselves  from  the 
other  attendants  on  the  service  by  some  pecuHarities  of  worship. 
Moreover  we  are  told  expressly  (Acts  v,  42,  comp.  v,  20  and  iii, 
II  ff)  that  "every  day  in  the  Temple  and  at  home,  they  ceased 
not  to  preach  and  to  teach  Jesus  as  the  Christ."  The  question 
now  is: — Were  these  gatherings  in  the  Temple  really  Christian 
services  or  were  they  something  else,  the  evidence  perhaps  that 
the  first  Christians  regarded  themselves  still  as  Jews?  Harnack 
and  Kliefoth  have  expressed  the  former  opinion,  and  of  the  two 
Harnack  is  the  more  decided.  He  maintains  that  they  were  pub- 
lic missionary  services,  concerned  with  prayer  and  the  teaching 
of  the  Word.  If  the  claim  could  be  substantiated  it  would  give 
us  an  early  and  interesting  analogy  to  the  '  'service  for  edifica- 
tion" in  Corinth,  the  precursor  of  the  later  Missa  Cafec/mmenor- 
um,  but  unfortunately  this  very  fact  seems  to  have  led  the  histo- 
rian astray.  The  ofwOv/iaSov  alone  proves  nothing,  and  though 
the  passages  quoted  make  it  clear  that  the  Christians  did  frequent 
the  Temple,  and  used  it,  as  Christ  had  used  it,  for  a  place  of  in- 
struction, thus  making  it  a  kind  of  missionary  center,  that  fact 
dare  not  be  pressed  so  far,  in  the  absence  of  all  definite  proof,  as 
to  make  of  the  devotions  of  those  faithful  Jews,  who  now  believed 
that  the  Messiah  was  really  come,  a  distinctly  Christian  service. 
It  is,  on  the  contrary  to  the  other  assembly,  that  which  met 
"from  house  to  house"  that  we  must  look  for  the  distinctly 
Christian  practices. 

"They  broke  bread  at  home."  This  was  the  assembly  at 
which  presumably  none  but  Christians  were  present,  in  which  the 
idea  of  the  community  (kolvwvui)  of  the  brethren  found  its  highest 
expression.  The  Greek  does  not  suggest  that  this  meeting  was 
always  held  in  one  house,  or  that  all  the  members  were  present 
together,  or  that  each  Christian  family  had  its  own  daily  assem- 
bly for  the  breaking  of  bread.  It  is  to  be  understood  as  meaning 
that  the  members  of  the  Church  assembled  in  as  many  private 
houses  as  were  necessary  to  accommodate  them  and  there  partook 
together  of  a  common  meal.  As  to  the  procedure  which  was  fol- 
lowed in  these  assemblages  we  are  left  practically  in  ignorance. 
It  is  true  that  most  historians'!'  see  in  the  passage  Acts  ii,  42,  an 


*  Among  others  Harnack,  /.  c;  Kliefoth,  oJ>.  cit.-,  Lechler,  Apostolishes 
Zeitalter,  pp.  284 ff.  Cf.  also  Karl  Weizsaecker,  Apost.  Age,  (Eng.  Trans.)  II, 
p.  247. 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN   THE   APOSTOLIC    AGE.  45 

indication  of  what  transpired  there.  The  verse  reads  thus: — 
"And  they  continued  stedfastly  in  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles 
and  in  fellowship  and  in  the  breaking  of  bread  and  in  the 
prayers."  Here  some  earlier  writers  of  the  last' century  like 
Mosheim  and  Olshausen  would  find  a  complete  liturgical  order. 
The  "teaching  of  the  Apostles"  was  the  preaching  of  the  Word, 
and  included  the  reading  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  es- 
pecially the  prophets;  the  koivwvwi  refers  to  the  offerings  later 
known  as  "collections"  (i  Cor.  xvi,  i,  2),*  or  still  later  as 
"oblations;"  the  "breaking  of  bread"  was  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  the  whole  procedure  was  accompanied  and 
closed  with  prayer.  It  is  needless  to  point  out  that  such  an  in- 
terpretation does  violence  to  the  whole  context  in  which  the  pas- 
sage stands.  What  the  writer  is  describing — and  the  description 
is  highly  graphic — is  the  spirit  that  pervaded  this  first  congrega- 
tion of  Christian  believers  and  the  way  in  which  that  spirit  found 
expression.  That  one  form  of  that  expression  would  inevitably 
be  "liturgical,"  i.  e.,  would  connect  with  the  worship  in  which 
all  the  believers  participiied,  is  undeniable,  but  the  terms  here 
used  are  of  the  widest  interpretation  and  only  two  of  them — 
breaking  of  bread  and  prayers — can  apply  directly  to  the  worship 
of  the  Church.  Nor  are  we  justified  in  confining  the  meaning  of 
the  KXaat?  Tov  apTov  to  the  formal  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
To  be  sure  it  has  that  meaning  in  the  Pauline  Epistles  (i  Cor.  x, 
16;  xi,  24),  but  even  then  and  until  the  first  quarter  of  the  II 
Century  the  Lord's  Supper  was  invariably  connected  with  a  com- 
mon meal  of  the  congregation,!  and  we  cannot  go  far  astray  in 
regarding  the  breaking  of  bread  here  mentioned  as  standing  for 
the  whole  of  the  common  meal.  The  idea  of  the  community  of 
the  brethren  was  overwhelmingly  strong  in  these  first  Christians, 
and  the  common  meal  was  the  symbol  and  assertion  of  that  idea. 
No  less  strong  was  their  conviction  that  in  this  intimate  fellow- 
ship with  one  another  they  were  in  the  enjoyment  of  an  equally 
intimate  fellowship  with  their  risen  Lord.  Jesus  had  associated 
with  them  as  one  family,  He  had  compared  the  blessings  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Heaven  with  the  familiar  intercourse  of  a  family 
meal,  more  than  once  after  His  Resurrection  He  had  made  Him- 
self known  to  them  as  they  .sat  at  meat,  and  had  they  not  His 

*  So  also  Kliefoth,  0/'.  cit. 
t  The  Agape— nzm^  first  found  in  Jude  12. 


46  MEMOIRS. 

promise: — "Where  two  or  three  are  gathered  together  in  My 
Name,  there  am  I  in  the  midst  of  them?"  Even  without  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Lord's  Supper  they  would  have  had  sufficient 
motive  for  assembling  to  the  breaking  of  bread.  But  that  the 
Lord's  Supper  was  actually  celebrated  in  these  assemblies  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  though  we  cannot  be  sure  just  how  it  was  re- 
garded. In  his  Gottesdie7ist  im  ap.  Zeitalter,  Th.  Harnack  main- 
tains that  the  Christian  community  saw  in  it  "a  new  common 
service  of  sacrifice  in  spirit  and  in  truth,  for  it  consisted  essen- 
tially in  the  daily  repeated,  sacramental  celebration  of  the  single 
complete  and  eternally  valid  sacrificial  death  of  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Crucified,  and  Risen  One,  by  which  every  expiatory  sacrifice  is 
abolished;  and  at  the  same  time  a  spiritual  sacrifice  of  faith  and 
confession,  a  sacrifice  of  prayer,  praise,  and  thanksgiving  on  the 
part  of  the  congregation."  To  sustain  this  view  he  quotes  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fundamental  fallacy  of  an  appeal  to  a  writing  so  much 
later  in  date  than  the  primitive  Church  whose  views  he  is  attempt- 
ing to  describe,  and  to  point  out  the  fact  that  for  such  a  concep- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper  there  is,  in  the  only  source  we  have  for 
this  period,  not  a  shred  of  evidence.*  On  the  contrary  all  the 
evidence  seems  to  contradict  the  idea  that  the  death  of  Christ  was 
at  this  time  regarded  as  a  sacrifice  at  all,  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
could,  therefore,  be  neither  a  repetition  of  that  sacrifice  nor  a 
substitute  for  the  Temple  sacrifices.  When  Peter  and  Stephen 
refer  to  the  death  of  Christ  (Acts  ii,  23;  iii,  13  ff;  vii,  52)  they 
use  it  only  as  an  argument  to  show  the  guilt  of  the  Jews  in  the 
crucifixion  of  Him  in  Whom  prophecy  was  fulfilled,  and  the  res- 
urrection was  to  them  chiefly  a  vindication  of  Christ's  Messianic 
claims.  When  Stephen  first  raised  the  question  of  the  necessity 
of  the  Temple  to  the  life  of  true  religion  his  words  were  the  sig- 
nal for  the  beginning  of  a  persecution  that  was  the  real  starting- 
point  for  the  sharp  distinction  between  Christian  and  Jew.  His 
opinions  were  the  first-fruits  of  reflection  upon  the  meaning  of 
the  life  of  Christ.  Further  reflection,  under  the  guidance  of 
Christ's  Spirit,  led  to  the  conviction  that  the  Old  Covenant  had 


•  The  analogy  of  the  death  of  Christ  to  the  O.  T.  sacrifices  found  in  Hebrews 
is  the  application  of  the  Pauline  idea  of  the  Atonement.  The  view  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  as  a  repetition  of  that  sacrifice  is  the  root  of  the  Roman  doctrine  of  the  Mass, 
and  has  no  Scriptural  warrant. 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN   THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE.  47 

passed  away,  but  in  these  earliest  days,  when  men  were  still  un- 
der the  influence  of  vivid  impressions  of  great  events,  the  full 
meaning  of  those  events  had  not  dawned  upon  them,  was  not  ful- 
ly to  dawn  until  Paul  should  carry  his  premises  to  their  conclu- 
sion, and  even  then  they  involved  him  in  the  charge  of  preaching 
false  doctrine.  The  most  that  we  can  say  therefore  concerning 
the  meaning  that  attached  to  the  breaking  of  bread  is  that  it  was 
I,  an  expression  of  the  community  (koivcovm)  of  the  believers;  2, 
a  religious  act  in  which  those  who  participated  entered  into  a 
real  communion  with  the  Risen  Saviour;  3,  the  Lord's  Supper, 
which  formed  its  culmination,  was  a  memorial  of  the  death  of 
Christ,  observed  according  to  His  command,  "This  do  in  remem- 
brance of  Me."* 

The  fact  that  our  sources  give  us  no  hint  of  what  transpired 
at  these  meetings  for  the  breaking  of  bread  would  seem  further 
to  indicate  that  no  great  importance  attached  to  the  following  of 
any  prescribed  order,  though  the  daily  repetition  of  the  common 
meal  would  naturally  fix  an  order  of  some  kind  at  a  very  early 
period.  The  elements  of  the  service  must  have  been,  however, 
prayer,  the  singing  of  one  or  more  hymns  or  Psalms,  and,  for  the 
Lord's  Supper,  the  repetition  of  some  one  of  the  forms  of  the 
Words  of  Institution. t  To  these  Kliefoth  adds,  on  the  basis  of 
Acts  v,  42,  with  which  compare  Acts  vi,  2-4,  preaching  by  the 
Apostles,  and  the  bringing  of  offerings  for  the  poor  (Acts  iv,  32- 
V,  6).  We  have  no  evidence  to  show  when  these  meetings  were 
held  nor  is  there  a  trace  of  any  special  observance  of  Sunday 
though  it  would  naturally  have  arisen  in  this  time. 

There  remain  three  other  passages  to  be  noticed  before  we 
go  on  to  the  discussion  of  the  service  as  we  find  it  in  Corinth. 
They  are  Acts  i,  15;  ii,  1-4;  iv,  23 ff.  The  first  refers  to  the  as- 
sembly in  which  Matthias  was  chosen  to  fill  up  the  number  of  the 
Twelve,  the  second  to  the  gathering  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  the 
third  to  the  company  to  which  Peter  and  John  returned  after 
their  examination  before  the  rulers.  They  have  sometimes  been 
taken  to  be  assemblies  for  purposes  of  prayer;  we  would  rather 
regard  them  as  the  ordinary  private  meetings  of  the  congregation. 
For  the  purposes  of  our  investigation  the  third  of  them,  that  of 
Acts  iv,  23  ff ,  is  of  special  interest  because  of  the  prayer  of  the 

*  See  Explanatory  Note  at  the  end  of  this  article. 
t  On  this  point,  however,  see  below  p.  62. 


48  MEMOIRS. 

congregation  which  has  been  there  preserved.  We  are  told  that 
on  the  return  of  Peter  and  John  "they  lifted  up  their  voice  with 
one  accord  to  God"  in  the  prayer  that  then  follows.  Commenta- 
tors agree  that  this  prayer  came  to  Luke  from  one  of  the  earliest 
sources  which  he  used.  Even  if  we  admit,  however,  with  Von 
der  Goltz,  that  this  prayer  is  a  literary  composition  of  Luke  him- 
self, it  would  still  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  us  as  a  type  of  the 
earliest  prayers  of  the  Church.  It  is  remarkable  rather  for  its 
form  than  its  content.  The  latter  is  what  we  might  expect  from 
the  circumstances  in  which  it  was  offered,  the  former  is  that  of 
the  earliest  liturgical  prayers  that  have  come  down  to  us  from 
the  beginning  of  the  post- Apostolic  age.  It  begins  with  an  ad- 
dress to  God  under  the  name  Sco-ttott^s,*  used  of  God  only  in  this 
place,  in  Luke  ii,  29  and  Rev.  vi,  10;  in  the  first  instance  clearly 
a  liturgical  use,  in  the  second  possibly  so.  The  address  is  then 
enlarged  by  an  ascription  of  power  and  the  citation  of  a  Psalm 
which  applies  to  the  special  circumstances  in  which  the  congre- 
gation now  finds  itself.  This  is  followed  by  a  brief  petition,  and 
the  prayer  then  ends  abruptly  without  doxology.  The  form,  ex- 
cept for  the  absence  of  the  doxology,  is  almost  identical  with  the 
Collect  of  the  Catholic  period.  If  the  words  "they  lifted  up  their 
voice  with  one  accord"  are  to  be  taken  literally  we  should  be 
forced  to  one  of  two  conclusions.  Either  the  congregation  was 
moved  by  a  special  inspiration  to  use  the  same  words  at  the  same 
time,  or,  the  more  natural  supposition,  this  was  a  fixed  prayer, 
known  to  the  whole  congregation  and  used  regularly  in  its  stated 
assemblies,  which  they  now  repeat  in  unison  from  memory.  The 
present  writer  is  not  inclined  to  push  the  literal  interpretation 
quite  so  far,  and  prefers  to  see  in  this  prayer  the  free  utterance 
of  one  of  the  members,  praying  in  the  name  of  the  congregation; 
but  even  so  the  passage  is  highly  significant,  for  it  furnishes  us 
with  an  example  of  the  earliest  form  which  the  commom  prayer 
of  the  Church  assumed,  derived,  possibly,  from  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogal  prayer, t  and  which  has  come  down  to  us  as  a  type  in  the 
Collects  of  the  Church. 

Our  survey  of  the  sources  has,  therefore,  brought  us  only 
the  following  positive  results,     i.     There  was  a  daily  assembly 


*  The  regular  address  in  the  early  Greek  Liturgies. 

t  A  comparison  with  the  Shemoneh  Esreh  (for  which  see  Schuerek,  Hist,  of 
the  Jews,  Eng.  Trans.  Div.  II,  Vol.  II,  p.  85  f)  is  instructive. 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP   IN  THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE.  49 

of  the  Christians  at  Jerusalem.  2.  This  assembly  was  held  pri- 
vately. 3.  It  was  the  occasion  of  a  common  meal.  4.  The 
meal  was  accompanied  by  prayer,  hymns,  preaching  or  teaching 
and  the  celebration,  in  some  form,  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  5.  It 
was  probably  the  time  when  the  offerings  for  the  poor  were  made. 
6.  We  have  also  found  a  common  prayer  of  the  congregation 
dating  from  this  time. 

B.      THE  LATER   DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE   GENTILE   CHURCHES. 

It  is  to  the  Pauline  Epistles  that  we  are  indebted  for  our  first 
tolerably  clear  idea  of  a  Christian  service,  and  our  chief  source  of 
information  is  I  Cor.  xi,  i;  xiv,  40.  Other  passages  in  the  New 
Testament  books,  especially  in  the  Revelation,  as  well  as  in  the 
Didache  and  other  post- Apostolic  writings  may  be  used  to  com- 
plete the  picture. 

I.  The  day  of  assembly  is  no  longer  every  day,  as  in  Jeru- 
salem, but  Sunday.  Doubtless  there  were  congregations  in  which 
the  Jewish  Sabbath,  and  perhaps  other  Jewish  festivals  were  ob- 
served,* but  their  observance  was  regarded  as  essential  only  by 
the  Judaizing  opponents  of  Paul,  Definite  statements  as  to  the 
observance  of  Sunday  are  infrequent  until  a  comparatively  late 
time,  but  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  custom  was 
not  only  very  old  but  very  general. f  In  I  Cor.  xvi,  i,  2  Paul 
charges  the  Corinthians  to  lay  by  their  offerings  '  'on  the  first  day 
of  the  week,"  as  has  been  ordered  also  in  Galatia;  we  learn  from 
Acts  XX,  17  that  the  Christians  in  Troas  gathered  together  to 
break  bread  also  "on  the  first  day  of  the  week;"  the  day  of  the 
vision  (Rev.  i,  10)  is  "the  Lord's  Day,"  and  evidently  the  regular 
day  of  worship;  while  the  Gospel  of  John  (ch.  xx,  26)  would 
seem  to  point  to  a  still  earlier  beginning,  though  it  may  have 
been  only  one  of  the  daily  meetings  of  the  Twelve  at  which 
Christ  appeared.  These  are  however  the  only  references  in  the 
New  Testament  to  any  special  observance  of  the  day .  The  direct 
testimony  of  the  earliest  post- Apostolic  period,  while  sufficiently 
definite,  is  also  scanty.  The  Didache  prescribes  "the  Lord's  Day 
of  the  Lord"  as  the  day  for  coming  together;  Barnabas  testifies 
(ch.  xv),  "Wherefore,  also,  we  keep  the  eighth  day;"  Ignatius 


*  See  Lechler,  op,  cit.  p.  350. 

t  On  the  whole  subject  see  Zahn,  Skizzen  aus  dem  Leben  der  alien  Kirche. 
160  ff. 


60  MEMOIRS. 

(^ad  Magn.  ix)  speaks  of  "living  in  the  observance  of  the  Lord's 
Day;"  and  Justin  Martyr  (^Ap.  I,  ch.  67)  describes  the  service 
held  "on  the  day  called  Sunday."  This  completes  the  list  of  our 
sources,  for  the  reference  of  Pliny  {^cp.  x,  96  to  Trajan)  usually 
quoted  in  this  connection,  is  only  to  "a  (or  the)  stated  day"  on 
which  the  Christians  are  wont  to  meet.  That  the  Day  of  Resur- 
rection determined  the  choice  of  the  first  day  of  the  week  as  a 
special  observance  is  testified  by  Barnabas,  Ignatius  and  Justin 
Martyr  (cf.  also  John  xx,  26). 

II.  Assuming,  then,  that  Sunday  was  the  day  of  meeting, 
we  find  that  in  the  period  we  are  discussing  there  were  two  ser- 
vices or  assemblies  held  on  that  day.  Pliny,  writing  about  112 
A.  D.,  declares  this  expressl)^  and  though  by  the  time  of  Justin 
Mart}^  the  two  have  evidently  been  united,  traces  of  the  older 
custom  are  to  be  found  in  the  distinction  between  the  missa  cate- 
chuvienomvi  and  the  niissa  fideliuni  which  first  appears  with 
Irenaeus  and  Tertullian.  With  such  a  definite  statement*  to 
guide  us,  we  find  in  I  Cor.  xi-xiv  not  one,  but  two  assemblies 
described.  The  one  is  ets  to  ^ayov — "for  eating" — the  other  is 
for  edification.  At  the  former  of  these  services  none  but  Chris- 
tians, members  of  the  congregation,  were  present;  to  the  second 
were  admitted  not  only  idiotai,^  but  even  unbelievers  (I  Cor. 
xiv,  16,  19).  The  custom  of  holding  both  meetings  on  the  same 
day  may  well  have  been  Apostolic  usage.  J 

III.  We  turn  our  attention,  therefore,  first  to  the  service 
for  edification.  In  I  Cor.  xiv  we  have  the  rules  which  Paul  laid 
down  for  the  avoidance  of  abuses  in  this  public  service,  and  from 
the  abuses  which  he  corrects  and  his  manner  of  correcting  them 
we  can  form  a  fairly  complete  idea  of  the  elements  that  entered 
into  it. 

Before  entering  upon  a  discussion  of  these  elements  in  detail 
it  is  first  necessary  that  we  should  get  a  conception  of  the  mean- 
ing and  aim  of  the  service  as  a  whole.  At  the  very  outset  we 
notice  that  there  is  no  desire  on  the  part  of  the  Apostle  to  limit 

*  It  maybe  well  to  quote  Pliny's  statement.  Christians  whom  he  has  caused 
to  be  arrested  and  examined  have  confessed:  '■''quod  essent  soliii  stato  die  ante  lucent 
convenire,  cartnenque  Christo  quasi  deo  dicer e  secutn  invicem — quibus  peractis  mor- 
em  sibi  discedendi  fuisse,  rursusque  cceundi  ad  capiendum  cibum,  promiscuum  tamen 
aique  innoxium.'^  The  full  text  of  the  letter  is  given  in  MiRBT's  Quellen.  2nd  ed. 
No.  12. 

t  In  the  Greek  mysteries  the  idiotai  were  the  uninitiated. 

X  See  Harnack,  Lechler  and  especially  Weizsaecker,  II.  p.  249  ff. 


CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP    IN   THE    APOSTOLIC    AGE.  51 

active  participation  in  it  to  any  special  individuals,  or  office-bear- 
ers. The  women  alone  are  prohibited  from  taking  more  than  a 
passive  part  (I  Cor.  xiv,  34,  cf.  I  Tim.  ii,  12).  With  this  excep- 
tion the  right  to  share  in  the  proceedings  is  open  to  every  one. 
One  limitation  is  recognized,  however,  by  all,  and  that  is  the  pos- 
session of  a  proper  gift  or  charisma.  We  are  too  liable  to  forget 
how  fundamental  to  the  whole  life  of  the  early  Church  the  idea 
of  charismatic  endowment  really  was.  As  a  matter  of  fact  there 
is  not  a  single  institution  of  the  first  Century  that  can  be  thor- 
oughly understood  without  reference  to  this  idea.*  In  the  pas- 
sages, Rom.  xii,  5-8  and  I  Cor.  xii,  28-31  Paul  gives  us  a  sort  of 
catalogue  of  these  chafismata  with  an  estimate  of  their  compara- 
tive value.  We  learn  that  he  classes  as  most  desirable  those 
which  are  calculated  to  make  their  possessor  most  useful  to  the 
Church.  They  are  first  Apostles — i.  e.  missionaries — then  proph- 
ets and  teachers;  then  come  the  more  practical  gifts,  which  ena- 
ble their  possessors  to  work  miracles  and  to  heal  the  sick,  then 
the  "helps;"  lastly,  speaking  with  tongues  and  the  interpretation 
of  tongues.  Those  who  had  these  gifts  were  "spiritual"  (I  Cor. 
xii,  37),  but  the  idea  that  any  Christian  could  be  totally  ungifted 
was  wholly  foreign  to  Apostolic  thought. 

Bearing  this  in  mind  we  understand  that  the  whole  public 
service  was  the  free  expression  of  the  powers  which  the  Spirit 
had  bestowed  by  the  way  of  charisma  on  the  members  of  the  con- 
gregation. As  respects  form  and  content  it  was  a  "free  service," 
led  by  the  "gifted,"  in  which  those  whose  gifts  did  not  fit  them 
for  active  participation  were  auditors,  or  responded  with  the 
Amen  (xiv,  16).  The  first  limitation  was,  therefore,  charismat- 
ic, set  by  the  Spirit  Himself. 

Owing  to  the  very  natural  but  very  false  idea  current  in  the 
Corinthian  Church,  that  the  greatest  gifts  were  those  that  were, 
or  seemed  to  be,  the  most  miraculous — a  misconception  to  which 
we  shall  return  later — Paul  found  it  necessary  to  set  a  second 
limitation.  It  lies  in  the  very  purpose  for  which  the  service  is 
held.  "Let  all  things,"  he  says,  "be  done  unto  edifying."  The 
aim  of  the  service  is  therefore  not  the  making  of  converts,  though 


*  In  his  Kirchenrecht,  I,  Leipzig,  1894,  SOHM  would  base  the  whole  organixa- 
tion  of  the  early  Church  upon  this  charismatic  idea  alone.  Though  we  cannot  agree 
with  him  fully,  a  mere  cursory  reading  of  the  book  is  enough  to  convince  the  reader 
that  the  importance  of  this  phase  of  the  subject  has  been  too  much  neglected. 


52  MEMOIRS. 

it  might  result  in  that  if  an  unbeliever  should  happen  to  be  pres- 
ent (xiv,  24 f),  but  primarily  the  building  up  of  the  faith  of  those 
who  were  already  Christians.  The  carrying  out  of  this  idea  ren- 
ders it  necessary  that  "all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order" 
(xiv,  36),  that  certain  gifts  be  subordinated  to  others  which  are 
better  calculated  to  edify  the  congregation,  and  that  restrictions 
be  put  upon  the  number  of  those  who  take  part  in  any  given  as- 
sembly. 

It  remains  for  us  therefore,  to  take  up  the  elements  given  us 
in  ch.  xiv,  26  and  determine  the  meaning  of  the  terms  there  used. 
The  verse  reads  as  follows: — "When  ye  come  together  each  one 
hath  a  psalm,  hath  a  teaching,  hath  a  revelation,  hath  a  tongue, 
hath  an  interpretation."  The  elements  are  therefore,  i)  Psalm, 
2)  Teaching,  3)  Prophecy,  4)  Tongues  and  their  Interpretation, 
and  in  the  absence  of  any  more  definite  information  we  may  fair- 
ly ass  tune  that  the  order  would  be  that  here  indicated,  especially 
since  a  comparison  with  the  context  shows  that  this  order  is  not 
that  of  their  relative  importance.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  take 
them  up  in  detail. 

I ) .  The  Psalm.  This  term  is  not  to  be  understood  as  ap- 
plying in  this  passage  exclusively,  or  even  primarily,  to  the  ca- 
nonical Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament.  That  many  of  the  latter 
were  used  in  the  service  there  can  be  no  doubt,  but  as  it  was  only 
the  gifted  who  had  the  right  to  bring  a  Psalm  to  the  assembly, 
that  which  he  chose  for  use  was  considered  as  chosen  and  used 
under  the  direct  influence  of  the  Spirit.  It  might  be  a  Psalm  of 
David,  or  one  of  the  so-called  Psalms  of  Solomon,  evident  traces 
of  which  are  not  uncommon  in  the  early  literature,  or  it  might 
be — and  that  is  what  is  evidently  contemplated  here — a  free  com- 
position of  him  who  used  it,  in  other  words  a  Christian  hymn. 
But  the  Psalm  was  from  the  very  beginning  closely  connected 
with  Christian  prayer,  so  closely  that  we  may  regard  it  almost  as 
a  constitutive  part  of  the  prayer  itself  (cf.  Acts  iv,  23  ff),  and 
this  was  merely  the  Christian  adaptation  of  a  custom  already 
prevalent  in  the  Jewish  synagogue.  We  may  therefore  assume 
that  in  the  verse  before  us  the  "Psalm"  included  also  the  ele- 
ment of  prayer.*  It  was  the  prayer  with  which  the  service  be- 
gan; it  was  also  the  Hymn  of  the  Church. 

*  The  connection   of  \j/aWciv  with  Trpo(Tev\€(r6ai  (public  prayer)  in  I  Cor. 
xiv,  15,  strengthens  the  hypothesis. 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN   THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE.  53 

a).  The  Prayer.  In  I  Cor.  xiv,  14 ff  there  is  a  clear  in- 
dication of  the  mode  of  prayer  in  the  congregation.  One  member 
offered  it,  in  the  words  which  the  Spirit  put  into  his  mouth,  and 
the  rest  responded  with  the  Amen  ( v.  1 6  ) .  So  little  was  this  prayer 
bound  to  any  fixed  form  of  words  that  it  might  be  the  mere  ec- 
static utterance  of  one  who  had  the  gift  of  tongues  and  wholly 
unintelligible  to  those  who  heard  it,  hence  the  admonition  to  pray 
not  only  with  the  spirit  but  with  the  understanding  also  (v.  15). 
It  seems,  however,  to  have  contained  one  element  that  would 
early  assume  a  fixed  form,  and  that  is  the  cvAoyta  (v.  17),  which 
we  take  to  refer  to  the  doxology  with  which  the  prayer  began  or 
ended,  and  which  was  followed  by  the  Amen  of  the  hearers. 
Early  examples  of  such  doxologies  meet  us  in  such  passages  as 
I  Tim,  vi,  16;  Rev.  i,  6;  iv,  8;  v,  13;  vii,  12;  xix,  i.  The  dox- 
ologies, so  frequent  in  the  Pauline  writings  other  than  that  just 
mentioned,  would  also  be  taken  up  very  early  into  the  prayers 
of  the  assembly. 

A  somewhat  more  developed  idea  of  the  common  prayer  of 
the  Church  is  found  in  I  Tim.  ii,  1-3.  Here  we  find  the  various 
kinds  of  prayers  differentiated  according  to  their  content,  but  all 
prescribed  as  the  solemn  duty  of  the  congregation.  The  possi- 
bility of  the  ecstatic,  unintelligible  prayer  is  not  contemplated  at 
all,  and  yet  there  is  no  indication  that  the  Apostle  is  desirous  of 
introducing  anything  that  is  new.  He  is  merely  insisting  upon 
the  observance  of  an  already  established  custom.  Moreover  the 
objects  of  the  prayers  are  defined.  It  is  to  be  prayer  "for  all 
men,  for  kings  and  all  that  are  in  high  places." 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  such  prayers  as  are  here  described 
would  inevitably  assume  a  fixed  form,  or  at  least  develop  a 
comparatively  constant  type.  The  gradual  disappearance  of  the 
special  charismata  with  the  corresponding  tendency  to  delegate 
the  spokesmanship  for  the  congregation  to  a  small  number  of 
men,  the  ever-present  contrast  between  the  needs  of  the  entire 
congregation  and  those  of  the  individual  worshipper,  the  relative 
sameness  of  the  former  in  all  times  and  under  all  circumstances, — 
all  these  things  would  tend  toward  a  fixation  of  the  prayer  in  re- 
spect both  of  form  and  content,  and  we  should  be  justified  in  as- 
suming that  such  a  fixation  actually  occurred  even  though  we 
should  be  without  concrete  evidence  to  support  the  assumption. 
Fortunately,  however,  we  are  not  left  to  mere  conjecture.     In  the 


54  MEMOIRS, 

concluding  chapters  (59-61)  of  the  first  Epistle  of  Clement  we 
have  an  example  of  such  a  prayer  dating  from  the  last  decade  of 
the  first  Century  (A.  D.  96  circ.)  Whether  it  is  the  reproduc- 
tion of  a  fixed  formula  used  in  the  Roman  (or  Corinthian) 
Church,  or  an  original  composition  on  the  same  general  lines  as 
the  free  prayers  in  use  in  those  churches,  or  one  of  them,  is  a 
matter  of  controversy  which  will  probably  never  be  settled.*  It 
is  at  most  a  matter  of  merely  secondary  importance.  We  gain 
from  it  in  either  case  a  clear  idea  of  how  the  earliest  common 
prayers  were  constructed  and  what  they  contained.  The  prayer 
consists  of  i)  a  solemn  address  to  God,  with  ascriptions  of  holi- 
ness, power  and  wisdom;  2)  petitions  for  help  in  tribulation  and 
distress;  3)  for  forgiveness  of  sin  and  the  common  good;  4)  sup- 
plication for  the  welfare  of  the  state  and  those  in  authority;  5)  a 
doxology.  The  limits  of  this  article  unfortunately  prevent  the 
insertion  of  the  prayer,  and  preclude  more  extended  discussion. 
One  more  point  calls  for  our  attention,  however,  before  clos- 
ing this  brief  and  sketchy  survey  of  the  public  prayer.  There  is 
no  direct  evidence,  and  little  of  any  other  kind,  to  show  that  the 
Lord's  Prayer  was  used  in  the  worship  of  the  Church  in  the 
Apostolic  Age,  either  in  the  public  service  for  edification  or  the 
private  assembly  for  Agape  and  Communion.  In  fact  the  whole 
literature  of  the  ancient  Church  is  singularly  barren  of  clear  al- 
lusions to  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Von  der  Goltzf  finds  none  earlier 
than  Polycarp,!  if  we  are  to  except  the  phrase,  "Abba,  Father," 
in  Rom.  viii,  15;  Gal.  iv,  6.§  Despite  this  fact  we  may  be  sure 
that  it  was  known  and  used  by  all  Christians  in  accordance  with 
the  command  of  the  Lord,  Matt,  vi,  9;  Luke  xi,  2.  That  is  not 
to  say,  however,  that  it  was  used  by  the  congregation.  We 
would  naturally  expect  to  find  it  in  the  Eucharistic  service,  but 
the  first  post- Apostolic  Communion  order  that  we  have — that  of 
the  Didache — makes  no  mention  of  it,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  there  prescribed  as  the  form  for  the  private  devotions  of  the 


*  For  arguments  on  the  one  side  see  LiGHTFOOT,  Clemetti  of  Rome,  Vol.  I,  ed. 
2,  1890,  p.  382  f{;  on  the  other  see  Von  der  Goltz,  Das  Gebet  in  der  aeltesten 
Christenheit,    Leipzig,   1901,  p.   192  ff.     Both  give  full  analyses  of  the  prayer  itself. 

t  Op.  cit.  p.   189. 

%  Ad  Phil.  vi.  6. 

§  Chase's  list  of  N.  T.  references  to  the  Lord's  Prayer,  The  Lord's  Prayer  in 
the  Early  Church,  1891,  is  artificial  and  unconvincing. 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN   THE   APOSTOUC   AGE.  55 

Christians,  by  whom  it  is  to  be  repeated  thrice  daily  {Did.  viii). 
This  fact  combined  with  the  absence  of  all  traces  of  the  prayer 
in  the  Epistles  and  the  Revelation,  would  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  it  came  into  the  service  after  the  writing  of  the  Didache — 
approximately  the  middle  of  the  second  Century.* 

b).  The  Hymns.  In  Eph.  v,  19  and  Col.  iii,  10  * 'hymns 
and  spiritual  songs"  are  mentioned  along  with  "psalms."  We 
have  seen  that  the  singing  of  hymns  or  psalms  was  probably  a 
part  of  the  private  worship  at  Jerusalem;  that  the  antiphonal 
singing  of  hymns  was  customary  at  the  Christian  meetings  in  the 
beginning  of  the  second  Century  is  witnessed  by  Pliny  {carmen 
Christo  .  .  .  sibi  invicem.  dicere) .  As  in  the  case  of  the  prayers 
these  hymns  might  be  the  free  utterances  of  the  "spiritual,"  and 
might  even  be  "in  a  tongue,"  but  they  were  not  necessarily  so. 
On  the  contrary  the  tendency  to  fixed  forms,  either  canonical 
psalms  or  Christian  hymns,  fixed  by  tradition  and  familiar  to  the 
whole  congregation,  would  be  even  stronger  than  in  the  case  of 
the  prayers,  for  a  hymn,  to  be  a  hymn  of  the  congregation,  would 
require  the  use  of  words  in  which  those  present  could  join,  and 
the  passive  participation  by  the  response  of  Amen  would  not  long 
be  deemed  sufficient. 

Of  such  Christian  hymns  the  New  Testament  offers  us  a 
number  of  examples.  The  Magnificat,  the  Benedictus  and  the 
Nufic  Dimittis  are  typical,  and  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  (I^uke  ii,  14) 
was  doubtless  the  basis  of  later  hymns.  There  is  no  reason  for 
dissenting  from  the  opinion  of  the  many  scholars  who  find  in 
I  Tim.  iii,  16  a  fragment  of  a  very  ancient  hymn  to  Christ,  cur- 
rent in  the  Church  when  that  Epistle  was  written,  and  the  book 
of  Revelation  is  especially  rich  in  material  of  this  kind.f  The 
"new  song"  of  Rev.  v,  is  one  of  our  best  examples.  If  we  as- 
sume that  the  Heavenly  service  of  the  prophetic  vision  bore  at 
least  some  resemblance  to  the  earthly  services  with  which  the 
prophet  was  familiar,  it  gains  a  still  greater  significance  as  show- 
ing the  manner  in  which  the  hymns  were  used  in  those  services. 
We  will  run  the  risk  of  overstepping  our  limits  and  insert  the 
hymn  in  full. 

It  begins  with  the  song  of  the  elders  (ch.  iv,  11): — 

•  The  antiquity  of  the  variant  readings  seem  to  be  the  only  argument  which 
would  militate  against  this  view,  but  these  may  be  due  to  other  than  liturgical  causes, 
t  Th.  Harnack  calls  it  the  "psalm-book  of  the  N.  T." 


56  MEMOIRS. 

Worthy  art  Thou,  our  Lord  and  our  God, 

To  receive  the  glory  and  the  honor  and  the  power; 

For  Thou  didst  create  all  things. 

And  because  of  Thy  will  they  were,  and  were  created. 

Next  the  four  cherubim  take  up  the  hymn,  singing  with  the 
elders  (v,  9-10): — 

Worthy  art  Thou  to  take  the  book 

And  to  open  the  seals  thereof: 

For  Thou  wast  slain,  and  didst  purchase  unto  God  with  Thy  blood 

Of  every  tribe  and  tongue  and  people  and  nation. 

And  madest  them  to  be  unto  our  God  a  kingdom  and  priests. 

And  they  shall  reign  upon  the  earth. 

To  which  those  in  Heaven  respond  (v.  12): — 
Worthy  is  the  Lamb  that  hath  been  slain. 

To  receive  the  power  and  riches  and  wisdom  and  might  and  honor 
and  glory  and  blessing. 

Then  all  God's  creatures  take  up  the  refrain  and  sing  (v.  13) : — 
Unto  Him  that  sitteth  on  the  throne, 
And  unto  the  Lamb, 

The  blessing  and  the  honor  and  the  glory  and  the  dominion 
Unto  the  ages  of  the  ages! 

Similar  to  this  are  the  "song  of  Moses  and  the  Lamb"  (ch. 
XV.  3ff),  and  the  "nuptial  ode  of  the  Lamb"  (ch.  xix,  1-8). 

It  is  unfortunate  that  so  few  examples  of  the  hymns  of  the 
second  and  third  Centuries  have  come  down  to  us.  There  is  but 
one  extant  (from  the  writings  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  )*  though 
there  is  considerable  evidence  of  their  existence.  Those  to  which 
we  have  referred  are  enough  to  show  what  the  nature  of  these 
hymns  was.  In  their  structure  they  were  Hebraic  and  must 
have  been  chanted,  not  sung  to  metrically  arranged  melodies; 
that  the  rendering  was  antiphonal  is  indicated  by  the  letter  of 
Pliny  already  quoted  and  the  hymn  just  given;  their  terminology 
is  largely  drawn  from  Jewish  sources,  and  their  prevailing  tone 
is  that  of  joyful  and  hopeful  thanksgiving. f 

2).  The  Teaching.  After  prayer  and  hymn  follows  a  di- 
dactic address  delivered  by  one  of  the  members  of  the  congrega- 
tion who  was  endowed  with  the  gift  of  teaching.  It  was  a  ser- 
mon for  the  edification  of  the  congregation  and  not  as  in  the  case 
of  the  various  speeches  that  are  preserved  in  Acts,  a  missionary 


♦  Given  by  VoN  DER  GoLTZ,  p.  138. 

t  For  a  discussion  of  this  whole  subject  see  Weizsaecker,  II,  pp.  259  £f;  VoN 
DBR  GOLTZ,    134  ff,    183  ff. 


CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN  THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE.  57 

address,  and  it  included  both  the  "word  of  knowledge"  and  the 
"word  of  wisdom"  (I  Cor.  xii,  8).* 

The  instruction  was  probably,  after  the  analogy  of  the  ser- 
mon in  the  synagogue,  preceded  by  the  reading  of  a  passage  of 
Old  Testament  Scripture.  To  be  sure  we  find  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment no  express  statement  to  that  effect.  There  is  a  reference  to 
this  public  reading  in  I  Tim.  iv,  13,  where  we  find  dmyvwo-ts  en- 
joined along  with  '  'exhortation  and  teaching. ' '  This  word  passed 
later  into  the  liturgical  language  of  the  Church  as  the  regular 
term  for  the  public  Scripture-reading.  It  occurs  in  two  other 
places  in  the  New  Testament,  each  time  referring  to  the  reading 
of  the  Law  in  the  Jewish  service  (II  Cor.  iii,  14;  Acts  xiii,  15). 
Further  evidence  for  the  custom  is  furnished  by  the  extensive  use 
that  Paul  makes  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Epistles  to  congrega- 
tions that  must  have  been  composed  largely  of  Gentiles.  He 
presupposes  a  knowledge  which  could  scarcely  have  been  theirs 
unless  they  had  been  accustomed  to  hearing  the  Old  Testament 
read  (e.  g.,  Gal.  iii,  6ff;  iv,  2 iff;  cf.  II  Cor.  yff;  Rom.  iv). 

It  was  no  doubt  in,  or  in  connection  with,  this  teaching  that 
the  facts  of  Christ's  life  were  narrated  and  His  words  applied  to 
the  lives  and  circumstances  of  the  hearers.  That  in  the  time  of 
the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  these  narrations  were  already 
based  upon  a  body  of  tradition  is  clear  from  I  Cor.  xi,  23;  xv,  3. 
When  this  tradition  ceased  to  be  transmitted  orally  and  assumed 
a  written  form  is  uncertain,  but  all  the  evidence  seems  to  point 
to  a  time  earlier  than  the  writings  of  Paul.  The  time  when  the 
written  Gospels  came  to  be  taken  up  in  the  public  service  for 
regular  reading  alongside  the  Old  Testament  is  equally  uncertain. 

The  reading  of  Apostolic  letters  in  the  congregations  to 
which  they  were  addressed  (I  Thess.  v,  27;  II  Cor.  i,  13)  and  the 
exchange  of  letters  among  congregations  (Col.  iv,  16),  was  the 
origin  of  the  reading  of  the  Epistles  in  the  service.  That  they 
were  regularly  read  at  the  stated  meetings  in  the  Apostolic  Age 
is  improbable,  though  under  circumstances  that  rendered  it  ad- 
visable to  remind  the  congregation  of  the  Apostolic  teaching  it 
may  have  occurred.  The  emphasis  laid  upon  the  Apostolic  ori- 
gin of  the  Church's  doctrines  in  the  fight  against  heresy,  that 
began  with  the  closing  years  of  the  first  Centtu-y,  was  a  powerful 

*  For  a  discussion  of  the  terms,  see  Weizsaecker,  II,  pp.  262  ff,  and  commen- 
taries in  loc. 


58  MEMOIRS. 

motive  for  the  regular  use  of  the  Epistles  in  the  services,  and  one 
of  the  chief  causes  that  led  to  the  recognition  of  their  authority 
as  Scripture.* 

3).  The  Prophecy.  Upon  the  teaching  follows  now  the 
"prophecy,"  the  exact  nature  of  which  it  is  diflBcult  to  determine. 
Prophets  were  men  who  were  endowed  with  a  charisma  which 
made  them  the  most  highly  honored  members  of  the  congrega- 
tion. They  held  in  the  Church  the  second  place  after  the  apos- 
tles who  were  not  properly  members  of  the  congregation  at  all, 
but  wandering  missionaries  who  became  the  congregation's  guests 
from  time  to  time.  In  Rev.  xviii,  20,  prophets  and  apostles  are 
named  together  and  in  Eph.  ii,  20  they  are  spoken  of  as  forming 
with  the  apostles  the  foundation  of  the  Church  of  which  Christ 
is  the  chief  corner-stone.  In  I  Cor.  xiv,  i,  Paul  speaks  of  this 
gift  as  the  one  which  the  Christian  should  desire  above  all  others. 
The  words  of  the  prophet  came  to  him  by  "revelation."  This 
does  not  mean  that  he  was  so  carried  away  by  a  religious  institu- 
tion as  to  lose  control  of  his  intellect  and  become  the  mere  mouth- 
piece of  the  Spirit.  On  the  contrary  he  spoke  with  all  his  facul- 
ties under  full  control,  for  the  spirits  of  the  prophets  were  subject 
to  the  prophets  (I  Cor.  xiv,  32).  The  content  of  the  prophecy 
was,  under  normal  conditions,  "edification,  and  comfort  and  con- 
solation" (I  Cor.  xiv,  3)  and  was  calculated  to  work  the  conver- 
sion of  an  unbeliever  by  laying  bare  the  secrets  of  his  heart 
(I  Cor.  xiv,  24).  It  may  therefore  be  described  as  the  subjective 
side  of  the  "teaching"  above  mentioned.  That  was,  however, 
only  one  manifestation  of  the  prophetic  gift.  It  might  express 
itself  in  prayer,  in  fact  the  right  to  pray  "as  much  as  he  will"  is 
reserved  to  the  prophet  even  as  late  as  the  Didache.  Again  the 
prophecy  might  take  the  form  of  a  prediction  of  future  events 
(Acts  xxi,  10,  cf.  ch.  XX,  23)  or  it  might  be  "apocalyptic"  in 
character  dealing  with  the  last  things.  The  book  of  Revelation 
is  an  example  of  this  last  kind  of  prophecy. 

The  very  fact  that  the  prophet  spoke  under  the  direct  influ- 
ence of  the  Spirit  inevitably  opened  the  door  for  the  entrance  of 
many  abuses.  It  was  therefore  necessary  to  discriminate  among 
the  alleged  prophetic  utterances  (I  Thess.  v,   21,  cf.   I  Cor.  xiv. 


*  The  discussion  of  this  subject  belongs  to  the  histcry  of  the  N.  T.  Canon. 
For  literature  see  Hastings,  Bib.c  Diet.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  542  f  and  RE  Vol.  IV,  p. 
768. 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP   IN  THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE.  59 

29)  and  Paul  gave  a  general  rule  for  the  testing  of  a  prophecy  in 
I  Cor.  xii,  3;  cf.  I  John  iv,  1-6.  In  the:  Didache  (ch.  xi,  7-12)  fur- 
ther tests  are  prescribed  for  determining  the  genuineness  of  the 
prophetic  calling  of  those  who  speak  "in  the  Spirit,"  and  the  nat- 
ure of  the  tests  that  are  to  be  applied  shows  that  the  Church  had 
had  unfortunate  experiences  with  men  who  professed  to  possess  the 
gift.  Even  in  the  service  at  Corinth  abuses  connected  with  the 
prophetic  speeches  had  sprung  up  and  Paul  found  it  necessary  to 
limit  the  number  of  those  who  should  participate  in  any  one  ser- 
vice to  two  or,  at  the  most,  three,  who  were  to  speak  in  the  order 
in  which  the  Spirit  moved  them*  (I  Cor.  xiv,  29). 

4).  Speaking  with  Tongues.  The  greatest  confusion  had 
arisen  in  Corinth  because  of  the  over-estimate  that  the  Church  in 
that  city  had  put  upon  the  possession  of  the  gift  of  tongues. 
Among  all  the  charismata  this  was  the  one  that  had  the  greatest 
appearance  of  supernatural  origin,  and,  naturally  enough  for  peo- 
ple of  their  time,  still  under  the  influence  of  heathen  ideas,  it  was 
the  most  coveted.  As  to  the  exact  nature  of  this,  in  many  ways 
the  most  remarkable  phenomenon  of  the  Apostolic  Age,  there  has 
been  much  dispute.  This  is  neither  the  time  nor  the  place  for  an 
exhaustive  discussion  of  the  subject,  for  what  concerns  us  chiefly 
is  the  part  which  the  speaking  with  tongues  had  in  the  public 
service.  From  the  comments  and  directions  which  Paul  gives  in 
I  Cor.  we  gather  that  it  consisted  in  the  ecstatic  utterance,  under 
intense  religious  excitement,  of  broken  sentences,  or  parts  of  sen- 
tences, unintelligible  or  half-intelligible,  which  needed  the  ser- 
vices of  an  interpreter  to  make  their  sense  clear  to  those  who 
heard  them.  This  fact  combined  with  the  loss  of  self-control 
which  necessarily  accompanied  the  manifestations  of  this  gift, 
made  them  worthless  for  purposes  of  edification  and  would  lead 
an  unbeliever  to  the  conclusion  that  they  who  spoke  were  mad 
(I  Cor.  xiv,  23  f).  Paul  regarded  this  ecstatic  speech  as  a  real 
manifestation  of  the  power  of  the  Spirit  and  claimed  that  he  had 
this  gift  himself  in  greater  measure  than  others  (I  Cor.  xiv,  13), 
although  he  puts  it  last  in  his  list  of  charismata  (I  Cor.  xii,  28) 
and  held  it  so  lightly  that  he  preferred  to  speak  five  words  with 
his  understanding  rather  than  ten  thousand  words  in  a  tongue 
(v.  19).     He  does  not  wish,  therefore,  to  banish  the  speaking  of 

*  The  services  of  the  Society  of  Friends  suggest  themselves  as  a  possible  paral- 
lel to  this  part  of  the  Apostolic  service. 


60  MEMOIRS. 

tongues  from  the  assembly,  that  would  be  to  "quench  the  Spirit" 
and  contrary  to  his  express  principle  (I  Thess.  v,  19),  but  to  make 
them  subservient  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  assembly  is  held, 
i.  e.,  to  edification.  With  this  end  in  view  he  limits  the  number 
of  those  who  are  to  speak  to  two  or  at  most  three,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  prophets,  but  with  the  additional  provision  that  they  are 
only  to  speak  if  one  is  present  who  can  interpret  their  utterances, 
and  thus  give  them  a  practical  value  (I  Cor.  xiv,  27-29).  On 
this  condition  he  allows  it  to  retain  a  place  in  the  worship  of  the 
Church. 

5).  Conclusions.  Our  results  may  therefore  be  summed  up 
as  follows:  We  have  found  two  services  held  on  Sundays.  The 
first  of  them  is  a  service  for  the  edification  of  the  congregation 
and  comprises: — a)  Prayer;  b)  Hymns;  c)  Teaching,  combined 
with  Scripture-reading;  d)  Prophecy,  probably  hortatory  or  ad- 
monitory preaching;  e)  speaking  with  tongues  and  interpretation 
of  tongues.  Of  these  elements  the  last,  belonging,  as  it  did,  to 
the  first  enthusiastic  period  of  faith,  would  soon  fall  away  of  itself; 
in  fact  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  could  survive  within  the  Apostles' 
limitations.  The  "prophecy"  would  eventually  combine  with 
the  "teaching"  and  form  the  sermon,  and  the  reading  of  the 
Scripture  would  soon  make  for  itself  an  independent  place. 

IV.  The  Meeting  for  the  I^ord's  Supper.  Rursusqiie  cceunt 
ad  capienduni  cibum,  proyniscuum  taynen  et  innoxiuni.  So  Pliny 
briefly  describes  the  second  Sunday  meeting  of  the  Christians  in 
Bythinia.  It  was  a  meeting  in  every  way  distinct  from  the  one 
just  characterized,  and  held  later  in  the  day,  possibly  in  the  even- 
ing, which  would  often  be  the  most  convenient  time  and  would 
always  seem  the  most  appropriate,  for  it  commemorated  Christ's 
last  evening-meal  with  the  Twelve.  For  information  concern- 
ing the  procedure  at  this  meeting  in  the  Apostolic  Age  we  are 
dependent  exclusively  on  the  notice  of  Paul  in  I  Cor.  x,  16  ff  and 
xi,  17-34. 

The  purpose  of  the  meeting  was  the  eating  of  the  lyord's 
Supper  (xi,  20)  and  with  this  object  in  view  the  whole  congrega- 
tion (xi,  18)  came  together  and  partook  of  a  common  meal.  The 
significance  of  the  common  meal  for  the  disciples  in  Jerusalem 
has  already  been  indicated.  The  same  motives  would  explain  its 
existence  in  Corinth,  but  here  we  find  a  new  conception  coming 
into  prominence.     At  Jerusalem  the  Christians  met  for  the  daily 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN   THE   APOSTOLIC    AGE.  Gl 

satisfaction  of  daily  hunger;  in  Corinth  the  meal  was  not  an  ev- 
ery-day  occurrence  and  bore  more  of  the  marks  of  a  special  act  of 
worship  admitting  of  comparison,  or  contrast,  with  the  heathen 
sacrificial  feasts  (x,  i6ff).  The  significance  of  the  latter  con- 
sisted, however,  solely  in  the  fact  that  the  viands  there  consumed 
had  first  been  offered  to  an  idol,  whereas  Paul  finds  it  necessary 
to  insist  upon  the  sanctity  of  the  act  itself,  not  as  the  eating  and 
drinking  of  consecrated  food,  but  as  the  communion  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  the  Lord,  and  therefore  not  to  be  regarded  as  the 
ordinary  partaking  of  nourishment  for  pleasure  or  for  the  suste- 
nance of  life. 

The  question  now  arises: — When  Paul  spoke  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  he  referring  to  the  whole  common  meal  or  is  his  term 
to  be  understood  in  a  narrower  sense,  as  appl3'ing  only  to  a  part 
of  what  transpired  at  this  meeting?  The  former  view  has  become 
quite  prevalent  in  recent  years;*  the  latter  is  older  and  still  has 
the  support  of  many  scholars. f  The  weightiest  arguments  in 
support  of  the  former  opinion  would  seem  to  be  the  comparison 
of  the  "table  of  the  Lord"  with  the  heathen  feasts  in  ch.  x,  and 
the  abuse  mentioned  in  ch.  xi,  21  (cf.  v,  33),  where  each  is  said 
to  "take  before  the  other  his  own  supper,"  thus  making  the 
Lord's  Supper  impossible.  This  would  then  be  interpreted  to 
mean  that  some  began  to  eat  before  the  blessing  of  the  food, 
which  was  essential  to  the  celebration.  Without  entering  into  a 
discussion  of  the  arguments  adduced,  it  must  here  suffice  to  say 
that  they  are  not  convincing  and  that  the  older  view  still  seems 
to  coincide  more  fully  with  tlie  .scant}'  facts  that  are  at  our  dis- 
posal. 

We  may  picture  the  proceedings  somewhat  as  follows.  At 
the  appointed  time  the  Christians  assemble,  each  bringing  his 
own  food.  Some  will  have  more,  some  less.  The  eating  and 
drinking  begins  in  an  irregular  disorderly  way  and  even  if  the  at- 
tempt is  made  to  have  all  share  alike,  it  is  unsuccessful.  One 
man  goes  hungrj',  his  neighbor  gorges  or  drinks  to  excess. 
When  the  time  comes  for  the  act  which  is  most  sacred,  the  very 
communion  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord,  they  are  not  in 
physical  or  mental  condition  to  participate.     In  some  cases  it  is 

*  It  is  advocated  by  Drews,  RE  Vol.  V,  pp  560  ff,  where  the  literature  is 
indicated.     See  also  Rietschel,  Lilurgik,  I,  p  240. 

t  Among  them  A.  Harnack  and  Zaun.  Weizsaecker,  (^Apost.  A^e^  II,  p. 
283)  declares  it  "altogether  indisputable." 


62  MEMOIRS. 

actually  impossible  to  have  the  lyord's  Supper  at  all,  and  even 
where  the  abuse  has  not  gone  so  far,  many  partake  unworthily. 
These  are  the  conditions  with  which  Paul  has  to  deal.  He  at- 
tacks them  by  reminding  his  readers  of  the  solemnity  of  the  act 
in  which  they  engage,  and  the  serious  consequences  to  themselves 
that  result  from  unworthy  participation.  He  does  not  attempt  to 
prescribe  any  new  mode  of  procedure,  but  his  emphatic  distinc- 
tion between  the  Lord's  Supper  and  all  ordinary  eating  and  drink- 
ing was  a  step  toward  the  total  separation  of  the  common  meal 
from  the  Communion  which  occurred  almost  a  century  later.* 

As  regards  the  rite  itself  it  consisted  apparently  in  two  sim- 
ple acts, — the  consecration  of  bread  and  wine  and  the  reception 
of  the  consecrated  elements.  The  consecration  consisted,  not  in 
the  repetition  of  the  Words  of  Institution,  but  in  the  eucharistic 
prayer  by  which  the  elements  were  blessed  {eixapicrTUL  or  eiXoyia) 
and  set  apart  for  their  sacred  use.  So  Christ  had  consecrated 
the  bread  and  wine  at  the  Institution  and  Paul  speaks  of  the 
Communion  as  "the  cup  of  blessing  which  we  bless"  (ch.  x,  i6). 
The  order  of  consecration  is  uncertain.  At  the  Institution  it  had 
been,  first  the  bread  and  then  the  wine;  I  Cor.  x,  i6f,  seems  to 
reverse  the  order  and  in  the  Didache  the  inverted  order  seems  to 
be  prescribed.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  consecratory  prayer 
was,  from  the  first,  extempore,  and  offered  by  a  prophet,  for  the 
oldest  formal  prayers  that  we  have  for  this  service  are  those  of 
the  Didache  (ch.  ix)  and  even  there  the  right  to  pray  "as  they 
will"  is  still  reserved  to  the  prophets  (ch.  x,  7).  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  these  prayers  of  the  Didache  are  the  oldest 
prescribed  forms  of  prayer  which  the  Church  possesses.  Although 
the  Words  of  Institution  were  not  essential  to  the  consecration, 
and  although  we  cannot  prove  by  direct  evidence  that  they  were 
even  used  before  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr, f  we  are,  nevertheless, 
perfectly  safe  in  assuming  that  they  had  a  place  in  the  service 
and  probably  preceded  the  distribution.  In  fact  the  performance 
of  an  act  which  derived  its  meaning  and  its  justification  from  the 
words  of  Christ  would  be  quite  inconceivable  without  invariable 
reference  to  the  event  which  it  commemorated  and  the  command 
on  which  it  was  based. 


*  See  Zahn,  RE'  Vol.  I,  pp.  234  ff. 

+  The  contention  of  Drews  (1.  c. )  and  others  that  the  usage  cannot  be  proved 
from  I  Cor.  xi,  23-25  is  correct. 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN  THE   APOSTOI^IC    AGE.  63 

This  practically  exhausts  our  information.  That  there  may 
have  been  preaching  at  this  service,  at  least  in  the  form  of  proph- 
ecy, is  possible;  that  hymns  were  sung  is  probable  from  Matt, 
xxvi,  30  and  Mark  xiv,  27;  that  the  Kiss  of  Peace-'^  had  a  place 
in  the  rite  is  pure  conjecture;  that  the  Maranatha  (I  Cor.  xvi,  22) 
is  part  of  an  old  liturgical  formula  has  the  support  of  the  Didache 
(ch.  X,  6),  which  is  also  the  earliest  witness  to  the  custom  of 
confession  of  sin  preceding  the  Communion  (ch.  xiv,  i). 

This  ends  our  survey  of  the  customs  of  worship  in  the  Apos- 
tolic Age.  We  have  found  that,  along  with  elements  that  be- 
longed exclusively  to  that  first  period,  there  were  present  all 
those  other  elements  which  we  regard  essential  to  Christian  wor- 
ship. Forms  are  not  yet  regarded  as  of  any  great  importance, 
for  it  is  the  age  of  the  charismata,  but  here  and  there  we  find  in- 
fluences at  work  that  are  sure  to  lead  to  formulation.  A  new 
period  in  the  history  of  the  liturgy  was  to  come  in  with  the  sec- 
ond quarter  of  the  second  Century.  Its  outward  signs  were  to 
be  the  delegation  of  the  right  of  active  participation  to  the  office- 
bearers, the  separation  of  the  Communion  from  the  common  meal, 
and  the  consolidation  of  the  two  meetings  into  one.  Its  inner 
meaning  was  to  lie  far  deeper,  in  the  new  idea  of  the  Church  to 
which  the  second  Century  gave  birth. 

Charles  M.  Jacobs. 
Mt.  Airy,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


explanatory   NOTE. 

When  the  statements  of  pages  45  ff  were  read  before  the  Liturgical 
Association  they  gave  rise  to  considerable  discussion  and  the  question  was 
raised  of  their  bearing  on  the  correctness  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  The  points  at  issue  are  two,  viz.,  i).  Is  the  death  of  Christ 
to  be  regarded  as  a  sacrifice?  2).  Is  the  Lord's  Supper  more  than  a  memori- 
al celebration? 

In  regard  to  the  first  point  the  testimony  of  Christ  Himself  as  to  the 
sacrificial  value  of  His  death  is  clear,  and  would  be  clear  even  though  we 
had  only  the  Words  of  Institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper.     That  Paul,  in  his 

*  See  V.  ScHULTZE  in  RE*  Vol.  VI,  p.  274. 


64  MEMOIRS. 

references  to  the  atoning  death  of  Christ,  is  developing  and  explaining  the 
Master's  own  ideas,  that  the  sacrificial  conceptions  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  the  Revelation  and  Epistles  of  St.  John  are  the  elaboration  of 
fundamental  elements  of  the  teaching  of  Christ  Himself; — these  things  seem 
to  the  present  writer  unquestionable.  The  only  question  which  he  desires 
to  raise  concerns  the  view  that  was  held  of  Christ's  death  among  the  very 
first  disciples  in  Jerusalem.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  references  to 
Christ's  death  in  the  speeches  of  the  earliest  chapters  of  Acts  never  touch  on 
its  sacrificial  aspect  and  Philip's  use  of  the  LHI  Chapter  of  Isaiah  points 
primarily  to  the  Messianic  office  of  Jesus.  Moreover  the  fact  that  Jerusalem 
remained  for  a  long  while  the  seat  of  the  party  which  insisted  on  the  circum- 
cision of  converts  and  thereby  betrayed  its  belief  in  the  continued  validity 
and  necessity  of  the  Old  Covenant,  points  to  a  lack  of  understanding  of  the 
full  meaning  of  Christ's  atoning  death  at  a  time  when  Paul's  convictions  on 
this  subject  had  become  perfectly  clear.  If  it  be  objected  that  the  Apostles 
after  the  day  of  Pentecost  could  not  any  longer  have  failed  to  understand 
these  things,  we  must  remember  that  when  Peter  and  Paul  were  together  in 
Antioch  Peter  himself  had  not  yet  come  to  the  full  conviction  that  the  Old 
Covenant  had  been  done  away. 

As  regards  the  second  point,  there  can  be  no  question  that  Christ  in- 
tended the  Lord's  Supper  to  be  something  more  than  a  memorial  meal. 
Just  as  little  have  we  reason  to  doubt  that  Paul  thought  of  it  as  involving  a 
real  presence  of  the  Risen  Saviour,  and  here  again  it  is  evident  that  Paul  was 
the  correct  interpreter  of  Jesus.  But  the  meaning  of  the  Sacrament  is  so 
closely  bound  up  with  the  meaning  of  the  death  of  Christ  that  the  one  must 
in  every  case  be  explained  by  the  other.  This  is  not  to  say  that  the  earlier 
view  contradicts  the  later,  on  the  contrary,  the  Pauline  views  of  the  Sacra- 
ment and  of  the  Atonement  were  sure  to  develop  out  of  the  ante- Pauline 
conception.  What  concerns  us  here  is  only  the  historical  fact  that  Paul  was 
the  first,  in  this  as  in  so  many  other  respects,  to  arrive  at  the  correct  inter- 
pretation of  Christ's  ideas.  It  is  significant  that  in  the  later  history  of  the 
Church  the  Pauline  conception  of  Atonement  was  for  a  long  time  practically 
lost  to  view,  though  Paul's  terminologj'  was  retained,  and  the  meaning  of 
Christ's  life  made  to  depend  chiefly  upon  the  fact  of  the  Incarnation,  while 
the  Pauline  idea  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  embodied  in  the  ritual  of  the  Church, 
was  gradually  distorted  under  the  influence  of  new  ideas  of  the  Church  and 
the  priestly  office,  into  the  belief  that  the  Eucharist  was  the  repetition  of 
the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  and  made  the  basis  of  the  Roman  doctrine  of  the 
Mass,  to  which  the  Pauline  terminology,  and  especially  the  terminology  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  then  applied,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
crude  theory  suggested  by  Irenseus,  and  elaborated  by  Origen,  all  attempts 
to  formulate  a  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  are  subsequent  to  the  time  of 
Cyprian,  and  rest  upon  more  or  less  inadequate  interpretations  of  Paul. 

C.  M.  J. 


THE  LITURGICAL 
HISTORY   OF   CONFESSION   AND   ABSOLUTION. 


According  to  the  declarations  of  all  of  our  ancient  Lutheran 
Church  Orders,  Confession  consists  of  two  parts.  The  one  part 
treats  of  the  deed  of  the  Confessor  who  complains  of  his  self-ac- 
knowledged sins  and  desires  consolation  and  the  renewal  of  his 
soul.  The  other  treats  of  the  work  of  God,  Who  through  the 
Word,  laid  upon  the  lips  of  a  fellow  man,  absolves  and  frees  the 
penitent  from  his  sins.  Absolution  is  nothing  else  than  the 
promise  of  the  Gospel  of  God's  Grace,  and  the  forgiveness  of 
sins,  through  faith,  according  to  the  will  of  Christ.  This  is  in- 
deed the  essence  and  object  of  all  preaching,  although  one  point 
of  difference  must  be  noted.  In  the  sermon  the  Gospel  promise 
is  general  and  is  offered  and  appropriated  to  all  believers.  In  the 
Absolution  the  same  promise  is  specific,  directly  and  personally 
applied  to  him  who  through  and  with  the  Word  appeals  for  the 
same. 

Although  the  old  Orders  connect  this  service  with  the  Lord's 
Supper,  as  a  preparation  to  a  worthy  reception  of  the  same  it  was 
yet  treated  as  a  distinct  service  and  often  spoken  of  aside  of  the 
Sacrament  of  the  Altar  and  Holy  Baptism.  In  modem  times  it 
has  degenerated  to  a  simple  service  preparatory  to  the  Lord's 
Supper  and  nothing  more.  This  undervaluing  of  so  important  a 
service  is  a  direct  undervaluing  of  our  Lutheran  Reformation, 
since  it  had  its  origin  in  the  very  cloister  cell  where  Luther  re- 
ceived the  absolution  and  consolation  for  his  soul  from  the  aged 
monk.  The  Reformation  was  really  a  restoration  of  Confession 
and  Absolution  from  the  ashes  of  ever  sinking  degeneration. 

The  form  which  the  Lutheran  Church  gives  to  Confession 
and  Absolution  at  present  resembles  that  of  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  more  than  that  which   obtained   in  ancient 

(Ixv) 


66  MEMOIRS. 

times.  We  also  see  it  constantly  drawn,  more  and  more,  into 
the  inner  life  of  the  Church,  especially  during  the  Pietistic  period 
and  the  time  of  territorial  and  rationalistic  movements. 

The  service  means  an  intensely  personal  transaction,  which 
points  out  one  of  the  principal  faults  of  modern  liturgical  forms 
and  practices.  We  are  apt  to  deal  with  a  cold  form  (Agende)  in- 
stead of  one  person  with  another,  the  penitent  with  the  minister. 
The  liturgical  form  is  simply  a  guide  to  both,  so  that  nothing, 
either  in  the  Confession  or  the  Absolution  be  omitted. 

Kliefoth  divides  the  History  of  Confession  and  Absolution 
into  five  periods: 

I.     The  Period  of  the  New  Testament. 
II.     That  of  the  Ancient  Church  to  St.  Augustine. 

III.  From  St.  Augustine  to  the  Reformation. 

IV.  The  Period  of  the  Reformation. 

V.     The  Modern  Period,  beginning  with  Spener. 


Lutheran  and  Roman  Catholic  theologians  agree  that  the  in- 
stitution of  Confession  and  Absolution  did  not  occur  in  the  New 
Testament  period.  It  was  not  instituted  by  the  Lord,  nor  His 
Apostles,  but  was  a  later  development  of  the  Church.  But  these 
theologians  are  also  agreed  that  the  essence  of  that  which  the 
Church  developed  appears  in  the  New  Testament,  not  simply  as 
Word  of  God,  Law  and  Gospel,  but  also  as  dealing  in  a  concrete 
manner  with  the  individual  soul. 

Jesus  does  not  simply  preach  forgiveness  at  the  repentant, 
but  He  really  absolves  them  with  clear  and  distinct  words.  He 
even  absolved  one  sick  of  the  palsy  without  a  formal  confession, 
since  He  knew  what  was  in  the  man,  and  knew  his  thoughts. 
Nor  does  the  forgiveness  of  sins  on  earth  cease  with  the  ascension 
of  the  Son  of  Man,  but  whilst  the  Lord  commissioned  the  ofl&ce 
of  the  ministry  which  He  had  hitherto  fulfilled,  to  His  disciples 
and  they  in  turn  to  their  successors,  He  also  conferred  upon  them 
the  power  and  duty  to  bind  and  to  loose;  which  is  the  Office  of 
the  Keys,  "As  My  Father  hath  sent  Me  so  send  I  you."  The 
Divine  commission  confers  discriminating  authority  and  power  on 
the  Apostles  who  are  cautioned  not  to  cast  pearls  before  swine, 
etc. ,  and  assures  them  that  all  sins  can  be  forgiven  except  the 
sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost. 


LITURGICAL  HISTORY  OF  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOLUTION.      67 

The  congregation  shall  take  upon  itself  the  sins  of  those  for 
whom  it  prays,  and  strive  for  their  release  by  prayer  and  fasting 
as  though  they  were  its  own.  Open  sins  shall  be  openly  rebuked. 
Heretics  shall  be  repeatedly  rebuked,  and  if  they  will  not  cease 
they  shall  be  delivered  unto  Satan  and  the  Means  of  Grace  denied 
them.  If  they  will  still  not  repent  Christians  shall  not  receive 
them  into  their  houses.  If  however  they  repent  they  shall  be 
received  and  prayers  made  for  them.  In  the  Church,  one  shall 
confess  his  fault  to  another.  The  sick  shall  confess  to  the  pres- 
byter and  he  shall  pray,  and  forgiveness  shall  follow. 

II. 

What  the  Apostolic  Church  taught  by  her  life  in  the  Word 
of  God,  the  early  Church  developed  into  Dogmas.  Heresies  and 
schisms  caused  much  bitterness  and  strife  wherefore  it  was  but 
natural  that  the  matter  of  Confession  and  Absolution  played  the 
first  and  most  important  role  in  liturgical  developments.  Many 
who  had  strayed  in  bitter  moods  returned  again  and  sought  par- 
don. 

Since  it  worketh  forgiveness  of  sins  the  form  of  Baptism,  es- 
pecially adult  Baptism,  presented  the  first  Order  of  Confession 
and  Absolution.  The  Montanists  taught  the  heresy  that  a  bap- 
tized person  can  not,  or  dare  not  sin.  The  Shepherd  of  Hermes 
declared  that  it  is  possible  for  one  still  living  in  the  flesh  to  sin; 
but  if  he  do  so  in  weakness  or  ignorance  he  can  receive  Absolu- 
tion by  coming  to  God  through  the  Church,  and  by  seeking  rec- 
onciliation through  an  honest  confession. 

According  to  Tertullian  the  sermon  was  intended  to  bring 
one's  sins  to  consciousness  whereupon  an  opportunity  was  given 
all  repentant  ones  to  come  forward  to  confess  and  receive  the  Ab- 
solution. He  reasoned  that  man  consists  of  body  and  soul  and 
he  who  sins  sins  with  both.  The  body  must  share  the  sorrow  of 
the  soul  and  so  submit  to  physical  punishment  which  led  to  the 
practice  of  paying  penance  fines.  He  taught  that  sins  against 
man  man  can  forgive,  but  those  against  God  only  God  can  for- 
give. And  if  one  repents  all  his  life  he  can  not  be  fully  assured 
of  forgiveness  until  he  enters  the  future  world.  Cyprian  insisted 
that  a  man  must  stand  in  organic  connection  with  the  Church, 
the  body  of  Christ,  before  he  can  expect  forgiveness  through 
Him.     He  presents  the  following  form  of  Confession:  "Lord, 


68  MEMOIRS. 

Thou  great,  strong  and  terrible  God,  Thou  that  keepest  Thy  cov- 
enant, and  art  merciful  to  those  who  love  Thee  and  keep  Thy 
commandments,  we  have  sinned,  we  have  done  evil,  we  have  been 
Godless,  we  have  transgressed  Thy  law  and  forsaken  Thy  com- 
mandments, we  have  not  given  audience  to  the  word  of  Thy  ser- 
vants, the  prophets,  who  have  spoken  in  Thy  Name  to  our  kings 
and  to  all  nations  and  to  the  whole  earth.  To  Thee  belongs  glo- 
ry and  righteousness,  but  to  us  shame."  Now  the  bishop  laid 
his  hand  upon  the  penitent,  absolved  him  and  admitted  him  to 
the  I^ord's  Table. 

St.  Augustine  strenuously  opposed  the  Donatists  who  be- 
lieved that  the  Church  held  and  exercised  arbitrary  authority  and 
power  in  the  bestowal  of  the  Absolution.  St.  Andrew  supported 
him  in  this  position.  Fasting  was  looked  upon  as  meritorious. 
Some  taught  that  he  who  could  not  fast  sufficiently  in  this  life 
could  supplement  it  in  an  intermediate  state  and  then  enter  the 
Heavenly  rest.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  doctrine  of  Pur- 
gatory, but  this  became  monstrous  when  it  was  held  that  he  who 
had  not  received  the  Absolution  from  the  priest  at  death  could 
never  be  released  from  purgatory. 

III. 

Some  Latin  priests  heard  private  confession  and  then  di- 
vulged the  facts  to  the  public,  thus  exposing  many  shameful 
things.  Pope  Leo  therefore  insisted  that  all  Confession  and  Ab- 
solution be  private.  This  gave  the  priests  another  opportunity 
to  insist  that  Absolution  can  come  solely  through  the  priest,  and 
not  through  any  other  Means  of  Grace.  Leo  counselled  leniency 
and  yet  permitted  the  priests  to  continue  in  their  impositions  on 
the  people. 

The  Council  of  Aries,  451,  forbade  marriage  and  all  matri- 
monial alliances  to  the  penitent,  and  in  many  cases  forbade  hus- 
bands or  wives  to  return  to  their  own.  Many  were  forced  into 
Monasteries  or  Nunneries.  Gregory  the  Great  believed  one 
could  retain  much  in  mind  and  so  need  not  expose  himself  to  the 
above  punishment,  and  then  by  his  own  good  works  atone  for 
many  of  his  sins.  This  supported  the  doctrine  of  the  semi- 
Pelagians.  It  followed  that  if  a  man  did  works  of  super-eroga- 
tion  (viz.,  more  than  was  required)  he  would  have  authority  over 
many  below  him.     To  attain  to  this  the  Lord  Jesus  was  frequent- 


LITURGICAL  HISTORY  OF  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOLUTION.      69 

ly  offered  in  the  Mass.     Mass  was  repeatedly  read  from  now  on. 

Penitential  books  were  published  in  the  twelfth  Century  by 
Wasserschleben,  based  on  the  material  or  Vinnians  of  Ireland, 
450  A.  D. 

According  to  a  number  of  the  Canons  (e.  g.,  34th,  35th  etc.) 
a  penitent  could  merit  much  by  paying  vows,  fasting,  saying 
prayers,  singing  Psalms,  and  especially  making  offerings  to  the 
priests.  The  second  chapter  of  the  Canones  Hiber^ieyises  says:  a 
three  days'  penitence  can  be  concentrated  into  a  day  and  a  night 
if  the  penitent  does  not  sleep,  nor  sit  down,  and  continues  chant- 
ing Psalms,  bowing  the  knees  twelve  times  an  hour  and  extends 
hands  in  prayer  to  Heaven. 

The  practice  of  Excommunication  (every  penitent  was  ex- 
communicated from  the  Church)  and  Redemption  now  arose. 
The  principal  requirement  to  redemption  was  a  liberal  offering. 
A  poor  man  could  have  a  friend  intercede  for  him.  If  he  died 
before  he  could  be  redeemed  it  was  made  possible  for  friends  to 
provide  for  prayers  for  his  soul  by  bringing  offerings  to  the  Al- 
tar.    Thus  began  the  practice  of  praying  souls  out  of  Purgatory. 

Every  trifle  was  made  a  pretext  to  compel  men  to  confess 
and  pay. 

Following  is  a  form  of  prayer  for  the  Bishop  about  to  hear 
Confession:  Almighty  I,ord  and  God,  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner, 
that  I  may  thank  Thee  worthily  that  Thou  in  Thy  mercy  hast 
made  me  a  servant  of  Thy  priestly  office,  and  hast  set  me  up,  a 
plain  and  humble  one,  as  intercessor,  in  order  that  I  might  plead 
and  intercede  with  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  for  penitent  sinners. 
And  therefore,  Lord,  Thou  Who  wiliest  that  all  men  shall  come 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth  and  be  blessed ;  Thou  Who  desirest 
not  the  death  of  a  sinner,  but  that  he  repent  and  live,  receive  my 
prayer  which  I  offer  in  the  presence  of  Thy  Grace,  in  behalf  of 
Thy  servants  who  are  come  hither  to  repentance,  through  Jesus 
Christ,  our  Eord.  Amen.  Confession  being  made  priest  and 
penitent  go  to  the  Altar,  kneel,  read  Psalms  38,  103  and  51,  and 
pray:  O  God,  before  whose  ej'es  every  heart  heaves  and  every 
conscience  trembles  be  merciful  to  the  sighings  of  all,  and  heal 
the  wounds  of  all,  so  that  as  no  one  among  us  is  free  from  guilt, 
none  shall  be  a  stranger  to  forgiveness,  through  Jesus  Christ,  etc. 
Now  both  arise  and  the  Absolution  is  pronounced.  A  form  is 
given:  Almighty,  eternal  God,  remit  this  Thy  confessing  servant 


70  MEMOIRS. 

his  sins  according  to  Thy  goodness,  in  order  that  the  guilt  of 
conscience,  as  punishment,  may  do  him  no  more  harm,  and  the 
indulgence  of  Thy  goodness  is  valuable  to  his  pardon.  Through 
Jesus  Christ,  etc.  The  form  of  Absolution  is  deprecative  not 
declarative. 

Wasserschleben  published  an  Order  of  the  ninth  Century 
which  was  used  as  a  preparation  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Some 
people  made  pilgrimages  to  Rome  to  be  absolved  by  the  Pope. 
In  some  instances  people  were  lashed  for  their  sins  and  made  to 
say  a  number  of  Pater  Nosters,  Ave  Marias  or  Kyries.  Large  of- 
ferings were  made  for  a  Mass,  for  living  or  dead.  Deliverance 
was  also  purchased  by  some  people.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
Indulgence  sales. 

Following  is  a  form  of  Confession  used  (tenth  to  twelfth 
Century):  I  confess  to  God,  the  holy  Mary,  the  holy  archangel, 
Michael,  the  Holy  Baptist  John,  the  holy  Apostles  Peter  and 
Paul,  etc.,  and  to  you  father  (priest)  my  guilt,  my  guilt,  my 
guilt.  I  have  sinned  through  vanity,  in  my  many  evil  and  bad 
thoughts,  defilements,  temptations,  lusts,  endorsements  of  evil  in 
word  and  deed,  perjury,  adultery,  defaming  holy  things,  murder, 
theft,  false  witness.  I  have  sinned  with  my  five  senses.  I  im- 
plore the  holy  Mary  and  all  the  saints,  named  and  otherwise  and 
you,  father  (priest)  to  intercede  for  me  with  our  Lord,  Jesus 
Christ. 

The  post- Carolinian  period  has  produced  no  new  forms  nor 
any  improvement  of  conditions.  Public  Confession  is  altogether 
abandoned.  The  priests  monopolized  all  authority.  The  Name 
of  God  was  used  simply  as  a  suppression  of  the  penitent.  This 
was  indeed  a  period  that  loudly  called  for  a  Reformation. 

IV. 

We  have  seen  before  that  the  Reformation  is  born  of  the  true 
spirit  of  repentance  and  Absolution.  This  accounts  for  Lutheran 
theological  and  ecclesiastical  productions  being  essentially  soteri- 
ological. 

Confession  and  Absolution  in  the  Lutheran  Church  are  the 
antitheses  to  the  Roman  Sacrament  of  Penitence.  The  practice 
of  the  SacrameJitum  PoenitenticB  was  much  worse  than  the  doctrine. 
Luther  declares  it  impossible  for  the  popes  to  present  the  proper 
doctrine  on  Repentance  since  they  do  not  understand  sin.     They 


XITURGICAL  HISTORY  OF  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOLUTION.      71 

deny  original  sin  and  therefore  teach  that  a  man  may  free  himself 
from  all  sin  by  his  own  penance.  They  know  not  that  sin  has 
blinded  their  minds  so  that  they  can  not  even  reason  what  might 
be  correct  penance.  God  alone  knows,  says  he,  and  must  be 
heard  and  obeyed.  A  man  must  be  regenerated  (baptized)  and 
after  that  constantly  renewed  through  God's  own  Means  of 
Grace. 

It  i-s  the  gift  and  grace  of  God  that  leads  a  man  to  attrition 
and  then  contrition.  The  Holy  Ghost  operates  through  the  Word 
of  God,  which  by  its  legal  force  produces  not  simply  a  formal 
contrition,  but  a  real,  subjective  contrition,  and  then  also  offers  a 
true  evangelical  balm  wherein  is  the  healing  and  forgiving  power 
of  God,  offered  through  and  for  Jesus'  sake.  Herein  lies  the 
second  element  of  Confession:  Faith  in  Jesus. 

God  does  not  look  on  how  much  penance  one  has  done,  but 
on  His  Word  and  how  faithfully  you  have  believed  it.  No  man 
can  even  know  all  his  faults,  much  less  tell  them.  The  Lord 
commands  the  Church  to  bring  forgiveness  to  men  and  not  to 
punish  them.  This  does  not  prevent  a  man  from  unburdening 
his  conscience  to  the  pastor  who  is  to  hear  and  comfort  him  with 
the  Word  of  God.  In  a  private  colloquium  the  pastor  instructs 
the  penitent  to  better  examine  himself,  as  St.  Paul  exhorts. 

The  first  Order  noticed,  the  Lippish,  1538,  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  i)  The  Divine,  because. confession  is  made  directly 
to  God,  as  David  did,  Ps.  19,  23,  32,  51,  69,  etc.  2)  Confession 
made  to  men,  into  which  enters  the  influence  of  the  Gospel  min- 
istry, St.  Matthew  16,  18  and  St.  John  20.  3)  Fraternal:  a  man 
confesses  to  his  brother,  and  in  turn  receives  fraternal  forgive- 
ness, St.  Matthew  15,  17  and  St.  L,uke  17,  also  James  6. 

In  1528  a  special  Order  was  directed  to  pastors  requiring 
them  to  instruct  and  admonish  people  to  come  to  and  practice  an 
intelligent  confession.  Preaching  confers  a  general  Absolution, 
but  private  confession  is  also  Scriptural  and  should  be  urged  since 
it  brings  a  more  direct  operation  of  the  Word  and  Grace  of  God 
on  the  individual  soul. 

The  Brandenburg-Niirnberg  Order  of  1535  clearly  states 
that  Christ  instituted  Baptism  for  those  who  wish  to  become 
Christians;  the  Lord's  Supper  for  Christians  who  are  and  live  in 
faith;  and  the  remission  of  sins,  or  Absolution,  for  the  fallen  who 
are  unworthy  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ,  but  seek  through 


72  MEMOIRS. 

confession  to  be  absolved  and  reunited  with  the  living  members  of 
His  Body.  Thus  one  is  constantly  returned  to  the  innocence  of 
his  baptized  estate.  The  Calenberg  Order  says  that  the  Absolu- 
tion depends  entirely  upon  the  obedience  of  Jesus  Christ,  which 
becomes  a  Divine  gift  to  penitent  and  believing  man. 

The  Brandenburg-Niirnberg  Order  of  1533  says:  The  pastor 
shall  move  the  people  with  the  greatest  diligence  to  seek  absolu- 
tion from  their  sins,  before  they  come  to  the  Sacrament  of  the 
Altar;  for  Christ  has  instituted  and  ordained  such  an  office,  not 
without  reason  when  He  said,  "Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost, 
whosesoever  sins  ye  remit  they  are  remitted  unto  them,  etc." 
He  knew  that  we  are  in  need  of  such  consolation,  even  though 
we  ourselves  do  not  thus  comprehend  it. 

The  Liineburg  Order,  1645,  directs  that  no  one  shall  come 
to  the  Lord's  Table  who  has  not  presented  himself  to  the  pastor, 
confessed  his  sins  and  his  faith  and  has  received  the  Absolu- 
tion. 

Lutheran  Confession  does  not  simply  mean  the  preaching  of 
the  Word  but  also  the  personal  application  of  the  Word  upon  the 
individual  soul.  It  is  not  only  a  part  of  the  Sacrament  of  Holy 
Baptism,  nor  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  a  distinct  function  of  the 
Word  of  God. 

Bugenhagen  presents  the  following:  The  pastor  shall  say, 
make  confession  with  me,  and  acknowledge  your  sins  to  God, 
that  He  be  merciful  unto  us,  "God  be  merciful  to  me  a  poor  sin- 
ner. My  faith  is  wanting.  I  do  not  love  the  Lord  with  my 
whole  heart,  nor  put  all  my  trust  in  Him  in  my  temptations,  and 
all  my  bodily  and  spiritual  wants.  I  ought  to  fear  God  alone, 
and  keep  Him  before  my  eye  in  all  things,  but  now  I  fear  men. 
I  am  afraid  I  might  lose  my  property,  honor,  friendship  and  my 
body.  I  exercise  unchristian  concern  for  nourishment,  and  seek 
in  all  things  mine  own  but  not  what  is  the  Lord's.  I  do  not 
place  my  confidence  for  salvation  in  Jesus,  His  only  begotten 
Son,  given  for  us.  Charity  is  also  wanting  in  me  so  that  I  do 
not  love  my  neighbor  as  myself.  I  deal  with  my  neighbor  with 
evil  suspicion,  evil  communication,  in  words  and  deeds;  and  can 
not  bear  a  single  word  spoken  by  him  against  me.  And  I  can 
not  heartily  forgive  him  in  anything,  though  I  am  in  duty  bound 
so  to  do.  My  conscience  is  especially  burdened  with  these  temp- 
tations.    Therefore,  Almighty  God,  forgive  me  all  my  sins,  and 


XITURGICAL  HISTORY  OF  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOLUTION.      73 

illumine  my  heart  with  Thy  truth,  that  I  may  own  Thee  as  my 
merciful  Father  and  my  neighbor  as  my  brother  without  any  of- 
fense, according  to  Thy  Word,  through  our  lyord,  Jesus  Christ, 
Amen.     Jesus  Christ  is  our  eternal  salvation.     Amen." 

The  Kalenberg  Order,  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
Century,  bears  a  very  close  resemblance  to  that  found  in  our 
Church  Book,  both  in  the  Confession,  the  Absolution,  and  the 
Retention.  Many  other  Orders  contain  substantially  the  same 
thing. 

Lutheran  Orders  contend  faithfully  against  Reformed  influ- 
ences which  hold  that  by  one's  faith  he  can  largely  free  himself 
from  sin.  They  claim  that  faith  is  the  first  thing  damaged  by 
sin.  If  the  true  faith  were  there  sin  could  not  come.  Therefore 
one  must  first  hear  the  preaching  of  the  Word  which  restores  and 
renews  faith  and  thus  God  frees  from  sin  and  not  man.  They 
also  contend  against  Roman  influences  which  set  apart  special 
daj^s  and  seasons  as  Confession  and  Absolution  times,  making 
special  mention  of  Communion  periods.  Confession  should  be 
and  remain  a  distinct  service  and  should  be  open  to  burdened 
souls  at  all  times.  In  practice  the  Lutheran  Church  has  howev- 
er yielded  to  some  influences  around  her  but  it  is  not  her  teach- 
ing. 

According  to  the  Lauenburg  Order  the  minister  must  assure 
himself  that  the  penitent  i)  is  truly  sorry  for  his  sins,  believes 
and  has  an  earnest  purpose  to  live  a  better  life;  2)  recognizes 
God's  wrath  against  sin;  3)  apprehends  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  con- 
cerning the  forgiveness  of  sins;  and  4)  fears  and  loves  God  and 
will  strive  to  remain  in  faith  until  death.  He  must  keep  all 
things  in  strict  confidence  so  that  the  penitent  may  not  hesitate 
to  confess  freely.  He  must  also  instruct,  admonish,  and  exam- 
ine, and  yet  not  so  as  to  drive  the  penitent  into  fear  and  de- 
spair. 

Most  of  the  Orders  of  Absolution  of  this  time  did  not  include 
the  form  of  Retention.  The  minister  laid  his  hands  upon  the 
penitent  and  thus  absolved  him  wherefore  the  retention  was  not 
necessary,  since  he  did  not  lay  hands  on  anj^  one  whom  he  con- 
sidered impenitent.  The  Absolution  was  declarative.  The  ab- 
solved one  did  not  immediately  leave  the  church.  He  spent 
some  time  in  prayer  and  thanksgiving  and  then  quietly  departed. 
An  offering  was  always  made. 


74  MEMOIRS. 

V. 

The  thirty  years'  war  disrupted  the  churches  and  their  wor- 
ship. People  grew  more  hardhearted  through  their  experiences  ^ 
and  therefore  more  indifferent  and  independent  toward  the  inner 
life  of  the  Church.  Private  confession  was  looked  upon  as  an 
imposition  and  a  burden,  and  even  some  ministers  called  it  a  mar- 
tyrdom. It  was  made  a  public  service,  attached  to  the  Commun- 
ion service  and  often  conducted  but  once  a  year.  A  low  state  of 
morals  followed.  Some  authorities  endeavored  to  restore  the  old 
Order  of  Excommunication  and  Restoration,  but  with  poor  success. 

Theophilus  Grossgebauer,  1661,  complained  bitterly  against 
this  state  of  affairs  in  a  book  called,  '' Watchmen's  Voices  from 
Ruined  Zion.''  He  held  that  a  penitent  has  God's  forgiveness 
whether  a  man  pronounces  the  Absolution  or  not;  and  that  when 
a  confitent  returns  to  the  Church  h-e  must  be  received.  The  pas- 
tor has  no  say  in  this  matter  at  all.  The  Church  as  a  body  reg- 
ulates all  these  affairs.     The  result  was  strife  without  end. 

Spener  regretted  these  conditions  very  much  and  insisted 
that  confitents  should  come  to  private  confession  as  in  former 
years.  But  many  people  refused  to  come.  They  went  over  to  the 
Reformed  Church  which  ran  along  in  the  current  of  the  times, 
and  did  not  require  private  confession,  and  indeed  very  little 
public  confession. 

The  lyUtheran  conception  of  Absolution  is  that  it  confers 
grace  and  a  blessing  upon  the  penitent,  and  a  curse  upon  the  im- 
penitent. As  the  unworthy  eat  and  drink  damnation  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  so  here.  And  therefore  a  minister  should  be  very 
careful  in  the  matter  of  absolving  any  one.  Spener  disagreed 
with  this  and  held  that  the  Absolution  upon  the  impenitent  nei- 
ther benefited  nor  injured  him;  that  it  simply  remained  ineffect- 
ive. This  was  another  addition  to  the  indifference  of  people  to 
the  Church  and  her  authority. 

Spener  also  denied  the  Divine  element  in  Confession  and  Ab- 
solution. The  Divini  juris  he  called  hum,ani  juris.  He  also 
contended  against  the  form  of  confession  which  the  Church  had 
adopted,  saying,  '  'every  man  may  confess  in  his  own  words,  and 
in  whatever  form  he  pleases." 

He  also  held  that  since  the  offering  displeased  so  many,  and 
since  therefore  it  is  a  hindrance  to  devotion  and  often  a  burden  to 
the  poor,  they  should  be  discontinued. 


LITURGICAL  HISTORY  OF  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOLUTION.      75 

The  pietism  of  his  day  was  inclined  to  protest  against  private 
Confession,  and  held  that  no  Absolution  is  potent  except  the 
minister  has  the  Holy  Ghost.  It  often  considered  itself  too  good 
to  become  a  confitent. 

On  the  other  hand,  rationalism  considered  itself  far  above  and 
beyond  Confession  and  Absolution,  and  so  trifled  over  and  neg- 
lected it. 

Thus  the  Church  passed  on  into  our  ovi^n  day.  There  are 
constant  efforts  at  restoration,  revival  and  renewal,  but  the  many 
worldly  and  material  tendencies  will  keep  progress  at  an  extreme- 
ly slow  pace  if  there  can  be  much  hope  for  progress  at  all. 


James  F.  Lambert. 
Catasattqtia ,  Pa. 


THE  SACRAMENTAL  IDEA  IN  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP. 


The  Church  of  Christ  is  the  congregation  of  Saints  in  which  the 
Gospel  is  rightly  taught,  and  the  Sacraments  rightly  adminis- 
tered.* It  is,  in  its  historical  origin  as  well  as  in  its  constant 
preservation,  the  work  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Who  calls,  gathers, 
enlightens  and  sanctifies  all  Christendom  (die  ganze  Christen- 
heit)  on  earth  and  preserves  it  in  union  with  Jesus  Christ  in  the 
true  faith. t  What  makes  and  marks  the  true  Church  must  like- 
wise make  and  mark  the  Service  of  the  true  Church.  Thus  we 
find  it  in  the  Apostolic  Church  whose  Service  is  briefly,  but 
comprehensively,  described  in  Acts  2,  42.  "They  continued 
steadfastly  in  the  Apostles'  teaching  and  fellowship,  in  the  break- 
ing of  bread  and  in  prayer."  The  Christian  Service  is  simply 
the  actualization  of  the  existing  communion  of  grace  and  faith 
with  God  in  Christ.  In  it  the  edification  of  the  Church  and  the 
glorification  of  God's  grace  in  Christ  are  identical,  as  the  princi- 
pal aim  and  end  of  all  Christian  Cultus.  There  can  be  no  indi- 
vidual Christian,  nor  a  congregation  of  Christians,  without  faith. 
This  faith  is  the  gift  and  work  of  God  Himself  through  the 
means  of  grace.  To  obtain  it  we  must  have  the  offer  of  Divine 
grace  in  the  Gospel.  And  to  abide  steadfastly  in  this  faith  and, 
through  it,  in  union  with  Jesus  Christ,  we  must  have  the  con- 
stant offer  and  appropriation  of  Divine  grace  through  the  Word 
and  Sacraments. 

Since  the  fall  of  man  his  true  communion  with  God  presup- 
poses reconciliation,  atonement.  All  human  efforts  to  establish 
such  reconciliation  are  essentially  pagan  or  judaistic.  In  the 
Christian  religion  alone  the  assurance  of  that  atonement  as  an 
objective  accomplished  fact  is  the  foundation  of  all  true  worship. 
The  message  of  atonement  is  the  Gospel,  proclaiming,  offering 

♦  Augsburg  Confession,  Art.  VII. 

t  Small  Catechism,  Third  Article  of  the  Creed.  (Ixxvii) 


78  MEMOIRS. 

and  conveying  all  that  God  has  done  and  is  doing  for  the  salva- 
tion of  man.  It  presents  the  one  great  sacrifice  which  God  has 
made  for  us  in  Christ,  the  fullest  exhibition  of  His  love  to  His 
fallen  creatures,  by  which  they  are  redeemed  and  saved.  Over 
against  this  offer  and  presentation  of  God  there  is  nothing  for  us 
to  do  but  to  accept  it,  to  grasp  it  with  the  hand  of  faith  as  it  is 
presented.  God  serves  us  by  His  grace,  we  serve  Him  in  our 
faith. 

The  communion  between  God  and  man  being  thus  estab- 
lished by  the  free  and  sovereign  act  of  God's  grace,  there  results 
from  it  a  constant  reciprocity  between  God  and  man.  God  gives, 
man  receives;  and  having  received  the  blessing  of  God  man  gives 
what  he  is  able  to  offer  to  his  reconciled  God  in  the  sacrifice  of  a 
pure  and  reasonable  service.  But  this  latter  is  altogether  based 
upon  the  former.  That  which  establishes  and  preserves  the 
communion  between  God  and  man,  that  which  provides,  appro- 
priates and  seals  our  salvation  is  altogether  the  gift  and  act  of 
God,  the  ordinance  and  testament  of  God.  Now,  all  the  gifts  of 
God,  and  all  His  acts  toward  our  salvation,  culminate  in  the 
unspeakable  gift  of  His  Son.  And  the  gift  of  His  Son  culmi- 
nates in  the  propitiatory  sacrifice  on  Calvary,  where  God  set 
Him  forth  to  be  a  propitiation  through  faith  in  His  blood.  This 
New  Testament  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  is  most  beauti- 
fully and  perfectly  comprehended,  offered,  appropriated  and  en- 
joyed in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  The  Lord's  Supper,  not  as 
a  work  or  performance  of  man  but  as  the  very  heart  and  height 
of  all  the  saving  gifts  and  acts  of  God,  is  the  real  centre  and  cul- 
mination of  all  Christian  worship.  Everything  else  is  grouped 
around  this  point  and  leads  up  to  it.  Thus  it  was  in  the  Apos- 
tolic Church.  The  Service  of  those  early  Christians  consisted  in 
the  reception  and  fruition  of  the  Divine  gifts,  in  the  Word  and 
the  Sacrament,  (the  teaching  of  the  Apostles  and  the  breaking 
of  the  bread)  and  in  the  offering  of  their  spiritual  sacrifices 
(Prayer).  There  was  God's  own  Word  and  Sacrament  coming 
to  man,  with  all  its  solemn  warning,  admonition,  rebuke,  threat- 
ening, and  all  its  blessed  consolation,  speaking  peace  to  the 
troubled  heart,  offering  and  conveying  forgiveness  of  sins,  life 
and  salvation.  And  there  was  man's  word  addressed  to  God, 
praising  Him,  blessing  Him,  worshipping  Him,  glorifying  Him, 
giving  thanks  to  Him  for  His  grace  and  His  great  glory.     These 


THE  SACRAMENTAL   IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP.  79 

two  sides  of  Christian  worship  have,  from  ancient  times,  been 
distinguished  as  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial,  the  sacra- 
me7itiim  including  God's  gifts  and  acts  in  the  Service,  the  sacrifi- 
cium  covering  all  human  acts  of  confession,  praise,  prayer  and 
thanksgiving. 

Unfortunately,  the  mediaeval  Church  did  not  preserve  this 
pure  Scriptural  and  Apostolic  idea  of  the  Christian  Service 
with  its  important  distinction  between  the  sacramentum  and  the 
sacrificium.  At  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  already  we 
discover  the  first  traces  of  a  marked  deviation  from  Apostolic 
doctrine  and  practice  in  this  respect.  Two  factors  were  particu- 
larly influential  in  bringing  about  a  gradual  deterioration.  In 
the  conflicts  of  the  Church  against  strong  sectarian  tendencies 
the  authorit}'  and  dignity  of  the  office  of  the  ministry  was  more 
and  more  exalted,  until  it  was  ultimately  represented  as  a  singu- 
lar order  distinct  from  the  common  Christian  people,  ^priesthood 
in  the  hierarchical  and  mediatorial  sense  of  the  word,  on  which 
the  whole  communion  between  Christ  and  His  believing  people 
depended.  And  the  idea  of  the  sacrificium^  the  human  act  in  the 
Service,  assumed  such  a  preponderance  that  even  the  Testament 
of  the  I^ord's  Supper  was  considered  merely  from  its  sacrificial 
aspect,  a  service  done  to  God,  and  not  a  gift  of  God  bestowed 
upon  His  people.  Tertullian  already,  in  speaking  of  the  Com- 
munion Service  uses  the  term  '■'Sacrificium  ofifertiir''  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  preaching  of  the  Word,  ''Dei  sermo  administratur.'^ 
Cyprian  describes  the  administration  of  the  Sacrament  of  the 
Altar  as  a  "Celebrare  Sacrificium y  Even  in  its  most  ideal  as- 
pect this  conception  of  the  Service  was  a  retrograde  movement 
toward  the  Old  Testament  with  its  priesthood  and  sacrifices, 
judaizing,  legalistic;  over  against  the  Sacramentum  of  the  New 
Testament,  as  a  purely  Divine  act  of  communicating  and  convey- 
ing grace  upon  the  participant.  In  its  later  consistent  develop- 
ment the  Romanism  of  the  Middle  Ages  turned  the  Service  of 
the  Christian  Church  into  a  meritorious  performance  offered  to 
God  by  the  priest  in  behalf  of  the  congregation  with  an  effect 
that  was  essentially  magical,  not  ethical  or  spiritual.  The  cele- 
bration of  the  Lord's  Supper  becomes  the  culmination  of  all 
human  offerings  and  sacrificial  acts,  the  unbloody  sacrifice,  with 
propitiatory  power  for  the  living  and  the  dead,  the  greatest  of  all 
human  acts  and  performances  in  the  sphere  of  religion. 


80  MEMOIRS. 

The  Lutheran  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  distinct- 
ly declared  that  it  is  not  necessary,  "that  human  traditions,  rites, 
or  ceremonies  instituted  by  men,  should  be  everywhere  alike."* 
But  while  thus  referring  all  matters  concerning  the  outward  form 
of  the  Christian  Service  to  the  sphere  of  liberty  it  could  not 
ignore  the  great  principles  underlying  the  ceremonies  of  the 
mediaeval  Church  which  were,  indeed,  matters  "concerning  the 
doctrine  of  the  Gospel  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments' ' 
and  as  such  "necessary  to  the  true  unity  of  the  Church."  The 
Reformation  is  essentially  the  restoration  of  the  Gospel  of  God's 
free  and  sovereign  grace.  It  sets  forth  and  emphasizes  the 
Divine  initiative  in  the  whole  plan  and  work  of  our  salvation. 
It  ascribes  all  power  and  honor  exclusively  to  God's  grace,  over 
against  any  work  of  man.  God  comes,  God  works,  God  gives; 
His  are  also  the  means  and  methods  by  which  He  has  chosen  to 
work  out  our  salvation,  the  means  of  grace  and  ordinances  which 
are  objective  Divine  realities  to  offer  and  convey  God's  saving 
grace  to  the  individual.  God  first  loves.  He  makes  known  His 
love  to  man,  and,  being  assured  that  we  are  beloved,  we  believe, — 
our  faith  itself  being  altogether  God's  own  work,  God's  gift. 
From  this  point  of  view  the  spirit  of  the  mediaeval  Service  had 
to  be  examined  and  judged  by  the  Reformers.  Consequently 
Luther  in  his  treatise  on  "The  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the 
Church,"  one  of  his  three  gr^sX  Reformation- Pronu?ici amentos  oi 
1520  attacks  the  very  centre  of  the  Roman  position  in  its  doc- 
trine concerning  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  He  finds  in  it  the 
greatest  of  all  offenses,  and  a  point  of  such  far  reaching  impor- 
tance that  the  whole  nature  of  the  Church  and  her  Service  was 
thereby  affected,  and  a  radical  change  was  made  necessary.  In 
the  same  year,  in  his  "Sermon  vom  Neuen  Testament,  d.  i.  von 
der  Messe"f  he  enters  into  a  fuller  treatment  of  the  underlying 
principles.  "In  all  the  dealings  of  man  with  God,"  he  says, 
"the  proper  way  and  order  must  be  this:  Not  that  man  should 
begin  and  lay  the  foundation,  but  that  God  alone,  without  any 
effort  or  endeavor  on  the  part  of  man,  must  come  first  (zuvor- 
kommen),  and  give  His  word  of  promise.  This  Word  of  God  is 
the  first  thing,  the  foundation  and  rock  on  which  afterwards  all 
words  and  thoughts  of  man  are  built.     This  word  must  be  thank- 

*  Augsb.   Conf.     Art.   VII. 
t  Erlangen  Edit.     Vol.  27. 


THE   SACRAMENTAL   IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP.  81 

full)'  received  by  man,  confidently  believing  the  Divine  promise, 
not  doubting  that  it  is  and  will  be  done  even  as  He  promises. 
Such  faith  is  the  beginning,  middle  and  end  of  every  work  and 
righteousness  of  man.  For  inasmuch  as  man  giveth  the  honor 
to  God,  taking  Him  and  confessing  Him  to  be  true,  he  thereby 
finds  a  gracious  God  Who,  in  turn,  will  honor  him  and  confess 
him.  It  is  therefore  impossible  that  man  by  his  own  reason  and 
strength  should  ascend  into  Heaven  with  works  of  his  own,  and 
prevent  God  and  move  Him  to  be  gracious, — but  God  must  come 
before  all  works  and  thoughts  of  man,  and  must  give  a  clear  and 
distinct  promise  of  His  word  which  man  is  to  grasp  and  to  hold 
in  firm  faith"  .  .  .  After  a  brief  survey  of  the  Divine  promises 
of  grace  and  salvation  in  the  Old  Testament,  Luther  comes  to  the 
"Testament"  of  the  new  covenant,  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar, 
in  which  he  sees  "a  brief  summary  of  all  the  miracles  and  graces 
of  God,  as  fulfilled  in  Christ.  ...  A  testament  is  a  Beneficium 
datum.  It  bestows  a  benefit  upon  us,  it  does  not  receive  a  bene- 
fit. Who  has  ever  heard  that  a  man  who  receives  a  testament  is 
doing  a  good  work?  He  simply  takes  a  benefit  to  himself, — ap- 
propriates it.  Thus  in  the  Mass  (Lord's  Supper)  we  do  not  give 
anything  to  Christ,  we  only  take  from  Him.  Likewise  in  Bap- 
tism, which  is  also  a  Divine  Testament  and  Sacrament,  no  one 
gives  anything  to  God,  but  receives  from  Him;  so  also  in  the 
preaching  of  the  Word.  There  is  no  work  of  man  in  all  this, 
but  simply  the  exercise  of  faith  on  the  part  of  man.  There  is  no 
Officiiim,  but  Beneficiuvi,  no  work  or  service,  but  onl}^  fruition 
and  benefit." 

Likewise  Melanchthon  in  his  Apology  of  1531  discusses  the 
general  idea  of  the  Sacramentum  as  over  against  the  Sacrificiutn, 
in  the  relation  between  God  and  man,  and  their  dealings  with 
each  other.  In  the  24th  Article  De  Missa  he  answers  the  ques- 
tions: *^Quid  sit  Sacrificiuni  et  quce  sint  sacrijicii  species?  Quid 
patres  de  sacrificio  seyiserintf  De  usu  Sacramenti  et  de  Sacrijicio. 
The  great  importance  of  the  distinction  between  Sacramentum 
and  Sacri/icium  is  emphasized.  Both  may  be  comprehended  un- 
der the  generic  name  of  cerevionia,  holy  rites,  {Opus  Sacrum). 
Sacramentum.  est  ceremonia  vet  opus  in  quo  Deus  nobis  exhibet  lioc 
quod  offe}-t  a?i7iexa  ceremonia  promissio,  tit  Baptisnius  est  opus,  no?i 
quod  nos  Deo  off'erimus,  sed  in  quo  nos  baptizat,  viz.,  m,i7iister  vice 
Dei,  et  hie  offert  et  exhibet  Deus  remissionem  peccatorum,  juxta 


82  MEMOIRS. 

promissionem  (Marc.  i6,  i6).  Econtra  sacrijiciuvi  est  ceremonia 
vel  opus  quod  nos  Deo  reddinius  et  Eum  ho7iore  afficiamus.''  The 
sacrament,  accordingly,  is  a  Divine  act,  exhibiting,  offering  and 
conveying  Divine  grace.  On  the  other  hand  the  sacriftchwi  is  a 
human  act  rendered  to  God  by  man  to  give  Him  His  due  honor. 
Some  forcible  statements  of  Luther  on  this  point  may  be 
added  from  his  treatise  "Vom  Anbeten  des  Sacraments  des  Heili- 
gen  Leichnams  Christi"  (On  the  adoration  of  the  Sacrament  of 
the  lyord's  Body)  addressed  to  the  Waldensian,  Bohemian  and 
Moravian  Brethren  whose  doctrine  concerning  the  real  presence 
appeared  somewhat  doubtful  and  unsatisfactory  to  Luther.* 
"The  principal  thing  in  the  Sacrament  is  the  Word  of  Christ, 
when  He  says.  Take,  eat,  this  is  My  Body;  Take,  drink,  this  is 
the  cup  of  the  New  Testament.  All  depends  on  these  words. 
Every  Christian  must  know  them  and  guard  them  against  any 
other  doctrine,  even  though  an  angel  from  Heaven  should  bring 
it.  These  are  words  of  life  and  salvation,  and  whosoever  believes 
in  them  has,  by  such  faith,  forgiveness  of  all  his  sins,  and  is  a 
child  of  life,  having  overcome  hell  and  death.  It  is  unspeakable 
how  great  and  powerful  these  words  are.  For  they  are,  indeed, 
the  sum  of  the  whole  Gospel.  They  are  really  more  important 
than  the  Sacrament  itself.  And  a  Christian  ought  to  accustom 
himself  to  pay  more  attention  to  these  words  than  to  the  Sacra- 
ment itself,  though  the  false  teachers  have  so  perverted  the  truth 
that  these  words  have  been  slighted  and  even  hidden  before  the 
people,  while  the  act  of  the  Sacrament  has  been  exclusively  em- 
phasized. Thus  it  is  that  faith  has  come  to  nothing,  and  the 
Sacrament  was  turned  into  a  purely  external  work  without 
faith.  .  .  .  The  most  pernicious  error  and  heresy  introduced  by 
the  Pope  is  this,  that  the  Sacrament  has  been  turned  into  a  sacri- 
fice and  good  work.  .  .  .  To  guard  against  this  abominable  error 
you  must  cling  to  the  words:  Take,  eat,  this  is  My  Body,  etc., 
which  words  contain  the  whole  Gospel.  You  can  clearly  see  and 
apprehend  that  they  do  not  speak  of  a  sacrifice  or  work  but  of  a 
gift,  offered  and  presented  by  Christ,  which  we  are  to  take,  to 
grasp  and  keep  by  faith.  He  commands  you  to  take  and  to  keep, 
and  you  want  to  give  and  to  sacrifice?  How  can  you  say  to  God: 
I  give  Thee  Thy  Word? — instead  of  saying:  My  Lord,  as  Thou 
sayest  that  Thou  art  giving  it  to  me,  I  take  it  cheerfully  with 
*  Erlangen  Edit.  Vol.  28,  p.  388-421. 


THE  SACRAMENTAL   IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP.  83 

thanksgiving!  As  little  as  you  can  turn  the  Gospel  itself  into  a 
sacriJSce  or  work,  you  can  do  so  with  this  Sacrament;  for  this 
Sacrament  is  the  Gospel.  ...  It  would  be  a  great  shame  to 
ascribe  to  the  Sacrament  no  more  than  to  any  good  work  of  man, 
inasmuch  as  no  good  work  can  ever  deliver  us  from  sin,  nor  give 
us  grace,  life  and  salvation.  But  this  Sacrament  does  give  grace, 
life  and  salvation,  for  it  is  the  very  fountain  of  life  and  salva- 
tion." 

On  the  basis  of  these  principles  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Service  of  the  Church  of  the  Reformation  was  conceived  and  car- 
ried out.  No  true  and  correct  Service  was  to  be  thought  of  with- 
out the  administration  of  the  means  of  grace,  that  is  the  Word 
and  Sacrament.  "Let  this  be  the  sum  and  substance  of  our  Ser- 
vice that  the  Word  have  its  proper  place  in  it.  Everything  else 
might  rather  be  omitted  but  the  Word.  And  nothing  better  can 
be  handled  or  used  in  the  Service  than  the  Word.  For  it  is  an 
everlasting  Word,  everything  else  must  perish."*  No  single 
Service  ever  ought  to  consist  of  purely  sacrificial  acts,  but  it 
must  always  contain  something  of  a  sacramental  character,  that 
is,  something  belonging  to  the  ministration  of  the  Word  and 
Sacrament.  And  these  indispensable  sacramental  features  must 
always  hold  the  first  place,  as  to  dignity  and  importance,  in  the 
Service  of  the  congregation,  while  the  Eucharistic  sacrifices  of 
prayer,  confession,  thanksgiving  and  offerings,  compared  with 
the  former,  have  a  secondary,  subordinate  position.  A  clear 
distinction  between  the  two  sides,  and  their  respective  merits,  is 
thus  insisted  upon.  But  this  distinction  does  not  mean  a  separa- 
tion of  the  two.  They  are,  indeed,  combined  in  almost  every  act 
of  the  Service.  The  reading  of  the  Word,  the  distribution  of  the 
elements  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  and  the  Benediction 
might  be  called  purely  and  exclusively  sacramental,  inasmuch  as 
the  attitude  of  the  congregation  is  simply  receptive  in.  those  acts. 
And  on  the  other  hand,  the  prayer  of  the  congregation  might  be 
called  a  purely  sacrificial  act.  But  otherwise  the  sacramental  and 
the  sacrificial  are  constantly  blending  in  the  true  Christian  Ser- 
vice. For  instance,  the  preaching  of  the  Word  by  the  minister 
is  primarily  and  pre-eminently  sacramental,  as  the  exposition  and 
application  of  the  Divine  Word,  spoken  for  the  salvation  of  our 
souls.     But  there  is,  at  the  same  time,  a  sacrificial  side  even  to 

*  Luther,  in  Ordnung  des  CoUesdiensls  in  der  Gemeine.     Wittenberg.    1523. 


84  MEMOIRS. 

the  sermon.  It  is  the  joyful,  solemn  testimony  of  the  congrega- 
tion of  what  God  in  His  mercy  has  done  for  it,  proclaimed 
through  its  oflQcial  mouth-piece,  the  pastor.  Again,  when  the 
congregation  lifts  up  its  voice  to  sing  its  precious  hymns,  it  does, 
indeed,  offer  its  sacrifices  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving, — 
but,  at  the  same  time,  it  participates  in  the  sacramental  side  of 
the  Service,  in  setting  forth  the  great  deeds  of  God  for  our  sal- 
vation. The  songs  of  the  congregation  proclaim  the  Gospel  it- 
self. This  is  particularly  true  of  those  objective  hymns  of  the 
Church  which  embody  the  great  facts  of  Advent,  Christmas, 
Epiphany,  Passion,  Resurrection,  Ascension  and  Pentecost.  Ev- 
en in  one  and  the  same  hymn  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial 
may  be  united,  the  presentation  of  the  Gospel  truth,  and  the 
prayer  and  praise  for  this  precious  gift,  as  offered  by  the  congre- 
gation. Even  in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  the  Service 
is  by  no  means  confined  to  sacramental  features.  These  are,  of 
course,  the  fundamental  and  central  parts  of  this  Service,  in  the 
Verba  Tesiamenti,  and  the  Distribution  of  the  consecrated  ele- 
ments. But  the  very  act  of  participation  on  the  part  of  the  com- 
municants, as  a  confession  of  their  crucified  and  risen  Lord,  is  of 
a  sacrificial  character.  And  so  are  the  prayers  and  hymns  which 
precede,  accompany  and  follow  the  administration  of  the  Sacra- 
ment proper,  the  Preface,  Sanctus,  Agnus  Dei,  with  the  Thanks- 
giving. 

Thus  it  is  manifest  that  the  sacramental  parts  of  the  Service 
are  not  exclusively  confined  to  the  Minister,  nor  are  the  sacrificial 
parts  exclusively  confined  to  the  congregation.  A  distinction 
between  the  participation  of  pastor  and  people,  respectively,  in 
the  Service,  on  this  basis  of  assigning  the  sacramental  parts  to 
the  former  and  the  sacrificial  to  the  latter  is  inadmissible.  We 
have  seen  that  the  congregation  engages  in  the  sacramental  parts 
of  the  Service  in  proclaiming  the  saving  facts  of  the  Gospel  in 
their  hymns;  and  we  know  that  the  pastor  takes  part  in  the  sac- 
rificial acts  of  the  congregation  joining  with  them  and  leading 
them  in  their  prayers.  A  significant  and  appropriate  expression 
of  a  clear  distinction  between  the  two  sides  of  the  Service  the 
sacramental  and  the  sacrificial,  is  the  change  of  position  on  the 
part  of  the  ofl&ciating  minister  at  the  altar,  as  prescribed  in  many 
of  our  old  Agenda.  In  all  the  sacramental  parts  of  the  Service, 
when  the  minister  has  to  deliver  a  Divine  message  to  the  congre- 


THE  SACRAMENTAL   IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  85 

gation,  he  faces  his  people.  In  all  the  sacrificial  parts,  when  he 
speaks  with  and  in  behalf  of  the  congregation,  he  stands,  as  the 
other  members  of  the  congregation,  facing  the  altar. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  for  us  to  go  over  the  Service  of  our 
Lutheran  Church,  as  presented  in  the  Church  Book,  {Communio, 
Matins  and  Vespers)  and  to  point  out  in  detail  the  sacramental 
features  in  their  distinction  from,  as  well  as  in  their  combination 
with,  the  sacrificial  elements.  To  any  one  who  will  take  the 
pains, — or  I  should  rather  say,  the  pleasure — of  entering  into  a 
study  of  those  beautiful  Services,  the  relation  of  those  parts  must 
be  perfectly  clear  in  every  case.  The  only  real  difficulty  that 
may  possibly  present  itself  in  this  connection  is  in  the  considera- 
tion of  the  Introit.  Its  structure  is  evidently  that  of  the  Psalm- 
ody, with  Antiphon,  Psalm- Verse  and  Gloria  Patri.  As  such  we 
would  naturally  take  it  to  be  one  of  the  sacrificial  elements  of  the 
Service.  The  fact  that  under  the  regulations  of  the  Roman 
Church  the  priest  had  to  face  the  altar  during  the  Introit  might 
be  taken  as  an  additional  evidence  that  the  Introit  was  considered 
as  a  prayer,  offered  to  God  in  behalf  of  the  congregation.  But 
the  correct  view  seems  to  be  this,  that  in  the  lutroit  also  we  have 
a  combination  of  the  two  elements,  the  sacramental  and  the  sac- 
rificial. The  Antiphon,  its  first  and  principal  part,  represents  an 
objective  sacramental  word  which,  as  a  herald's  call,  sets  forth 
the  main  fact  or  idea  of  the  respective  Sunday  or  Festival.  This 
Divine  act  or  gift  calls  forth  the  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving 
of  the  congregation  in  the  subsequent  Psalm-Verse  with  Gloria 
Patri.  In  the  liturgical  rendering  of  the  Introit,  it  seems  to  us, 
this  twofold  character  would  best  be  brought  out  if  it  were  as- 
signed to  the  Choir.  Unfortunately,  the  rubric  in  our  Church 
Book  makes  no  reference  whatever  to  this  most  appropriate  form 
of  using  the  Introit.* 

In  defining  the  position  of  our  lyUtheran  Church  concerning 
the  sacramental  side  of  the  Service  we  have,  thus  far,  presented 
it  chiefly  in  its  antithesis  to  the  Church  of  Rome  and  her  mani- 
fest tendency  to  exalt  the  Sacrificium  above  the  Sacra7nenium, 
the  human  work  or  performance  in  the  Service  over  against  the 
Divine  act  and  gift  of  grace.  But  there  are  features  also  in  the 
Protestant  denominations  around   us  which  indicate  that  with 

*  Compare  on  this  whole  question  C.  Cuacau,  The  Introit,  in  Siona  of  1879, 
January  to  March. 


86  MEMOIRS, 

them  also  the  proper  balance  between  the  sacrificial  and  sacra- 
mental is  frequently  disturbed,  and  that  the  former  is  being 
exalted  at  the  expense  of  the  latter.  The  sacraments  themselves 
are  almost  entirely  stripped  of  their  proper  sacramental  character, 
and  turned  again  into  sacrificial  acts  of  man.  They  are  chiefly 
considered  as  human  acts  of  profession.  God  is  no  longer  seen 
in  them  as  the  principal  actor  and  giver.  Man  is  acting,  pre- 
senting himself,  making  a  profession  of  faith.  From  this  position 
results  the  common  widespread  indifference  toward  Infant  Bap- 
tism, even  among  those  Protestant  bodies  which  are  still  Pedo- 
baptist  according  to  their  theological  standards.  Consistently 
carried  out  this  view  leads  to  the  final  rejection  of  Infant  Bap- 
tism altogether.  We  may  also  point,  in  this  connection,  to  the 
modern  prayer  meeting  in  which  prayer  itself  is  treated  as  a 
means  of  grace,  a  kind  of  sacramental  power  is  ascribed  to  it, 
while  in  its  innermost  nature  it  must  always  be  pre-eminently 
sacrificial. 

This  whole  tendency  results  from  the  failure  of  Reformed 
Protestantism,  ever  since  Zwingli  and  Calvin,  to  appreciate  the 
Word  and  Sacraments  of  God  as  real  objective  and  efficacious 
means  of  grace,  by  which  and  through  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
actually  offers,  conveys  and  appropriates  saving  grace  to  the 
individual.  We  are  one  with  the  Reformed  in  denying  the  expi- 
atory character  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  in  believing  that 
Christians  have  no  other  sacrifices  to  bring  before  God  but  the 
Eucharistic  offerings  of  their  prayers  and  good  works.  But 
when  we  come  to  the  important  question:  How  does  the  Lord 
communicate,  convey,  appropriate  and  seal  to  man  the  benefits 
of  His  atoning  sacrifice?  our  ways  do  part.  On  this  point  Re- 
formed Protestantism  fails  to  apprehend  that  the  true  character 
of  the  Church's  Service  must  primarily  be  that  of  the  Sacravten- 
tum,  that  is,  the  distribution  and  appropriation  of  God's  gifts  of 
grace  through  the  Divinely  ordained  means  of  grace,  in  behalf  of 
God,  and  as  an  act  of  God  Himself. 

In  his  Ratio  Fidei  (Reckoning  of  Faith),  submitted  to  the 
Diet  in  Augsburg,  1530,  Zwingli  says:  "I  believe,  yea  I  know, 
that  all  the  sacraments  are  so  far  from  conferring  grace  that  they 
do  not  even  convey  or  distribute  it.  .  .  .  For  as  grace  is  pro- 
duced or  given  by  the  Divine  Spirit  so  this  gift  pertains  to  the 
Spirit  alone.     Moreover,  a  channel  or  vehicle  is  not  necessary  to 


THE   SACRAMENTAL   IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  87 

the  Spirit,  for  He  Himself  is  the  virtue  and  energy  whereby  all 
things  are  borne,  and  has  no  need  of  being  borne;  neither  do  we 
read  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  that  perceptible  things,  as  are  the 
sacraments,  bear  certainly  with  them  the  Spirit,  but  if  percepti- 
ble things  have  ever  been  borne  with  the  Spirit,  it  has  been  the 

Spirit,  and  not  perceptible  things,  that  has  borne  them 

Therefore  the  Spirit  of  grace  is  conveyed  not  by  this  mersion, 
not  by  this  draught,  not  by  this  anointing;  for  if  it  were  thus  it 
would  be  known  how,  where,  whence  and  whither  the  Spirit  is 
given.  For  if  the  presence  and  efficacy  of  grace  are  bound  to 
the  sacraments,  they  work  where  these  are  conveyed;  and  where 
these  are  not  applied  all  things  languish.  .  .  .  From  this  it  is 
inferred,  .  .  .  that  the  sacraments  are  given  as  a  public  testi- 
mony of  that  grace  which  is  previously  present  to  every  individ- 
ual. ...  By  Baptism,  therefore,  the  Church  publicly  receives 
one  who  had  previously  been  received  through  grace.  Baptism, 
therefore,  does  not  bring  grace,  but  testifies  to  the  Church  that 
grace  has  been  given  for  him  to  whom  it  is  administered.  I  be- 
lieve, therefore,  that  a  sacrament  is  a  sign  of  a  sacred  thing — i.  e. 
of  grace  that  has  been  given.  I  believe  that  it  is  a  visible  figure 
or  form  of  invisible  grace — viz.,  which  has  been  provided  and 
given  by  God's  bounty;  i.  e.,  a  visible  example  which  presents 
an  aiialogy  to  something  done  by  the  Spirit.  I  believe  that  it  is 
a  public  testimoyiy . ' '  * 

It  is  manifest  that  such  views  completely  destroy  the  idea  of 
any  real,  objective  means  of  grace.  It  is  not  denied  that  there 
are  real  treasures  of  Divine  grace  obtained  for  man  through 
Christ's  mediatorial  work.  It  is  claimed  that  these  treasures  are 
appropriated  to  and  by  individual  men.  But  it  is  denied  that 
this  appropriation  is  effected  through  certain  means  which  the 
Lord  Himself  has  appointed  and  ordained  for  His  Church,  and  to 
which  He  has  bound  Himself  with  His  solemn  promise  that  thus 
and  there  He  will  be  found  by  us.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  con- 
tended that  the  appropriation  of  grace  is  effected  directly  from 
God  to  man,  as  from  Spirit  to  Spirit,  in  some  mysterious  manner, 
without  any  medium  or  instrumentality  whatever.  Those  that 
are,  in  fact,  believers  in  consequence  of  some  inscrutable  Divine 
operation  or  decree  have  nothing  left  to  them,  whenever  they 
meet  for  worship,  but  to  demonstrate  this  their  faith  by  acts  of 

*  See  Dr.  H.  E.  Jacobs,  T/ie  Book  of  Concord,  etc.     Vol.  II,  pp.  i68f{. 


88  MEMOIRS. 

public  profession.  Thus  every  feature  of  the  Service  becomes, 
of  necessity,  simply  an  exhibition  of  existing  faith.  When  the 
Word  is  heard  and  the  Sacraments  are  partaken,  it  is  not  the 
Lord  Who  is  thereby  carrying  on  His  gracious  work,  but  it  is 
the  assembly  of  believers  that  demonstrates  its  Christian  faith 
and  life.  The  Sacramentum ,  in  its  own  true  sense,  has  no  place 
in  this  Service.  It  is  all  Sacrificium.  On  the  other  hand  our 
Lutheran  responsive  Service,  with  its  rich  liturgical  and  hymno- 
logical  treasures,  requiring  the  active  and  whole-souled  partici- 
pation of  the  congregation,  proves  that  the  emphasis  which  our 
Church  lays  on  the  Sacramentum,  instead  of  overlooking  or 
crowding  out  the  Sacrificium,  rather  develops,  enriches  and 
beautifies  the  sacrificial  parts  of  the  Service  to  an  extent  unknown 
to  Reformed  Protestantism. 

A.  Spaeth. 
Mt.  Airy,   Philadelphia,  Pa. 


i 


PARAMENTS   OF  THE   LORD'S   HOUSE. 


Paraments  is  an  unusual  word  in  English.  It  is  defined  in  the 
Standard  Dictionary,  "rich  and  ornamental  clothes  and  furni- 
ture. ' '  Webster  cites  this  line  from  Chaucer  which  indicates  its 
ancient  meaning:  "Lords  in  paraments  on  their  coursers."  It  is 
derived  from^aric,  to  prepare,  through  the  later  Latin  paramen- 
tum.  In  English  it  refers  usually  to  the  ornamental  hangings 
and  furniture  of  state  apartments,  and  the  clothing  of  royal  and 
other  exalted  personages.  In  German  the  word  has  an  ecclesi- 
astical meaning.  Paramentics  is  the  art  of  church  decoration. 
Narrow  use  confines  it  to  textile  fabrics.  Wider  use  applies  it  to 
all  forms  of  church  decoration  and  furniture.  Among  Protestant 
writers  on  the  subject  are  Meurer,^  Beck.f  Schaefer^  and  Buerk- 
ner.§  The  sainted  Lohe,  amid  all  his  labors  for  the  sick  and  the 
poor,  and  his  world-wide  missionary  work,  found  time  to  promote 
its  study  and  development  in  the  churches.  In  England  and 
Germany  a  knowledge  of  the  art  is  required  of  those  who  build 
or  reconstruct  churches.  In  America  word  and  thing  were  until 
recently  almost  unknown.  Hence  so  many  of  our  churches  look 
more  like  drawing-rooms  or  theatres  than  houses  of  God. 

The  subject  is  worthy  of  greater  attention  than  it  has  re- 
ceived. Ministers  of  the  Lord's  House  should  know  something 
of  its  furnishings,  and  intelligent  laymen  would  take  a  new  de- 
light in  their  house  of  worship  if  they  understood  the  art  of  dec- 
orating it  in  a  fitting  manner.     As  George  Herbert  quaintly  says: 


•  Altarschmuck.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Paramentik  in  der  Evangelischen  Kirche 
von  Lie.     MoRiTZ  Meurer.     Leipzig,    1867. 

t  Soli  Deo!  Ein  Wort  zu  Nutz  und  Ehren  der  evangelischen  Paramentik. 
Von  Martin  Eugen  Beck.     Leipzig,    1885. 

X  Ratgeber  fuer  Anschaffung  und  Erhallung  von  Paramenten.     Berlin,   1897. 

§  Kirchenschmtuk  und  Kirchengeraet.  VoN  RiCHARD  BuERKNER.  Gotha, 
1892.  (Ixxxix) 


90  MEMOIRS. 

"They  who  love  God's  house  will  like  His  household  stuff." 
Luther,  with  all  his  hostility  to  the  mummeries  of  Romanism,  its 
vestments,  its  caps  and  its  bells,  at  a  critical  time  in  his  career, 
forsook  the  protection  of  the  Wartburg  in  order  that  he  might 
put  a  stop  to  the  ravages  of  the  iconoclasts.  "I  do  not  believe," 
said  he,  "that  art  is  to  be  overthrown  by  the  Gospel,  as  some  hy- 
perspiritual  people  maintain,  but  I  should  like  to  see  all  the  arts 
placed  in  the  service  of  Him  Who  made  them." 

When  we  see  a  private  house  furnished  with  good  taste,  with 
tapestries,  carvings  and  pictures,  and  when  we  accompany  the 
family  to  its  place  of  worship  to  find  there  an  absence  of  art,  or 
else  a  superfluity  of  decoration,  and  that  too  of  a  secular  charac- 
ter, does  it  not  recall  the  words  with  which  David  reproached 
himself:  "See  now,  I  dwell  in  an  house  of  cedar,  but  the  ark  of 
God  dwelleth  within  curtains."  In  the  vision  of  the  epiphany, 
as  given  in  the  sixtieth  chapter  of  Isaiah,  we  are  told  not  only  of 
the  Gentiles  who  shall  come  to  His  light  and  kings  to  the  bright- 
ness of  His  rising,  but  also  '  'The  glory  of  Lebanon  shall  come 
unto  Thee,  the  fir  tree,  the  pine  tree,  and  the  box  together,  to 
beautify  the  place  of  My  sanctuary,  and  I  will  make  the  place  of 
My  feet  glorious." 

Whatever  the  style  of  architecture  may  be,  the  house  of 
worship  should  bear  the  impress  of  the  purpose  to  which  it  is 
dedicated.  It  should  distinctly  say  to  him  who  enters  "This  is 
the  house  of  the  Lord."  The  earliest  style  of  buildings,  after 
Christianity  emerged  from  the  obscurity  to  which  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  first  three  centuries  condemned  it,  was  the  basilica. 
The  name  expresses  the  conviction  of  the  Christian  conscience 
that  the  house  of  the  Lord  must  be  a  royal  house,  a  house  of 
beauty.* 

Lohe,  in  his  plea  for  the  beautification  of  the  church,  shows 
how  sin,  proceeding  from  man,  affected  all  created  things.  "The 
whole  creation  groaneth."  But  since  God  has  begun  in  Christ 
to  heal  humanity,  it  is  the  mission  of  sanctified  man  to  sanctify 


*  Mr.  Ruskin  says  that  those  who  built  the  Gothic  churches  really  believed 
they  were  building  dwelling-places  for  Christ,  and  they  wished  to  make  them  as 
comfortable  and  beautiful  for  Him  as  they  could.  The  facade  of  Amiens  bears  out 
this  idea,  for  the  central  figure  in  it  is  Christ,  called  "the  good  God  of  Amiens," 
Who  welcomes  all  who  come  to  enter  its  portals  and  gives  them  His  benediction." 
Larned'S  Churches  and  Castles  of  Mediceval  France. 


PARAMENTS    OF    THE    LORD'S    HOUSE.  91 

the  creature,  and  to  bring  it  back  again  to  holy  uses,  so  that  it 
may  also  be  delivered  from  the  curse  and  restored  to  a  beauty 
exceeding  even  that  of  the  primal  Paradise.  The  whole  earth 
shall  be  full  of  His  glory.  In  the  meantime  the  Church  estab- 
lishes stations  on  the  way,  habitations  of  peace,  wherein  we  may 
be  reminded  how  fair  shall  be  that  Paradise  in  which  our  eyes 
shall  see  the  King  in  His  beauty.  This  is  the  secret  purpose  of 
the  Church  when  she  builds  and  adonis  her  sanctuaries.  From 
an  inexhaustible  store  of  truth  she  finds  a  thousand  ways  of  con- 
fessing her  faith,  not  only  in  the  spoken  word  and  the  harmonies 
of  music  and  poetry,  but  also  in  architecture  and  sculpture,  in 
painting  and  embroidery. 

Architecture  does  not  belong  to  the  scope  of  this  paper.  For 
it  no  apology  is  needed.  It  is  when  we  come  to  the  interior  of 
many  modern  churches  that  our  hearts  grow  heavy.  Large  sums 
of  money  are  wasted  for  decorations  that  are  incongruous  in  de- 
sign and  secular  in  spirit,  and  therefore  convey  to  the  eye  and 
heart  no  message  of  sanctity  and  religion.  Sometimes  it  is  an 
ambitious  churchliness  which  constructs  altars  and  chancels  with 
appurtenances  which  mean  nothing  to  the  Protestant  worship- 
per. Again,  the  spirit  of  imitation  leads  many  congregations  to 
sew  patches  of  ecclesiastical  decoration  on  the  garments  of  anti- 
ritualistic  simplicity,  without  regard  to  the  fitness  of  things. 
There  may  be  a  wealth  of  display  in  the  carpets  and  windows 
and  furniture,  but  if  the  decoration  is  not  in  harmony  with  the 
place,  it  produces  an  atmosphere  that  is  foreign  to  the  spirit  of 
devotion. 

The  present  era  of  prosperity  is  marked  by  the  erection  of 
many  new  houses  of  worship,  and  the  reconstruction  of  old  ones. 
An  improved  churchlj^  taste  is  manifest.  This  is  gratifying. 
But  unfortunately  the  only  available  models  of  churchliness  are 
taken  from  a  denomination  whose  canons  differ  somewhat  from 
those  of  our  Church,  and  it  is  humiliating  to  find  that  a  new  Lu- 
theran church  is  nothing  but  a  second  edition  of  an  Episcopal 
church,  not  revised  and  improved.  While  there  is  an  improve- 
ment on  the  unsesthetic  simplicity  of  the  past  it  is  much  to  be 
regretted  that  pains  are  not  taken  to  produce  a  more  truly  Lu- 
theran style  of  church  decoration.  This  style  will  be  found  in 
the  via  media  between  Roman  Catholicism  and  Reform.  Our 
fathers  accepted  the  Roman  Catholic  churches  as  they  were,  only 


92  MEMOIRS. 

removing  the  most  objectionable  features.  But  in  building  new 
churches  we  should  not  merely  repristinate  with  moderate  criti- 
cism, we  should  reconstruct  along  the  lines  of  our  liturgical  can- 
ons.    These  canons  are: 

I.  Historical  conservatism;  2.  Adaptation  to  modern  con- 
ditions;    3.  Expression  of  L^utheran  principles  of  worship. 

A  small  handbook  on  this  subject  would  prove  of  great  value 
to  intending  builders  of  churches. 

Articles  of  church  furniture  in  general  use  are  the  pulpit, 
the  reading  desk,  the  table  and  the  font.  Some  churches  have 
the  pulpit  only.  In  this  case  the  church  is  an  auditorium.  The 
preacher  stands  in  the  focus  of  all  eyes.  He  is  the  chief  actor, 
the  dominant  figure. 

No  one  denies  the  paramount  importance  of  preaching. 
Nevertheless  congregations  worshipping  in  an  auditorium  suffer 
a  distinct  loss.  There  is  a  dramatic  value  in  the  action  involved 
in  the  use  of  the  lectern,  the  table  and  the  font.  From  the  read- 
ing desk  the  minister  delivers  to  the  people  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
the  inspired  Word  of  God.  From  the  pulpit  it  is  the  voice  of 
the  herald  or  messenger.  From  the  table  and  font  are  distribu- 
ted the  sacramental  gifts.  For  sacrificial  purposes  the  table  be- 
comes an  altar  where  the  minister,  in  the  name  of  the  congrega- 
tion, presents  the  sacrifices  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving. 
These  are  valid  distinctions  in  acts  of  worship  and  their  value 
and  significance  are  worthy  of  consideration  on  the  part  of  the 
advocates  of  extreme  simplicity. 

The  earliest  Christian  altars  were  simple  tables  made  of 
wood,  specimens  of  which  may  still  be  found  among  the  treasures 
of  the  churches  in  Rome.  The  oldest  of  all,  at  which  the  Apos- 
tle Peter  himself  is  said  to  have  ministered,  is  a  simple  slab 
mounted  on  a  single  pedestal.  The  New  Testament  speaks  only 
of  the  Table  of  the  Lord,  (I  Corinthians  10,  21),  although  the 
symbolism  of  the  Supper  is  also  presented  in  this  passage. 

The  change  in  the  form  of  the  altars  was  brought  about  by 
the  dogmatic  delusion  which  transformed  the  lyord's  Supper  into 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  still  more  by  the  relation  which  the 
altar  was  made  to  take  to  the  graves  of  the  martyrs.  The  form 
of  the  altars,  as  the  Reformation  found  them,  was  to  a  great  ex- 
tent the  expression  of  a  doctrinal  system  which  Protestants  re- 
pudiate. 


PARAMENTS    OF    THE    LORD'S    HOUSE.  93 

Nevertheless  Luther  proceeded  in  a  conservative  manner, 
being  more  concerned  about  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  than 
questions  of  ritual.  He  made  no  changes  that  were  not  absolute- 
ly required.     "We  must  bide  our  time,"  he  said. 

But  the  Renaissance,  a  secular  movement  running  parallel 
with  the  Reformation,  produced  important  changes  in  the  struct- 
ure of  the  altar,  and  its  work  was  for  the  worse.  With  no  re- 
ligious principle  to  guide  it,  it  gave  free  play  to  its  aesthetic  im- 
pulses in  designing  friezes  and  architraves  and  facades  of  colossal 
dimensions.  Even  the  Romanists  were  outdone  in  obscuring  the 
original  significance  of  the  Lord's  Table. 

What  is  the  significance  of  the  altar?  The  altar  is  first  of 
all  the  Table  of  the  Lord.  Any  other  view  of  it  is  alien  to  our 
doctrine.  For  this  reason,  Lohe,  whom  some  regard  a  very  high 
churchman,  says  "The  location  of  the  altar  is  higher  than  the 
nave,  in  order  that  the  congregation  may  be  witnesses  of  all  that 
takes  place  at  the  altar.  But  Protestants  have  no  interest  in 
placing  the  altar  too  high,  because  they  repudiate  the  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass  and  the  worship  of  the  Host,  and  because  they  cannot 
admit  that  there  is  a  line  of  separation  between  the  place  of  the 
sacrament  and  the  priestly  congregation." 

In  the  second  place  the  altar  is  the  place  of  prayer.  The 
acts  of  prayer  which  the  minister  performed  in  the  name  of  the 
congregation  were  formerly  intimately  connected  with  the  Com- 
munion Service.  Hence  also  the  acts  of  the  benediction,  such  as 
confirmation,  absolution,  marriage  and  ordination,  are  properly 
performed  at  the  altar.  Here  too  may  be  presented  the  offerings, 
as  "an  odor  of  sweet  smell,  a  sacrifice  well-pleasing  to  God," 
(Phil.  4,  i8;  Heb.  13,  16). 

In  a  figurative  sense  it  is  therefore  not  improper  to  speak  of 
the  Table  of  the  Lord  as  an  altar,  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that 
Protestants  use  the  term. 

The  chancel  rail  is  found  almost  everywhere  in  American 
Lutheran  churches.  It  marks  a  separation  between  ministers 
and  people  which  the  teaching  of  our  Church  does  not  recognize. 
Take  it  away. 

With  this  review  of  the  history  and  significance  of  the  altar, 
to  which  neither  the  highchurchman  nor  the  most  radical  antirit- 
ualist  can  justlj^  take  exception,  we  are  prepared  to  inquire  as  to 
its  proper  place  in  the  arrangement  and  decoration  of  the  church. 


94  MEMOIRS. 

On  the  one  hand  our  altar  will  not  be  the  high  structure  which 
our  Episcopal  and  lyUtheran  brethren  inherited  from  Rome  and 
the  Renaissance.  Nor  will  it  on  the  other  hand  be  the  little 
stand  in  front  of  the  pulpit,  resembling  a  piece  of  parlor  furni- 
ture, serving  on  Communion  days  for  the  vessels  and  elements  of 
the  Sacrament,  and  on  other  days  as  a  convenient  receptacle  for 
the  hats  and  overcoats  of  the  brethren. 

Whether  a  celebration  takes  place  or  not,  it  is  the  Lord's 
Table  in  the  Lord's  House,  and  is  therefore  the  most  fitting  sym- 
bol of  the  Kotvtoj/ui,  the  fellowship  that  characterized  the  earliest 
Church  and  that  still  binds  believers  together.  It  symbolizes 
also  those  sacrificial  acts  which  are  an  essential  part  of  all  true 
worship.  It  should  therefore  be  of  goodly  size,  made  of  substan- 
tial material,  and  should  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  choir, 
in  sight  of  the  whole  congregation.  It  should  be  covered  at  all 
times,  that  is  at  every  Service,  with  a  white  linen  cloth.  If  the 
Table  stands  free,  the  cloth  should  project  over  the  four  sides. 
If  it  stands  against  the  wall,  the  cloth  should  project  over  the 
front  the  width  of  a  span,  and  over  the  ends  a  greater  length. 

As  to  the  decorations  which  may  be  placed  upon  the  altar, 
there  is  a  difference  of  opinion.  It  is  not  very  important  and  the 
discussion  may  be  deferred.  It  is  a  question  whether  flower 
vases  should  be  placed  upon  the  table,  but  artificial  flowers  are 
unquestionably  forbidden.  In  some  churches  the  front  and  sides 
of  the  altar  are  covered  with  a  costly  cloth,  suitably  embroidered, 
known  as  the  antependium.  If  the  altar  is  made  of  sculptured 
stone,  this  is  not  necessary.  But  in  any  case  a  so-called  ante- 
peyidium  strip  is  a  favorite  form  of  decoration.  It  is  made  of 
wool  or  silk,  is  one-third  as  wide  as  the  table,  and  covers  the  en- 
tire depth  of  the  table  and  hangs  for  a  considerable  distance  over 
the  front.  Its  purpose  is  to  tell  in  color  and  design  the  story  of 
the  particular  Season  in  the  Church  Year.* 


*  The  limits  of  this  article  forbid,  or  we  might  speak  of  numerous  objects  re- 
lated to  the  altar,  believing  that  many  reforms  are  needed  here  in  our  church  prac- 
tice. One  is  the  substitution  of  the  ciborium  for  the  paten.  It  looks  better,  has 
ancient  usage  to  warrant  it,  and  is  better  for  practical  reasons.  Another  is  the  ban- 
ishment of  the  velum.  At  present  its  use  is  almost  universal  not  only  in  Lutheran 
but  also  in  Reformed  Churches.  It  is  a  remnant  of  the  Romish  superstition  in  re- 
gard to  the  mviteriitm  tremendum,  and  illustrates  the  persistence  of  custom  even 
where  the  dogmatic  foundation  has  long  ago  been  taken  away.  Some  writers  speak 
of  the  symbolical  importance  of  the  corporal  and  the  palla,  but  these  are  superflui- 


PARAMENTS    OF    THE    LORD'S    HOUSE.  95 

The  church  colors  ordinarily  used  in  Lutheran  churches  are 
five  in  number:  white,  red,  green,  violet  and  black.  White,  ac- 
cording to  Luther,  "the  color  of  the  angels  and  the  saints,"  is 
used  on  the  Festivals  of  Christ,  from  Christmas  eve  to  the  end  of 
the  Epiphany,  and  from  Easter  to  Ascension  {Exaudi).  Red, 
the  majestic  color  of  fire  and  blood,  is  the  color  of  the  Church. 
In  garments  of  red  she  clothes  herself  on  Whitsunday,  the  anni- 
versary of  her  baptism  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  also  on  all  Church 
anniversaries  and  mission  festivals.  Violet  is  the  color  of  solemn 
meditation  and  preparation  and  is  used  during  Advent  and  the 
Passion  Season.  Black  is  used  on  the  anniversary  of  the  Cruci- 
fixion. Green,  the  every-day  and  universal  color  of  nature  is 
used  at  other  times. 

As  for  the  pulpit,  its  location  is  more  important  than  its 
decoration.  The  great  gulf  that  often  separates  the  preacher 
from  the  people  ought  to  be  closed  up.  For  textile  fabrics  on  the 
pulpit  there  is  little  need.  The  pounding  of  the  pulpit  cushion 
is  an  unsanitary  proceeding.  But  for  wood  carving  or  for  metal 
work  there  is  a  wide  field  for  the  artist.  The  draught  of  fishes 
afforded  a  suggestive  subject  for  a  carving  on  an  oaken  pulpit. 

The  lectern  is  sometimes  regarded  as  an  innovation  in  our 
American  churches.  Few  German  churches  in  this  country  have 
it,  and  it  looks  as  though  we  had  borrowed  it  from  the  Episcopa- 
lians. But  such  is  not  the  case.  They  are  a  survival  of  the  an- 
cient ambo,  and  at  least  in  Middle  Germany  are  to  be  found  in 
many  of  our  churches.  Where  they  have  disappeared,  I  am  in- 
clined to  think  it  the  result  of  carelessness  and  neglect.  Where 
the  lectern  is  not  used  the  minister  uses  the  altar-table  instead,  a 
practice  which  is  undesirable  but  not  altogether  indefensible. 

Lecterns  should  be  graceful  in  form  and  not  so  high  as  to 
hide  the  reader's  head.  The  "eagle"  is  only  one  of  many  forms 
that  may  be  used.  As  in  the  case  of  the  pulpit,  it  is  not  necessa- 
ry to  deck  it  with  textile  fabrics,  nor  does  the  rule  of  color  apply 
to  the  decoration  of  the  lectern  or  pulpit. 

The  font  is  an  object  which  has  not  yet  received  a  settled 
home  in  our  Lutheran  churches.  The  liturgists  have  not  yet 
reached  an  agreement  upon  its   proper  location.      The  weight 


ties  with  which  we  can  easily  dispense.  The  lavabo  cloth  is  seldom  seen,  and  yet 
this  has  hygienic  and  aesthetic  value.  Its  general  use  might  forestall  the  introduction 
of  the  individual  Communion  cup. 


98  MEMOIRS. 

Play  of  Oberamraergau.  They  should,  be  used  in  moderation 
and  should  come  within  the  ready  comprehension  of  the  congre- 
gation. 

Do  j^ou  object  to  these  pictures  in  church?  Luther  himself 
was  a  smasher  of  idols.  But  when  Carlstadt  quoted  to  him 
"Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  any  graven  image,"  Luther  re- 
torted at  once  "Thou  shalt  not  bow  down  thyself  unto  them,  nor 
serve  them."  "You  cannot  help  making  images,"  said  he,  "if 
not  with  your  hands,  then  with  your  imagination,  in  your  mind 
and  heart." 

But  for  those  who  object  to  pictures,  there  is  still  left  a  wide 
field  for  edifying  decoration  in  the  use  of  Scripture  texts. 

Art  cannot  take  the  place  of  religion.  If  art  is  in  the  church 
for  its  own  sake,  whether  in  preaching,  or  in  the  singing  of  the 
quartet  choir  or  in  church  decoration,  it  is  not  an  aid  but  an  ob- 
stacle to  religion.  The  work  of  decoration  must  follow  the  re- 
ligious life.  We  decorate  not  for  its  aesthetic  value,  but  because 
our  faith  therein  finds  expression.  Where  religion  precedes,  art 
may  follow  and  by  its  aid  expression  may  be  given  to  spiritual 
truth  in  a  multitude  of  subtle  and  suggestive  forms.  As  Michel 
Angelo  said  "True  decoration  is  the  shadow  of  the  hand  with 
which  God  decorates." 

But  paramentics  has  its  limits,  and  there  is  another  point  of 
view  which  we  cannot  but  respect.  The  iconoclasts  of  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries  made  legitimate  protest  against  perverted 
forms  in  which  the  idol  had  taken  the  place  of  God.  And  we 
cannot  ignore  the  spiritual  earnestness  of  their  followers  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  Reformed  Churches  of  Switzerland,  Hol- 
land and  Scotland,  who  saw  in  these  things  the  trappings  of  the 
great  whore,  and  therefore  banished  them  from  their  services. 
These  protests  must  not  be  overlooked.  History  warns  us  of 
perils.  There  were  periods  in  the  Church  when  religion  declined 
as  ritual  advanced.  In  our  day  we  have  a  striking  example  in 
the  Greek  Church  of  a  perfected  system  of  symbolism  and  ritual, 
along  with  what  seems  like  the  absence  of  a  spiritual  religion. 
Such,  at  least,  is  the  verdict  of  Harnack  in  his  graphic  picture  of 
the  Greek  Church  in  JVesen  des  Christentums. 

In  view  of  such  facts  it  behooves  us  to  inquire  whether  art 
really  is  the  handmaiden  of  religion.  The  Saviour  teaches  us 
that  the  characteristic  of  true  worship  is  spirituality.     Forms  of 


PARAMENTS    OF    THE    LORD'S    HOUSE.  99 

worship  are  admissible  only  in  so  far  as  they  conduce  to  edifica- 
tion. If  art  has  any  relation  to  true  worship,  it  must  be  in  har- 
mony with  these  truths.  It  is  not  enough  to  show  that  there  has 
been  a  historical  connection,  we  must  prove  that  there  is  no  real 
antagonism  between  them. 

The  oft-quoted  apothegm  of  Goethe  throws  some  light  on 
the  subject.  He  calls  art  "a  preliminary  redemption,  a  Gospel 
of  the  natural  man,  a  human  introduction  to  the  Gospel  of  grace. 
It  is  the  province  of  art  to  separate  the  spiritual,  the  permanent 
and  the  real  from  that  which  is  material  and  transitory."  It  is 
this  faculty  that  distinguishes  the  painter  from  the  photographer. 
Another  consideration  is  the  fact  that  as  soon  as  religion  finds 
expression  in  worship,  there  is  not  only  a  field  for  art  but  also  a 
necessity  for  it.  Hence  we  conclude  that  St.  Paul's  injunction 
as  to  "whatsoever  things  are  lovely"  is  not  to  be  ignored  in  our 
treatment  of  the  House  of  the  lyord. 

In  the  church  of  St.  Sebald  in  Niirnberg,  there  is  a  famous 
sacramentary,  towering  sixty  feet  from  the  floor.  While  the 
sculptor  was  finishing  with  scrupulous  care  some  ornament  near 
the  top,  he  was  asked  why  he  was  so  careful,  no  one  would  see 
it.  He  replied,  "God  will  see  it."  Of  the  neighboring  church 
of  St.  Ivorenz  Luthardt  says:  "I  heard  there  many  a  sermon 
which  I  have  forgotten,  but  there  is  one  sermon  which  I  could 
never  forget,  the  "sermon  in  stones,"  which  the  edifice  itself 
preached  to  all  that  worshipped  there.  The  spirit  of  piety  which 
made  these  buildings  so  beautiful  has  made  them  permanent  wit- 
nesses of  religion.  And  yet  the  simplest  interior,  even  though  it 
may  be  only  a  hired  hall  in  the  city  street,  or  a  sod  church  on 
the  prairie  may  reflect  a  spiritual  message  as  truly  as  the  Gothic 
arches  of  St.  Sebald  and  St.  L,orenz. 

G.  U.  Wenner. 

New   York. 


Vol.  VII. 


LITURGICAIv  COLORS. 


The  liturgical  colors  are  those  which  the  Church  employs  in  her 
Cultus.  There  are  liturgical  colors  in  a  wide  and  narrow  sense. 
Those  in  the  former  are  such  as  are  prescribed  for  any  artistic 
embellishment  to  Sanctuary  or  Church,  in  the  dress  of  statuary, 
paintings,  hangings,  banners,  carpets,  even  to  the  minutest  de- 
tail in  decorative  color  schemes.*  In  the  narrow  sense,  with 
which  we  deal  in  this  paper,  the  liturgical  colors  are  those  which 
the  Church  uses  in  the  vestments  for  altar  and  priest  in  her  vari- 
ous OflBces.  In  both  connections  the  colors  are  looked  upon  as 
being  symbolic,  and  in  their  application,  this  symbolism  is  called 
upon  to  play  an  important  part  in  conveying  to  the  beholder  par- 
ticular attributes  and  ideas.  In  the  latter  case,  in  addition  to 
their  symbolism,  the  colors  are  so  employed  or  scheduled,  that 
their  use  may  indicate  the  various  Events  and  Seasons  which 
make  up  the  Church's  Year.  They  are  doubly-symbolic  then, 
as  a  service-use,  as  well  as  a  festival-  or  season-use.  Their  sym- 
bolism however  is  entirely  the  result  of  their  religious  use.  The 
colors  in  use  to-day  in  the  Roman,  Lutheran  and  Anglican  Com- 
munions are,  white,  red,  green,  purple  and  black.  These  2x&the 
"Liturgical  Colors." 

The  use  of  colors  in  the  worship  of  the  Church  is  not  of 
Christian  origin.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  this  as  in  many 
other  things,  the  Church  of  the  New  Covenant  has  adapted  to 
her  use  that  which  existed  for  centuries  in  the  Church  of  the  Old 
Covenant.  In  addition  to  this  she  may  have  been  influenced  by 
the  heathen  systems  with  which  she  came  in  contact  in  so  far  as 
*  This  is  the  case  in  the  Greek  Church. 


I  MEMOIRS. 

she  noticed  the  use  of  certain  colors  for  priestly  dress  and  in 
their  sacrificial  rites.*  However  the  direct  line  seems  to  be  that 
which  leads  back  to  the  O.  T.  Church. f  The  colors  which  form 
the  two  groups  are,  in  three  out  of  five  cases,  the  same;  their 
symbolism  is  but  slightly  different,  (due  allowance  being  made 
for  the  difference  between  the  two  Churches,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Church  of  the  N.  T.);J  the  uses  are  the  same-: 
priest's  dress  and  the  important  hangings  and  cloths  in  the 
Sanctuary. 

The  use  of  colors  in  the  Old  Testament  Church  is  not  the 
result  of  man's  artistic  choice,  nor  is  it  a  mere  adaptation  from 
another  religion. §  It  has  the  highest  possible  authorization. 
It  is  of  Divine  origin.  It  comes  into  existence  in  and  with  the 
Law,  in  Divine  revelation.  The  colors  so  authorized  are  enu- 
merated in  Exodus  28,  5.  They  are:  gold,  blue,  purple,  scarlet 
and  white  (fine  linen).  The  application  of  these  colors  as  pre- 
scribed for  general  liturgical  use,  through  the  various  chapters 
of  Exodus  and  the  other  books  of  the  Law,  is  as  follows:] |  The 
textures  used  fo-r  the  hangings  of  the  Tabernacle,  and  its  inner 


*  This  is  not  to  be  taken  as  an  unqualified  statement  that  such  an  influence  bore 
direct  results.  The  heathen  systems  employed  an  official  priestly  dress,  as  well  as 
colors,  in  this  and  ritual.  These  were  used  symbolically.  Cf.  Portal:  Les  Coul- 
eurs  SyniboHqties,   Paris^    1857,  under  the  various  colors. 

t  This  cannot  be  absolutely  proven  simply  because  the  color  system  of  the 
Church  is  not  found  completely  developed  and  in  use  till  comparatively  late.  (In 
the  12  Cent.  Innocent  III)  and  the  centuries  to  be  bridged  over  give  but  scant 
traces  of  anything  that  might  be  considered  as  evidences  of  such  a  development. 
However  those  that  do  appear  and  can  be  accepted  as  genuine  and  accurate  are  fair 
ground  for  the  establishment  of  such  a  claim.  These  will  be  referred  to  in  the 
sequel. 

X  For  example,  where  in  O.  T.  times  a  color  is  looked  upon  as  symbolic  of  an 
attribute  of  God,  in  the  new  this  will  be  developed  to  the  fuller  symbolism,  applied 
to  One  of  the  Persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 

§  A  negative  critic  might  very  readily  try  to  prove  that  such  a  system  is  found- 
ed on  Egyptian  usage.  That  the  Egyptian  theology  contained  symbolic  colors  may 
be  gathered  from  a  number  of  writers,  among  them  Portal  as  above;  but  the  colors 
and  symbols  are  so  widely  different  that  it  will  admit  of  no  comparison  whatever. 

II   Cf.   F.  Delitzsch  (Lotz):  Farben  in  der  Bibel,  in  P.  R.  E.  3  Ed.  V,  759  ff. 


LITURGICAL   COLORS. 


roofing,  and  those  for  the  sacred  vestments  of  the  priests,  were 
of  four  colors,  blue,  purple,  scarlet  and  white.  These  four  com- 
bined were  used  in  the  outer  curtains;  the  veil,  the  entrance 
curtain;*  and  the  curtain  for  the  gate  of  the  court. f  They  were 
also  used  in  the  ephod,  girdle  and  breast- plate  of  the  High 
Priest. t  Purple,  blue  and  scarlet  were  used  in  the  pomegranates 
about  the  hem  of  the  High  Priest's  ephod. i^  The  robe  of  the 
High  Priest's  ephod,  the  lace  of  his  breast-plate  and  the  lace  of 
his  mitre,  were  exclusively  of  blue;||  as  well  the  fifty  loops  of  the 
ten  inner  curtains. ^[  The  coats,  mitres,  bonnets  and  breeches  of 
the  priests  were  all  of  one  color,  white.**  The  hangings  for  the 
court  were  also  of  white. ft  Cloths  in  which  the  sacred  utensils 
were  to  be  wrapped  during  the  Pilgrimage  were  either  of  blue,:|:j 
scarlet, i^§  or  purple. ||||  Colors  may  also  be  found  in  use  in  some 
of  the  sacrificial  rites,  e.  g.,  the  scarlet  thread  in  the  cleansing  of 
lepers. ^^  The  "gold"  is  enumerated  with  the  four  colors  men- 
tioned above,  in  Ex.  28:  5,  and  used  in  combination  with  them 
in  various  articles  of  the  High  Priest's  dress,  it  is  not  looked  up- 
on as  a  color  in  the  sense  in  which  the  others  are  Considered,  but 
is  used  for  its  appearance  of  splendor  and  brilliancy.*** 

The  exact  and  comprehensive  manner  in  which  every  Ser- 


*  Ex.  26:  I,  31,  36. 
§  Ex.  28:  33. 
♦♦  Ex.  39:  27,  28. 
§§  Num.  4:  8. 


t  Ex.  27:  16. 
II    Ex.  28:  28,  31,  37. 
tt  Ex.  27:  9;   38:  9. 
nil  Num.  4:  13. 


X  Ex.  28:   5,  6,  8,  15. 
IT  Ex.  26:  4,  5. 
XX  Num.  4:  6. 
HH    Lev.    14:  4,  6,  51. 


*•*  These  colors  and    their   use   in   the    vestments    have   been   tabulated   by 
ROLFE:      The  Ancient  Use  of  Liturgical  Colors,   London,    1879,  p.  10,  as  follows: 


VESTMENTS 

WORN     BY 

1                                    COLOR 

The  Ephod    - 

High  Priest 

gold,  blue,  purple,  scarlet,  white 

The  Girdle 

.<         " 

(<         <(         ((           <<           << 

The  Breast- plate     - 

" 

X                  K                  (<                      <(                      << 

The  Robe  of  the  Ephod 

" 

<< 

The  Broidered  Coat    - 

" 

«« 

The  Mitre      - 

" 

<« 

Holy  Crown 

" 

li                  << 

The  Coats      - 

The  Priests 

«« 

The  Girdles 

" 

<(              ((                 <C                 << 

The  Bonnets 

" 

«< 

4  MEMOIRS. 

vice-need,  every  object  in  and  about  the  Tabernacle,  every  vest- 
ment for  High  Priest  and  his  assistants,  is  described  in  the  Law, 
is  not  only  a  positive  proof  of  the  definiteness  and  orderliness  of 
the  worship  of  Jehovah;  but  when  attached  to  this  all  is  its 
Divine  origin  and  the  Divine  command  authorizing  this  as  the 
manner  in  which  God  is  pleased  to  be  worshiped,  there  is  given 
to  it  all  a  weight  which  compels  observance,  and  places  it  above 
the  sphere  of  human  choice  or  pleasure.  And  as  the  accessories 
are  developed  for  man,  so  is  the  entire  Cultus,  coming  directly 
from  Jehovah,  man's  mind  having  no  share  in  plan  or  ordering. 
It  is  revealed  in  complete  form  for  man  to  obey  and  use;  not  a 
disconnected  mass  of  indiscriminate  rites,  but  a  whole  harmoni- 
ous in  all  its  parts.  It  is  so  developed  and  ordered  that  it  must 
stand  as  one  great  symbol  of  the  relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel, 
and  everything  that  develops  out  of  that  relation.  There  can  be 
nothing  then  that  is  superfluous,  nor  that  does  not  contribute  its 
quota  of  meaning  to  that  of  the  rest  to  make  up  the  whole. 

The  fact  then  that  the  vestments  of  the  High  Priest  and  his 
assistants  and  the  various  curtains  and  coverings  are  so  carefully 
described  in  every  detail,  is  one  whose  importance  to  the  system 
cannot  be  denied.*  That  they  were  to  be  of  certain  color,  or 
combinations  of  color,  or  decorated  with  certain  colors — all  defi- 
nitely ordered — is  as  important.  This  led  many  to  believe  that 
a  distinct  purpose  was  meant  to  be  expressed  thereby.  This  is 
called  their  "symbolism;"  and  writers  both  ancientf  and  modern;j: 
have  attempted  to  develop  it. 


*  In  addition  it  may  be  noted  that  God  forbids  priests  to  appear  in  other  garb 
when  ministering  before  Him. 

t  Among  the  ancients,  Philo,  0pp.  /and  Josephus:  Ant.  Bk.  Ill,  c.  vii,  §  7, 
p.  84.     Whiston  and  Burden  Ed.     Also  Ancient  Jewish  Commentators. 

%  Moderns:  Calvoer:  Rit.  Eccl.  Jena,  1705.  II,  Sec.  Ill,  c.  23.  Krause: 
De  Colore  Sacro.  Lit.  1707.  Creuzer:  Symbolik^Y.  125  sq.  Bahr:  Symbolik, 
!•  3.35'  Friederich:  SytJi.  d.  Mos.  Stiftshuette .  Lpz.  1841.  Studien  und 
Kritiken.  1844.  II.  315.  Delitzsch:  Farbenstudien  und  Blumenstuecke.  Lpz. 
1888.  Rolfe:  as  above.  Legi;:  The  AncU  Use  of  Lit.  Colors.  London.  1882, 
Delitzsch  (Lotz)  article  as  above. 


LITURGICAL   COLORS.  6 

Philo  adapts  his  to  the  current  Gentile  philosophy'  and  is  of 
little  service  to  our  purpose;  but  Josephus,  though  he  follows 
Philo' s  thought  to  some  extent,  produces  a  symbolism  that  is 
very  interesting.  He  says:*  "The  veils  which  were  composed  of 
four  colors  declared  the  four  elements;  for  the  linen  was  proper 
to  signify  the  earth,  because  the  flax  grows  out  of  it;  the  purple, 
the  sea,  because  that  color  is  dyed  by  the  blood  of  a  shell-fish; 
the  blue  is  fit  to  signify  the  air,  and  the  scarlet  will  be  an  indica- 
tion of  fire The  vestments  of  the   High   Priest,   being 

made  of  linen,  signified  the  earth;  the  blue  denoted  the  sky  being 
like  lightning  in  its  pomegranates  and  resembling  thunder  in  the 
noise  of  its  bells;  and  the  ephod  showed  that  God  had  made  the 
universe  of  four  elements;  and  as  for  the  gold  interwoven,  I  sup- 
pose it  related  to  the  splendor  by  which  all  things  are  enlight- 
ened. He  also  appointed  the  breast-plate  to  be  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  ephod  to  resemble  the  earth  for  that  has  the  very 
middle  place  in  the  world;  and  the  girdle  which  encompassed  the 
High  Priest  round,  signified  the  ocean  which  goes  round  about 

and  includes  the  universe The   mitre  which  was  of  the 

color  of  blue  seems  to  me  to  denote  Heaven,  for  how  otherwise 
could  the  Name  of  God  be  inscribed  upon  it?  It  was  also  illus- 
trated with  a  crown  of  gold  because  of  that  splendor  with  which 
God  is  pleased." 

This,  of  course,  is  no  symbolism  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
term  nor  worthy  of  the  use  of  the  colors  in  which  they  are  found. 
These  colors  may  have  a  natural  symbolism,!  but  they  are  not 
symbolic  in  themselves.  They  only  become  symbolic  in  that  the 
representation  of  particular  subjects  and  ideas,  is  combined  with 
them.      Bearing   this    in   mind,   let   us  attempt    to  develop   the 


*  Antiquities.  III.  vii.  7.  Latin  in  Calvokr:  Kit  Eccl.  Pt.  IL  Sec.  vii.  c. 
xxiii.    p.  485. 

t  For  example:  Green  is  looked  upon  as  the  color  symbolic  of  hope,  because 
one  thinks  of  the  green  of  the  plant  which  in  Winter  dies  away,  but  in  Spring  re- 
vives again;  ox  blue,  as  the  symbol  of  faithfulness,  reminding  one  of  the  Heavens 
whose  blueneis  though  for  a  time  o'ercast,  ahvays  breaks  through  again. 


6  MEMOIRS. 

symbolism  of  these  colors  as  used   in  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 

Examining  the  table  given  above,  one  cannot  help  noticing 
the  preeminence  of  the  use  of  the  "fair- linen,"  (Byssus),  the 
white.  It  appears  to  be  the  liturgical  color  and  rightl}^  so.  It 
cannot  be  spoken  of  as  a  color  in  the  exact  sense  of  the  term,  yet 
it  is.  It  is  the  simplest,  purest, — primarj'  and  is  the  foundation 
for  all  the  others.  White  is  that  wherein  the  light  of  the  sun  is 
reflected  unhindered.  Light  is  white  and  white  is  the  light 
"color."  In  contrast  to  it  is  black  (which  note  is  never  author- 
ized as  a  vestment  or  Tabernacle  use)  which  absorbs  all  colors 
and  does  not  reflect  the  light  of  the  sun.  The  light  in  it  is  sub- 
dued, the  colors  buried.  These  two  present  the  contrasts  with 
which  we  must  start:  Life,  light,  joy,  holiness,  activity  on  the 
one  side;  over  against  them,  death,  darkness,  sadness,  wicked- 
ness, inactivity.  These  are  the  Biblical  contrasts  in  which  these 
colors  figure.  Alone,  white  in  the  Scriptures  is  the  mark  of 
purity  and  victory.  It  is  that  which  is  the  particular  color  sym- 
bol of  the  Deity*  and  hence  of  those  in  Kis  immediate  Presence,! 
and  those  directly  ministering  to  Him.  This  then  in  the  dress 
of  the  priests,  used  so  thoroughly  would  mark  the  fact  of  their 
official  ministry,  the  representatives  of  the  Holy  One  and  servants 
in  His  worship.  In  the  garb  of  purity,  serving  Him  the  Pure 
and  Holy  One,  they  stand  before  the  people  clothed  in  that  rai- 
ment which  to  them  is  the  symbol  of  that  in  which  they  must 
come  before  their  Lord,  to  offer  to  Him  their  sacrifices  with  clean 
hands  and  pure  hearts.  White  is  the  color  common  to  all  priests. 
It  is  over  this  that  the  High  Priest  wears  the  "golden  vestments" 
in  which  all  the  colors  appear. 

The  purple  has  been  the  color  of  kingly  garb  from  oldest 
time,t  and  always  a  mark  of  those  in  authority.  In  the  garb  of 
the  High  Priest  it  would  mean  that  he  is  the  servant  of  Him 


*  The  Ancient  of  Days,  the  Eternal  in  Dan.   7:  9  in  snow-white  robe.     The 
Transfiguration  of  Christ. 

t  The  Angels  and  Spirits.     Elders  and  souls  washed  clean.      Rev.  of  S.  John. 
X  Judges  8:  26. 


LITURGICAL    COLORS.  7 

Who  is  spoken  of  as  the  King  of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords.  Pur- 
ple and  bhie  being  co-related  as  colors  would  be  indicative,  when 
used  together  in  these  vestments,  of  a  two- fold  activity  of  the 
Heavenly  King. 

Purple  points  to  the  Majesty  of  God  in  His  sublimity  and 
Blue  to  the  Majesty  of  God  in  His  condescension.  In  connection 
with  this  latter  note  the  color  which  is  so  prominent  at  the  giv- 
ing of  the  Law — beneath  the  Presence  the  purest  blue — (sap- 
phire)— It  would  follow  from  this  that  blue  would  always  remind 
them  of  their  Mighty  God,  the  Law-Giver.  Purple  and  blue 
then  in  the  High  Priest's  vestments  would  mean  that  he  is  the 
servant  of  that  Majesty,  Who  is  sufficient  unto  Himself  and  yet 
condescends  to  covenant  with  man  and  is  faithful  in  His  cove- 
nant. 

Scarlet  is  the  color  of  fire,  symbolic  of  destruction.  Sins  are 
spoken  of  as  being  "as  scarlet"  therefore  deserving  of  wrath — 
punishment.  It  is  scarlet  which  is  found  in  cleansing  and  sacri- 
ficial rites.  It  may  then  be  looked  upon  as  a  symbol  of  man's 
sinfulness  and  hence  his  guilt  for  which  he  must  be  punished  un- 
less he  atone  and  obtain  pardon.  Scarlet  then  in  the  High 
Priest's  vestments,  with  the  white,  would  mean  that  he  is  the 
servant  of  the  Holy  God  not  onh'  in  His  love  but  also  in  His 
wrath. 

This  is  the  liturgical  use  of  colors  in  the  O.  T.  Church.  It 
has  the  Divine  authority,  but  there  is  none  for  its  symbolism. 
Yet  we  think  there  is  one  there  and  rightly  so,  whether  that  at- 
tempted is  fitting  or  not.  The  use  of  the  colors  mentioned  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  others,  their  definite  appointment,  cannot  be 
considered  as  other  than  pointed  and  full  of  meaning.  God 
authorizes,  and  man  does  no  wrong  to  seek  His  purpose  therein, 
if  that  purpose  is  to  illuminate  the  use  and  aid  in  the  under- 
standing thereof. 

The  present  use  has  much  in  common  with  the  old.     To  say 


8  MEMOIRS. 

it  is  traced  back  to  the  old  and  to  trace  it  are  two  very  different 
matters.  Some  writers  say  unqualifiedly  that  it  comes  direct 
and  that  there  is  excellent  authority  for  it.  These  are  in  almost 
every  case,  Romanists  and  the  authority,  "Tradition."  Others 
claim  that  with  the  development  of  some  of  the  Church's  dog- 
mas, primarily  those  of  the  '^Priesthood''  and  the  "'Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass''  the  entire  Cultus  had  to  be  developed  in  conformity  with 
it.  This  latter  is  the  better  position  and  more  can  be  said  in 
support  of  it.  For  when  he  who  ministers  becomes  priest,  then 
Sacrament  becomes  Sacrifice.  How  quickly  then  would  a  priest- 
ly dress  arise,  and  where  would  one  look  for  it  more  readily  than 
to  the  example  of  the  O.  T.  dress.*  This,  adapted  to  their  need 
but  feeling  the  effects  of  the  customs  in  their  time,  with  the  ad- 
ditions necessary  to  the  doctrine  of  the  N.  T.  Sacrifice,  would 
appeal  the  strongest.  Had  it  not  Divine  authority?  Was  it  not 
used  in  His  worship? 

Let  us  consider  first  what  may  be  said  for  the  former  view 
mentioned  above  in  the  light  of  this  development  in  the  Church, 
and  see  to  what  it  leads  us. 

The  tradition  is  that  some  of  the  Apostles  wore  parts  of  the 
High  Priest's  dress.  Eusebiusf  quotes  a  tradition  which  says 
St.  John  wore  "the  golden  mitre."  Epiphanius'l  bears  the  same 
testimony  for  St.  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord.  Valesius,  Bar- 
onius,§  Bona||  and  other  Romanists  accept  this  as  sufficient 
ground  for  their  conclusion.  The  Council  of  Trent^  adds  to  it 
its  authority.  There  are  many  excellent  evidences  that  the 
priests  wore  a  white  vestment*"'^  in  secret  during  the  Persecutions, 


*  Modern  scholars  do  not  consider  this;  but  this  use  is  the  legitimate  example, 
and  we  believe  was  considered,  even  though  the  fashion  of  the  day  made  itself 
directly  felt  in  the  form  the  garments  took. 

t  //tst.  Eccl.   Ill,  31. 

%  Epiphanius:   Haer.   LXXVII,  14. 

§  Analecta,  c.  34,    n.  39. 

II   Reruni  Liturgicarutn .     Lib.  I,   c.  xxiv.  H  Session   22.    c.  v. 

**  AuGUSTi:  Denkzvuerdigkeiten^  XI,  309,  where  references  may  be  found  to 
Gregory  Naz. ,  Athanasius,  Chrysostom,  Sozomen,  Jerome,  Gregory  of  Tours. 


LITURGICAL   COLORS.  9 

but  this  is  only  hinted  at,  due  to  the  "Secret  Discipline"* — and 
openlj'  as  soon  as  the  Church  was  left  in  peace.  It  is  said  of 
Constantine,  that  he  presented  "glorious"  vestments  to  various 
churches  for  use  at  the  Sacraments,  as  a  thank-offering.  A  ru- 
bric in  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Clementf  bids  the  Bishop  to  put  on  the 
"glorious  vestment"  at  the  kva^opa..  There  are  a  few  other 
scattering  references  to  priestly  dress  during  the  next  few  cen- 
turies, |  enough  to  lead  to  the  time  when  they  are  found  in  wide 
use  and  almost  completely  developed. 

There  is  sufficient  evidence  here  to  maintain  without  ques- 
tion that  there  was  a  distinct  priestly  official  dress,  and  that  it 
was  white;  but  that  other  colors  were  employed,  or  that  a  com- 
plete symbolism  was  connected  with  it,  cannot  be  shown. 

Through  these  centuries  comes  the  development  of  the  doc- 
trine of  Sacrifice,  and  as  it  develops  it  brings  many  things  with 
it.  The  Service — "the  Mass" — develops  with  it.  The  Church 
Year  side  by  side — until  the  Church  stands  forth  outfitted  with 
a  complete  system,  a  veritable  "machinery  of  worship."  The 
church  buildings,  their  furnishings,  those  of  the  Sanctuary  and 
of  those  that  minister  there,  all  grow  with  and  are  added  for  its 
sake.  It  is  then,  late  in  this  period  that  the  Mass  vestments  ap- 
pear in  almost  their  present  form,  suddenly  complete,  and  imme- 
diately considered  symbolic.      These  vestments  are  colored. 

The  Pseudo-Alcuin  is  the  first  to  mention  five  liturgical  col- 
ors; and  note  their  appointments. §  The  first  authorization  is 
found    with    Innocent    III    (  i  i98-i2i6).||      He   mentions   four: 

♦  AUGUSTl:    Denk.   VIII,   208. 

t  Neale  and  Lrni.EDAi.E:  The  I. its.  of  St.  Mk.,  St.  Jiis.,  etc.  3  ed.  '75. 
Daniel:   Cmtex  Lit.     Vol.   IV.     ./.  A'.  F.     Vol.  VII. 

X  A.  Krazer:  ite  l.iturg.  1786,  p.  278  sqq.  and  in  MSS  illuminated  by 
monks,  wherein  the  coloring  of  vestments  may  be  looked  upon  as  evidence,  as  well 
as  ancient  mosaics. 

§  Bintekim:  Denkwiierdigkeiten.  IV,  i.  p.  197.  Al.CUiN:  de  offic.  eccl. 
c.  de  vestibus  sacris. 

II  Innocent  III:  de  sacr.  Miss.  Lib.  I.  c.  65.  de  quatuor  iolorihus  prin- 
iipalibus,  quihus  secundum  proprietates  dierum  vestes  sunt  distingue ndic.     M.  S.  L. 


10  MEMOIRS. 

white,  scarlet,  black  and  green;  and  bases  the  use  o?i  Exodus  28: 
5  ff.  His  appointment  follows:  Color  albiis  tanqiiam  syniboliim 
candaris  vita;  et  castitatis — for  Feasts  of  Confessors  and  Virgins; 
color  riibeus — for  Feasts  of  Apostles  and  Martyrs;  color  viridis — 
for  Dominicales  and  Feast  Days;  color  niger — for  Fast  Days  and 
Masses  for  the  Dead.  Added  to  these  is  the  color  liturgictis  gtiin- 
tus:  violace2is,  which  at  his  time  was  used  only  twice  in  Ihe  year 
at  Rome:  Dominica  Lcetare  and  Festo  Innoceiitiiim.  This  use  is 
limited  to  Rome  and  the  sections  of  the  Church  where  her  direct 
influence  was  felt.  In  other  sections  while  there  is  a  use  the 
differences  are  marked.*  But  this  coming  from  the  Pope  served 
to  introduce  it  more  widely  and  make  the  use  approach  uniform- 
ity. The  next  century  finds  this  the  common  use,t  and  as  it  is 
found  developed  in  Durandus,  with  but  few  exceptions  it  is  found 
authorized  by  Pius  V  (i 566-1572)  in  the  General  Rubrics  of  the 
Missale  Romanum.X 

The  appointment  of  these  colors  and  their  symbolism  as 
found  in  Durandus  is  as  follows: 

The  four  principal  colors  are  white,  red,  black  and  green. 

White  is  used  on  the  Festivals  of  Virgins  who  are  not  mar- 
tyrs; and  of  angels;  on  all  the  Feasts  of  the  Virgin;  and  on  the 
Feast  of  All  Saints  (though  some  use  red  on  this  day).  White 
is  here  the  symbol  of  purity . 

On  the  Festivals  of  S.  John,  the  Evangelist;  of  the  Conver- 
sion of  Paul;  and  of  the  "Throne  of  Peter"  (reason  to  be  given 
later);  also  from  the  Vigils  of  the  Nativity  to  the  Octave  of  the 


217  p.  799.  The  other  Rom.  references  may  be  added  in  this  connection.  Ru- 
PERTUs:  de  div.  off.  ,Lib.  I.  Bonaventura:  de  explic.  Missa.  Walf.  Strabo; 
de  reb.  eccl.  c.  24.  Hugo  de  S.  Victore:  de  Sacram.  Lib.  II.  Parte  IV. 
Rabanus  Maurus:  de  ins/i/ul.  iieru-oru//t,  I.  SiCARD  OF  Cremona:  Mil.  II. 
c.  5.     M.   S.  L.    213.     p.  77. 

*   In  Gall,  Milan,  England.     Cf.  first  Table  in  RoLFE  as  above. 

t  W,M.  Durandus:  Ralwnale  div.  off.  Venice.  1589.  Lib.  III.  c.  xviii. 
De  i/miluor  coiorihcs,  quHnis  ecclesia  in  ecclesiasticis  iitiliir  indumentis.  p.  54  ff. 
The  "use"  hereafter  includes  the  other  paramer.ts  as  well. 

X  c.  xviii.      p.   xxxix.      Ed.  Mec/iiinia.      1880. 


LITURGICAL    COLORS.  11 

Epiphaii}'  inclusive,  intervening  Martyrs'  Days  excepted.  Rea- 
son: because  of  the  splendor  of  the  Star. 

At  the  Nativity  of  the  Saviour,  and  of  John  the  Baptist 
since  both  were  born  without  sin,  for  John  was  sanctified  in  the 
womb.      (!) 

On  the  Festival  Ccvna  Domini  because  of  the  consecration  of 
the  chrism  for  the  purification  of  the  soul. 

On  Dominicales  at  the  office  of  the  Mass  until  the  Octave  of 
the  Ascension  inclusive,  whenever  the  office  is  celebrated  de  tem- 
pore, except  on  Rogation  or  Martyrs'  Days. 

At  Easter  because  of  the  white  raiment  of  the  angel,  and  the 
white  robes  of  those  who  are  then  baptized. 

At  the  Ascension  because  of  the  whiteness  of  the  cloud 
which  received  Christ  and  the  white  apparel  of  the  angel. 

At  the  Consecration  of  a  Church,  on  whatever  day  it  comes, 
for  the  Church  is  the  Bride  of  Christ. 

Red  (scarlet)  is  to  be  used  on  the  Feasts  of  Apostles, 
Evangelists  and  Martyrs,  because  of  the  blood  which  they  shed. 

On  the  Feast  of  the  Invention  of  the  Cross,  in  memory  of 
the  Blood  of  Christ;  some  however,  prefer  to  use  white  on  this 
day. 

From  the  Vigils  of  Pentecost  to  the  following  Saturday  in- 
clusiv^e,  in  memorj^  of  the  fire  which  descended  on  the  Apostles. 

The  death  of  John  the  Baptist  is  celebrated  with  red. 

All  Saints'  Day  is  celebrated  with  red  as  it  was  instituted  in 
honor  of  the  Martyrs;  but  the  Roman  use  is  white  ("they  shall 
stand  clad  in  white  raiment"),  moreover,  Virgins  and  Confessors 
who  are  not  Martyrs  are  included  in  that  celebration. 

Black  is  to  be  used  on  Good  Friday — -feria  sexta  in  paras- 
ceve;  on  days  of  affliction  and  abstinence  on  account  of  sin;  and 
on  Rogation  Days;  at  penitential  processions  and  Masses  for  the 
Dead. 

From  Advent  to  the  Vigils  of  the  Nativit}''  and  from  Septua- 
gesima  to  the  Sabbato  magna. 


12  MEMOIRS. 

On  the  Feast  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  though  some  prefer 
red. 

Black  is  the  symbol  of  affliction  for  sin,  of  adversity,  of  sor- 
row and  death,  and  marks  deep  penitence. 

Green  is  to  be  used  on  feri a  and  common  days  and  especial- 
ly between  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany  and  Septuagesima  and 
between  Pentecost  and  Advent.  "P'or  green  is  between  white- 
ness and  blackness  and  redness." 

To  these  four  colors  others  are  related  as  violet  to  black. 
To  use  violet  on  days  when  black  is  to  be  used  is  not  improper. 
Hence  the  Roman  Church  uses  violet  from  I  Advent  to  the  Vig- 
ils of  the  Nativity  and  from  Septuagesima  to  the  Vigils  of  Easter 
(exclusive),  excepting  y^r/a  qiiinta  Ccena  Domi?ii  (white)  and 
feri  a  sexta  in  parasceve  (black). 

Another  Roman  use*  is  three  colors  on  the  altar  at  Easter. 
First,  black — removed  after  the  First  Lesson,  signifying  the  time 
before  the  Law;  second,  whitish  (^sitb  albiis),  removed  after  the 
Second  Lesson,  typic  of  the  time  under  the  Law;  third,  red,  re- 
moved after  the  Third  Lesson,  stands  for  the  reign  of  grace 
through  the  "Blood  of  Christ. 

The  above  includes  the  main  Roman  appointments  and  a 
symbolism  of  the  use  widely  accepted.  In  many  respects  it  is 
pointed  and  very  beautiful,  and  serves  its  purpose  in  lending  its 
share  to  the  complete  harmony  of  Office  and  Season  or  Feast. 
But  the  color  symbolism  does  not  stop  there.  It  is  pushed  into 
an  artificial  use  which  makes  it  well-nigh  valueless.  The  vest- 
ments and  other  paramentsf  have  their  own  peculiar  symbolism, 


*  DuRANDUS:  Jiat.   I.     c.  3.     p.   13. 

t  Bona:  Trart  Asceficus  de  Missa.  c.  V.  §  II.  p.  121.  Also  his  Rcr. 
Lit.  Lib.  I,  cxxiv.  p.  280  ff.  opp.  Antwerp.  1694.  Cf.  Collects  to  be  said 
when  vestments,  etc.  are  assumed.  Miss.  Rom.  Ixxvi  ff.  Bona  concludes  his 
chapter  De  sacris  veslis  et  earum  significatione  thus:  Sicut  atdem  casula  in  duas 
partes  dividitttr,  ita  charitas  duplex  est,  erga  Detini  et projcimum:  et  sicut  ilia  vari- 
as  exigit  colores,  juxta  icviporis  avt  festivitatis  diversitatem,  ita  haec  varias  affectus, 
nunc  latitice  ob  Dei  magnolia,  nunc  gratitudinis  ob  ejus  beneficia,  nunc  fortitudinis 
in  adversis,  nunc  tristiticE  ob propria  et  aliena peccata."     opp.     p.     12I. 


LITURGICAL   COLORS.  13 

some  very  beautiful,  some  very  artificial;  and  then  the  colored 
vestment,  etc.  is  provided  with  one  as  well.  It  is  in  such  a  com- 
plexity* that  all  the  beauty  of  the  simple  symbolism  is  lost  and 
the  result  proves  its  uselessness  to  the  original  purpose.  That, 
we  take  it,  was  to  aid  both  priest  and  worshiper  to  gain  the  most 
good  out  of  the  great  harmonious,  beautiful  Office.  Through 
the  Church  Year  trying  to  make  vivid  the  Great  Things  in  her 
history,  of  Christ  and  His  work,  and  to  aid,  appointing  a  color 
which  with  its  simple  and  effective  meaning,  would  always  bring 
home  through  eye  and  thought  some  event  or  teaching;  through 
the  Church  Year  reflected  in  every  Office,  and  the  Office  itself 
lending  its  share,  in  ministrant  garbed  in  vestment  of  the  Season 
— or  Feast — color,  serving  before  the  altar  whereon  or  about 
which  it  showed  again — could  one  help  but  see  the  purpose? 

The  simple  use  is  the  proper  and  legitimate  use,  nothing  can 
be  said  against  it.  Years  of  use  have  given  it  sanction  sufficient 
to  remain  untouched  to-day.  Nor  is  there  need  to  prove  its 
growth  from  pre-Christian  times  to  make  it  valid.  If  it  sub- 
serves a  good  purpose  and  is  in  harmony  with  the  Church's  faith 
and  doctrine,  then  let  it  be  u.sed. 

Much  is  urged  against  the  use  of  these  colors  in  the  IvUther- 
an  Church;  some, would  keep  but  one  or  two.  Their  scheme  is 
"foreign."  Their  purpose  of  "little  value."  Their  use  "over- 
drawn." "We  have  no  scheme  of  priestly  garb."  But  the  garb 
and  the  colors  are  ours  as  much  as  the  Liturgy  and  the  altar  and 
the  antependia  which  hang  before  it!  One  could  make  an  excel- 
lent plea  merely  from  an  artistic  standpoint,  but  a  stronger  ar- 
gument the  Church  lives  every  year.  It  is  her  Church  Year. 
There  is  nothing  that  lends  itself  to  marking  the  various  Seasons 
and  Feasts  in  the  Year  so  vividly  as  the  changing  colors.  The 
spirit  of  the  Day  or  Time  may  make  itself  felt  in  the  Variables 


*  During  the  Middle  Ages  "symbolism"  runs  riot  in  the  Church,  in  every 
sphere.  Cf.  Jos.  SaukR:  Symholik  d.  Kirchengebatides  and  seiner  Ausstattung  in 
der  Attffassung  des  Millelalters.     Freiburg.      1902. 


14  MEMOIRS. 

and  other  parts  of  the  Service;  but  there  is  the  Day's  and  Sea- 
son's color  ivith  its  meaning.  The  eye  beholds  and  instantly  the 
mind  is  working.     What  is  the  result?     Is  it  helpful  or  valueless? 

From  an  evangelical  standpoint,  this  meaning  has  been  sum- 
marized by  Meurer  very  pointedly.  He  v^^rites:*  "White,  the 
pure  brilliant  white,  'the  unbroken  light,'  'the  color  of  angels 
and  saints'  as  Luther  calls  it,  is  certainly  the  chief  Festival  Col- 
or, if  one  dare  name  it  color. 

"In  Red,  that  majestic  color,  the  color  of  fire  and  blood,  the 
Bride  of  Christ,  the  Church — which  was  founded  through  the 
Baptism  of  Fire  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  preserves  the  testimony 
of  so  many  precious  blood-witnesses  and  followers  of  the  Lamb 
Who  was  slain — clothes  herself  rightly  on  her  highest  Feast 
Days. 

"Green  is  the  most  common  and  widely  diffused  color,  the 
every  day  garb  of  the  earth,  the  color  which  the  eye  is  able  to 
stand  in  great  masses  without  being  tired  or  blinded  thereby  and 
which  always  has  something  fresh  about  it.  It  will  therefore 
lend  itself — as  a  complete  contrast  to  the  red, — as  the  best  color 
for  the  Church's  common  Seasons. 

"Violet  is  a  solemn  earnest  color  and  is  especially  appro- 
priate for  the  times  of  preparation. 

Concerning  Black  there  is  need  for  little  comment.  It  is 
the  negative  to  light,  the  other  pole  of  the  color  scale.  It  is  ac- 
cepted as  the  universal  symbol  of  the  deepest  sorrow  and  humil- 
ity." 

The  appointments  proper  to  the  Lutheran  Church. 

White: — Festival  of  the  Nativity  and  throughout  the 
Christmas  Cycle  to  and  inclusive  of  the  Festival 
of  the  Epiphany,  and  the  Sunday  which  falls  in 
its  Octave. 

Festival  of  Easter,  its  Octave,  Quasimodogeniti 


*  Meurer:  Aliarschmuck.     p.   52. 


LITURGICAL   COLORS.  15 

and  the  Easter  Cycle  inclusive  of  the  Feast  of 
the   Ascension    and   the   Sunday   after,   Exaudi. 

All  Festivals  of  the  Virgin  which  are  retained. 
Red  (Scarlet): — Feast   of   Pentecost,   and   its  Octave, 
Feast  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 

Festival  of  the  Reformation. 

Festivals  of  Apostles,  St.  Michael's  Day,  Feast 
of  All  Saints.* 

At  the  Dedication  of  a  Church. 

A  Day  of  General  Thanksgiving,  and  Festival 
of  Harvest. 
Green: — The  Epiphany  Season  exclusive  of  the  Festival 
and  its  Octave,  and  the  Trinity  Season  exclusive 
of    the   Festival  of   the   Holy   Trinity,   and  any 
Apostles'  or  other  Days  otherwise  appointed. 
Purple: — The  lempora  clausa,  Advent  and  the  Passion- 
tide  beginning  with  Septuagesima  and  continuing 
through  the  Saturday  in  Holy  Week,  excepting 
Holy  Friday. 
Black: — Holy  Friday. f    Days  of  Humiliation  and  Prayer; 
and  the  "Festival  of  the  Commemoration  of  the 
Dead"  (Todtenfest)  if  observed,  t 

'A  complete  "Table  of  Appointments"  is  hard  to  find.  The 
writer  has  compared  some  which  are  quite  full  but  which  do  not 
agree  in  all  respects  with  each  other,  nor  with  the  above.  This 
is  based  upon  those  existing  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  If 
a  use  was  found  to  be  pure  it  was  retained,  if  not  the  attempt 
was  made  to  make  it  so. 

As  the  Centre  of  all  the  Church's  Life  is  Christ,  so  is  the 


*  White  would  not  be  an  inappropriate  use;  for  reason  see  above  under 
"white,"  p.  6  and  note  "t". 

t  Some  appoint  this  for  the  enlire  Holy  Week. — Meurer. 

X  This  "Festival"  is  of  German  origin  and  widely  observed  in  the  German 
Churches. 


16  MEMOIRS. 

Centre  of  the  Church's  Year,  His  Life  and  Work,  and  That  in 
Its  humility  and  exaltation  is  reflected  in  her  days.  For  the 
humility,  she  takes  the  color  of  royalty  to  express  the  majestic 
lowliness  of  That  Life  for  It  is  not  a  common  life  of  humility 
and  martyrdom,  but  That  of  the  Royal  Son  of  God;  and  when 
the  deepest  hour  is  reached  and  the  Cross  is  raised,  as  the  earth- 
ly sun  is  darkened  and  awe  and  fear  reign  when  He  gives  up  the 
ghost,  so  too  she  takes  that  color  for  her  symbol.  It  shrouds  the 
Church,  it  shrouds  the  heart  in  memory  of  that  awful  Day.  It 
is  pointed  that  she  uses  this  color  but  one  day  in  all  her  Year; 
and  as  it  passes  quickly  from  the  eye  to  give  place  to  its  opposite, 
so  too  that  awful  thought  is  lost  in  the  wonder  and  glory  of  the 
Resurrection. 

For  the  days  that  tell  of  herself  and  her  own  faithful  and 
martyred  ones,  she  takes  the  color  symbol,  of  her  birth,  of  her 
ardent  service,  of  the  blood-giving  of  her  children. 

For  her  quiet  days  she  takes  the  green — ever  fresh,  ever 
bright,  to  pass  through  her  long  Seasons  as  she  gives  the  Word 
though  so  often  heard,  but  always  holding  something  new  for 
those  who  journey  with  her,  through  the  quiet,  refreshing,  ever 
green  pastures  of  the  Word. 

There  is  no  complete  satisfactory  treatment  of  the  subject  of 
Liturgical  Colors,  their  history,  use  and  symbolism,  to  the  wri- 
ter's knowledge;  and  the  working  out  of  this  paper  has  been  a 
matter  of  going  through  many  things,  in  many  cases  in  vain, 
hunting  for  threads  of  testimony  with  the  purpose,  to  gather  the 
accurate  and  let  them  speak  for  themselves.  The  treatment  is 
far  from  thorough  and  complete;  but  if  some  hints  have  been 
contributed  which  will  show  the  value,  beauty  and  usefulness  of 
the  Use,  then  the  purpose  will  be  accomplished. 

Liturgical  colors — and  one  cannot  speak  of  colors  as  "litur- 
gical' '  without  meaning  they  are  symbolic* — are  and  always  will 
*  They  never  were  simply  a  scheme  of  colors. 


I 


LITURGICAL    COLORS.  17 

be  classed  as  adiaphora.  But  as  we  have  sought  and  claim  to 
have  the  pure  and  true  in  the  Essentials,  and  seek  to  make  them 
what  the  Church  has  alwaj^s  thought  them,  a  grand  harmony 
illuminated  hy  its  every  part;  then  we  dare  not  neglect  a  part 
which  adds  its  .share  thereto.  We  would  say  unhesitatingly  if 
Liturgical  Colors  could  be  shown  to  be  useless  to,  and  of  no 
value  in,  the  Church's  Cultus,  that  the}'  should  not  have  a  mo- 
ment's thought.  On  the  other  hand  if  they  are  of  value  should 
they  be  slightingly  passed  over  or  altogether  ignored? 

How  helpful  to  the  worshiper  when,  on  entering  the  Church, 
say  on  S.  Paul's  Day,  he  sees  Altar  and  Pulpit  decked  with  the 
scarlet  hangings  embroidered  with  the  ancient  symbols  of  the 
Deity.  They  draw  and  hold  his  eye  and  soon  he  thinks  of  S. 
Paul,  Apostle — Martyr — Apostle  working  with  never  wavering 
love  and  devotion  for  the  Lord  Whom  he  had  been  granted  to 
know;  and  Martyr  finally  bearing  last  witness  for  His  cause  and 
to  his  fervent  love  for  it  in  giving. his  blood.  There  hangs  the 
color  that  wakens  that  thought — the  color  of  fire,  the  glowing 
tongues  of  the  Spirit,  through  Whose  coming  the  soul  is  wak- 
ened— the  color  of  love,  which  is  shown  in  the  consecrated  ser- 
vice— the  color  of  blood  with  which  that  service  is  sealed.  And 
should  there  be  a  "Cross  and  Crown"  embroidered  upon  the 
Frontal,  would  it  be  useless  or  add  another  word?  Rather  the 
latter — for  there  is  shown  the  life  of  loving  service  accomplished 
only  'mid  trial  and  temptation,  finally  receiving  the  reward  the 
crown  that  fadeth  not  away.  Does  it  all  not  make  us  think  of 
these  great  Examples  and  serve  to  urge  us,  mutely,  to  make  our 
love  and  service  as  glowing  and  faithful? 

Or  let  it  be  the  Feast  of  the  Nativity;  and  white  is  every- 
where. White  the  peculiar  color  of  the  Deit}-,  white  the  symbol 
of  light  and  glory  and  victory.  We  hear  a  Babe  is  born  in  such 
lowly  surroundings.  We  hear  the  Prophecies.  We  hear  the 
Angel  speak  to  Mary.     But  here  we  see  a  Little  One  like  all  oth- 


18  MEMOIRS. 

ers;  but  while  we  look  we  hear  the  Angels  of  God  singing  their 
message,  and  we  know  Who  has  come  and  why.  There  then 
everywhere  before  us  is  the  color  of  purest  joy,  of  victory  fore- 
shadowed, of  the  Blessed  God  and  His  light  and  glory  revealed 
in  That  Babe,  mutely  urging  us  to  make  our  hearts  pure  and 
true  for,  and  fill  ourselves  with  this  joy  in,  the  coming  of  the 
Holy  One. 

Paul  Zeller  Stkodach. 

Easton,  Pa. 


In  addition  to  the  works  referred  to  in  the  Notes  the  subject 
may  be  found  dealt  with  in  the  following:  — 

(With  those  marked  *  the  writer  is  not  acquainted): 

RiETSCHEL:  Lehrbuch  d.  Liturgik.     I.      150  fT. 

Jakob:  D.  Kunst  im  Dienst  d.  Kirche.     p.  348  ff. 

Buerkner:  Kirchenschmuck  u.  Kircheiigeraet.     p.  81. 

Braun:  Zur  Symbolik  d.  Lit.  Farben.^^ 

Marriott:    Vest.  Christianoriun.     p.  175-186. 

Walcott:  Sacred  Archcsology.'^ 

RoHAULT  DE  Fleury:  La  Messe.     VHI.     25  ff.* 

Otte:  Hattdbuc/i  d.  Kirche.  Kunstarchceologie  d.  deutsch. 
Mittelalters.     I.      272  ff.* 

Thalhofer:  Handbtcc/i  d.  Kath.  Lit.     I.     911  ff. 

Fluck:  Kath.  Lit. 

Portions  of  Durandus'  Raiio7iale  are  found  in  English  trans- 
lated by: 

Neale  and  Webb:  The  Symbolism  of  Churches  and  Church 
Ornameyits  which  is  a  translation  of  Book  I. 

Passmore:  Sacred  Vestments.      (Bk.  III.) 

Articles  in  Smith  and  Cheethams:  Diet.  Christia?i  An- 
tiquities. 


CONSECRATION. 


The  Lutheran  Church  occupies  a  peculiar  position  on  ecclesio- 
logical  questions.  On  the  one  hand  she  retains  many  of  the  cus- 
toms of  the  past  and  is  altogether  favorable  to  the  historical  and 
aesthetic  point  of  view.  On  the  other  hand  she  sets  her  face 
against  every  custom  that  is  doctrinally  questionable. 

'I  have  been  led  to  this  remark  by  observing  the  frequent  re- 
currence of  the  word  Consecration  in  our  ecclesiastical  vocabula- 
ry. We  read  of  the  consecration  of  churches,  the  consecration 
of  bells  and  even  of  the  consecration  of  deaconesses.  In  the  case 
of  deaconesses  it  follows  that  if  they  are  consecrated,  the  rest  of 
the  women  in  the  Church  are  not  consecrated.  Or,  as  the  Ro- 
manists put  it,  some  are  religious  and  the  rest  are  secular.  The 
act  of  "consecration"  lifts  the  former  into  a  different  class.  If 
it  does  not,  the  word  is  a  misnomer.  I  have  not  yet  heard  the 
term  used  with  us  in  connection  with  the  appointment  of  men  to 
the  office  of  the  ministry,  but  there  is  no  telling  when  we  shall 
read  that  so  and  so  many  men  have  been  "consecrated." 

Has  the  word  a  legitimate  place  in  the  Lutheran  Liturgy? 
I  hesitate  to  make  a  dogmatic  assertion.  I  would  rather  invite  a 
discussion  of  the  question  and  thus  bring  out  the  reasons  in  favor 
of  its  use.  Perhaps  as  an  advocatus  diaboli,  I  may  provoke  the 
friends  of  the  term  to  defend  the  usage.  In  the  imperfection  of 
language  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  find  the  right  word  for  an 
idea,  and  words  have  often  lost  their  first  meaning.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  words  are  things  and  help  to  make  ideas.  It  has 
happened  before  this  that  one  generation  played  with  an  expres- 

(xix) 


20  MEMOIRS. 

sion  which  a  subsequent  generation  changed  into  a  dogma.  His- 
tory makes  words,  but  words  also  make  history. 

Etymology  is  sometimes  helpful  in  a  search  of  this  kind,  but 
in  the  present  investigation  it  has  proved  of  only  secondary  val- 
ue. The  word,  being  such  a  good  one,  was  early  applied  to  ille- 
gitimate uses,  and  was  frequently  confounded  with  other  words 
of  similar  import. 

According  to  Harper's  L,atin  Dictionary,  co7isecrare^  some- 
times written  consacrare,  in  classic  usage  meant  to  devote  some- 
thing as  sacred  to  a  deity.  Used  in  connection  with  persons  it 
meant  "to  elevate  to  the  rank  of  deity,  to  place  among  the  gods." 
But  when  we  turn  to  dedicare  we  find  it  has  practically  the  same 
meaning,  "to  set  apart  a  thing  to  a  deity."  Temples  and  places 
were  dedicated.  But  there  is  still  another  word  that  must  be 
reckoned  with,  benedicere,  which  meant  to  consecrate  or  hallow. 
In  the  Vulgate,  kadash,  Genesis  2,  3  is  translated  benedixit. 

In  ecclesiastical  usage  the  words  consecrare,  dedicare,  benedic- 
ere  come  into  frequent  contact,  but  the  distinctions  are  not  always 
sharp  or  permanent.  DuFresne's  Glossary'^  gives  the  following 
definitions: 

A  bishop  dedicates  a  hall,  temple,  altar.  That  is  he  presents 
the  place  to  God,  blesses  and  sanctifies  it. 

A  bishop  cojisecrates  the  vessels  of  the  church,  the  chrism, 
oil,  incense,  etc.  He  consecrates  those  things  which  are  thus 
separated  from  a  common  to  a  sacred  use. 

When  the  grace  of  God  is  invoked  on  persons  and  on  a  re- 
ligious use  of  things,  the  benediction  is  pronounced.  It  is  per- 
formed with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
imposition  of  hands,  ointment,  holy  water,  incense,  etc.,  with  the 
use  of  the  prescribed  forms  contained  in  the  Benedictionals  of  the 
Roman  Church.  Some  of  these  benedictions  are  pronounced  by 
bishops  only,  others  by  any  ordinary  minister. f 


*  Cf.  Wkkzog^?,  Real  Encyclopadie.      2d  Ed.     s.  v.     Benediktionen. 

t  AuGUSTi,  Denkwuerdigkeiten,  Vol.  X,  p.   170,  refers  to  J.   H.    BOEHMER, 


CONSECRATION.  21 

These  definitions  indicate  the  chief  differences,  but  they  are 
not  beyond  question  and  are  sometimes  confounded.  One  cannot 
help  noticing  however  that  the  tendency  among  modern  ritualists 
is  to  make  Consecrations  of  many  acts  that  were  formerly  Bene- 
dictions. 

A  better  source  of  information  than  Etymology  is  Church 
History  and  History  of  Doctrines.  In  the  Old  Testament  both 
men  and  things  were  consecrated  or  dedicated,  that  is,  set  apart 
for  the  service  of  God.  In  the  New  Testament  all  Christians  are 
dedicated  to  God's  service.  "Ye  are  a  holy  priesthood,  a  pecul- 
iar people."  As  to  persons,  when  a  man  becomes  a  minister  he 
enters  an  office,  but  is  not  thereby  lifted  into  a  new  order.  The 
conceptions  of  sacerdotalism  are  a  later  development.  Likewise 
of  later  origin  was  the  practice  of  consecrating  things  such  as 
churches,  cemeteries  or  vasa  sacra.  It  seems  to  have  been  sug- 
gested b}'  the  Manichsean  doctrine  of  evil.  But  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament things  in  themselves  are  not  evil.  According  to  i  Timo- 
th}'  4,  "Every  creature  of  God  is  good,"  but  our  use  of  it  may 
be  evil.  Hence  it  is  a  Christian  duty  to  make  a  right  use  of 
things,  which  is  possible  through  the  Word  of  God  and  prayer. 
When  a  blessing  is  asked  at  table,  the  food  is  not  consecrated  or 
made  any  better,  but  our  use  of  the  food  is  consecrated. 

The  necessity  of  consecrating  men  and  things  seems  to  have 
been  suggested  still  further  by  the  teaching  which  prevailed  in 
regard  to  the  Mass.  At  first  the  Lord's  Supper  was  the  Com- 
mon Service.  But  in  the  days  of  Cyprian,  the  Common  Service 
began  to  give  place  to  the  Sacrifice  offered  by  the  minister  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  grace  and  favor  of  God.  It  was  about 
this  time  that  men  began  to  speak  about  the  consecration  of  the 
elements,  bread  and  wine.  In  the  East  the  moment  of  conse- 
cration or  transubstantiation  was  in  the  so-called  Epiclesis  or 
invocation   of    the    Holy   Ghost.     In    the   Western   Church    the 


Jus  eccles.  Protest. ,  as  giving  a  definition  of  these  three  words.      Who  can  find  this 
book? 


22  MEMOIRS. 

change  was  regarded  as  taking  place  in  the  use  of    the  verba. 

When  once  the  idea  of  the  consecration  of  the  elements  was 
thoroughly  fixed  in  the  mind,  it  became  easy  to  transfer  the 
thought  of  consecration  to  other  objects.  Benediction  and  con- 
secration came  to  mean  the  same  thing  in  the  minds  of  the  peo- 
ple. By  parity  of  reasoning  it  was  held  that  what  consecration 
did  for  the  elements  of  the  Mass,  benediction  or  dedication  or 
consecration,  for  these  terms  began  to  be  loosely  defined,  would 
do  for  persons  and  things.  Miraculous  powers  were  conferred 
by  this  act.  Consecrations  were  multiplied.  At  first  only  bish- 
ops were  consecrated.  Then  everybody  and  everything.  Our 
modern  consecrators  seem  to  have  caught  the  spirit  of  the  third 
century. 

Where  the  doctrine  of  the  consecration  of  persons  is  held, 
there  follows  easily  the  doctrine  of  Apostolical  Succession.  Min- 
isterial authority  is  conferred  by  tactual  transmission.  The 
bishop,  by  manual  imposition,  transmits  to  the  candidate  a  char- 
acter indelebilis.  The  Anglicans  accepted  this  doctrine,  and  it  is 
one  of  the  chief  grounds  for  their  ecclesiastical  claims,  and  for 
spelling  their  church  with  a  capital  C.  Their  Prayer  Book  has  a 
form  for  the  Consecration  of  Bishops. 

The  Methodists,  as  children  of  the  Anglicans,  inherited  the 
verbiage  and  forms  of  the  Prayer  Book  and  they  too  have  a  form 
for  the  Consecration  of  Bishops,  although  when  they  make  mere 
minor  ministers  they  use  another  word. 

The  lyUtheran  teaching  on  Ordination  does  not  endorse  this 
position,  although  the  ideas  which  underly  this  development  are 
widely  spread,  and  it  is  diflBcult  to  purge  out  the  old  Roman 
leaven.  Even  among  us  the  idea  prevails  "once  a  minister,  al- 
ways a  minister,"  and  men  who  have  long  since  demitted  the 
ministry  and  entered  into  other  employments  are  still  looked  up- 
on as  members  of  the  sacred  order. 

CONSECRATION    OF    CHURCHES. 

The  earliest  account  of  a  church  dedication  is  given  by  Sozo- 


CONSECRATION.  23 

menus.*  In  the  year  335  Constantine  caused  the  Church  of  the 
Martyrs  to  be  built  at  Jerusalem.  A  Synod  being  in  session  at 
Tyre,  he  invited  all  the  bishops  to  come  over  to  Jerusalem,  and 
the  church  was  dedicated  with  great  pomp.  The  Church  contin- 
ued to  celebrate  the  anniversaries  of  this  occasion.  This  was  the 
origin  of  the  church-dedication  anniversaries  which  became  popu- 
lar both  in  the  East  and  the  West.  Ambrose  made  much  of 
church  dedications,  birt  with  him  the  church  is  holy  because  it  is 
the  place  where  the  Sacrifice  is  made.f 

The  Ritiiale  Romaniim  places  the  dedication  of  churches  un- 
der the  head  of  Benedictions.  The  Anglican  books  call  the  act  a 
Consecration.     The  Methodists  call  it  a  Dedication. 

Lutherans  repudiate  the  idea  of  a  special  sanctity  of  church- 
es. They  deny  that  they  are  more  holy  than  any  other  space  on 
earth.  They  deny  that  there  is  a  special  Divine  presence  in  the 
consecrated  building,  revealing  itself  there  more  than  in  any  oth- 
er place. J 

The  Roman  thought  of  the  consecration  of  a  church,  was 
that  God  and  His  manifestations  were  in  a  special  manner  con- 
nected with  the  church.  With  such  a  conception  the  Lutheran 
Church  was  compelled  to  take  issue  and  did  so  in  the  last  of  the 
Smalcald  Articles. §  "There  remain  the  papal  juggleries  connect- 
ed with  such  foolish  and  puerile  things  as  church  dedications, 


•  Cf.  Kliefoth,  Lit.  Ahh.,  2,  Vol.  II,  p.   116. 

t  Ibid.  p.   237. 

X  It  is  not  an  easy  task  for  the  writer  to  say  these  words.  Our  people  are  not 
in  special  need  of  them.  They  are  not  manifesting  too  great  a  spirit  of  reverence  in 
their  churches.  The  way  in  which  many  of  them  enter  the  church,  and  the  way  in 
which  many  of  ihem  conduct  themselves  in  the  church  does  not  indicate  a  pressing 
necessity  for  this  doctrine.  Personally  I  wish  that  I  could  take  a  different  position, 
and  impress  upon  ministers  and  young  people  a  doctrine  of  the  sanctity  of  the  Lord's 
house  which  would  prepare  them  for  a  more  worthy  participation  in  the  Services  of 
His  house.  But  it  is  better  to  tell  the  truth,  even  though  some  may  wrest  it  to  their 
own  destruction.  It  is  a  duty  to  be  reverent  in  the  house  of  God,  hut  the  duty  must 
be  enforced  by  other  considerations  than  the  sanctity  of  the  building. 

§  Cf.  K.  A.  4,   152. 


24  MEMOIRS. 

baptism  of  bells,  etc."  (What  would  Luther  say  of  the  baptism 
of  ships,  if  he  lived  in  our  day?) 

The  early  Lutheran  Agenda  therefore  contained  no  forms 
for  church  dedications.  (Perhaps  also  because  there  were  no 
churches  to  dedicate.)  But  in  the  year  1546  Luther  himself 
dedicated  a  church.  He  commenced  the  Service  with  the  follow- 
ing address: 

"My  dear  friends,  we  are  now  about  to  bless  this  house  and 
dedicate  it  to  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  This  duty  devolves  not 
only  upon  me  but  you  also  are  to  take  hold  of  the  sprinicler  and 
cen.ser  so  that  this  house  may  be  consecrated,  to  the  end  that 
nothing  else  may  take  place  here  than  that  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
may  speak  in  it  through  His  holy  Word  and  we  on  the  other 
hand  may  speak  with  Him  through  prayer  and  hymns  of  praise. 
Therefore,  that  it  may  be  properly  blessed  and  consecrated  in  a 
Christian  manner,  not  like  the  churches  of  the  papists  with  their 

bishops'  chrism  and  incense, let  us  pray."     After  the 

prayer  he  preached  a  sermon  from  Luke  14,  i-ii,  on  the  proper 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Day,  and  closed  with  these  words: 
"Enough  has  now  been  said  from  the  Gospel  on  the  subject  of 
the  dedication  of  this  house.  And  now  dear  friends,  since  you 
have  helped  to  sprinkle  it  with  the  real  holy  water  of  God's 
Word,  take  hold  of  the  censer,  that  is  prayer,  and  let  us  call  up- 
on God  and  pray  first  for  His  Holy  Church,  that  He  may  con- 
tinue to  us  His  Holy  Word  and  spread  it  abroad  everywhere,  and 
that  this  house  which  has  now  been  dedicated  may  be  kept  pure 
through  the  sanctification  of  God's  Word,  that  it  may  not  be 
desecrated  by  the  devil  or  made  unclean  by  his  lies  and  false 
teaching "     And  this  was  the  dedication. 

Church  dedications  in  Saxony  at  the  beginning  of  the  i8th 
century  are  thus  described  by  Gerber:  "The  procession  started 
from  the  parsonage  or  from  the  old  church,  went  around  the  new 
church  and  entered  it  with  the  singing  of  a  hymn.  The  school 
children  walked  in   front  followed  b}'  the  ministers  carrying  the 


CONSECRATION.  25 

vessels  and  the  books.  Then  came  the  congregation  walking 
two  and  two.  The  Service  in  the  church  was  held  in  the  usual 
manner  with  Psalm  84,  Psalm  87,  Psalm  132:  8,  9,  or  other  suit- 
able passages  as  lessons,  and  an  appropriate  sermon  and  prayers.* 

With  reference  to  the  dedication  of  bells,  pulpits,  organs,  al- 
tars, fonts  and  cemeteries,  the  same  principles  governed  the  Lu- 
therans as  in  the  dedication  of  churches.  Whenever  such  objects 
were  dedicated,  the  service  consisted  in  their  public  presentation 
and  use,  and  in  supplicating  the  blessing  of  God  upon  their  use 
and  upon  those  who  should  use  them.  This  was  a  very  different 
thing  from  the  Roman  practice  of  consecrating  these  articles  in 
the  Mass,  for  the  purpose  of  communicating  to  them  some  spirit- 
ual efhcacy. 

But  Lutherans  were  not  content  with  simply  criticising  an- 
cient usage.  They  maintained  the  positive  principle  which 
should  govern  the  Christian  in  his  use  of  God's  creatures  as  laid 
down  in  i  Timothy  4.  The  creature  did  not  need  any  sanctifica- 
tion  to  accomplish  the  object  for  which  God  had  created  it.  But 
men  needed  sanctification  and  this  could  be  attained  only  by  the 
Word  of  God  and  by  prayer.  And  men  needed  it  not  only  for 
some  things  but  for  the  whole  life.  Not  the  thing  but  the  use  of 
the  thing  is  to  be  sanctified. f 

Abraham  Lincoln  was  not  a  liturgist,  but  in  his  Gettysburg 
speech  he  seems  to  have  come  very  close  to  the  Lutheran  concep- 
tion of  consecration: 

"We  have  come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field.  .  .  .  But 
in  a  larger  sense  we  cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we 
cannot  hallow  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead, 
who  struggled  here,  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  poor  power 
to  add  or  detract.  .    .    .  It  is  for  us  the  living  rather  to  be  dedi- 


•  K.  A.  4,  153. 

t  Discussions  of  the  Lutheran  position  on  this  subject  are  to  he  found  in  the 
IJrunswick  KO  of  1531,  Bugenhagen's,  and  in  the  Corpus  Doctrincc  oi  the  Bruns- 
wick-Wolfenbuettel  KO  of  1569,  composed  by  Chemnitz. 


26  MEMOIRS. 

cated  here  to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here 
have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  here  to  be 
dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us." 

With  the  recognition  of  this  principle  that  it  is  not  the  thing 
which  is  to  be  consecrated  but  that  we  are  to  be  consecrated  and 
that  our  use  of  the  thing  is  to  be  consecrated,  we  gladly  accept 
every  service  in  which  persons  or  things  are  devoted  to  the  ser- 
vice of  God.  But  our  consecration  will  be  larger  and  more  free. 
We  shall  ask  a  blessing  over  a  good  book  as  well  as  over  a  meal. 
The  humble  widow  who  in  the  fear  of  God  supports  her  family 
at  the  wash-tub  is  as  truly  consecrated  as  the  sister  who  wears  a 
garb,  and  the  "man  with  the  hoe"  stands  on  the  same  plane  as 
the  consecrated  bishop. 

I  would  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  desirous  of  doing  away 
with  any  of  the  beautiful  services  in  which  the  Church  sets  apart 
earthly  objects  for  sacred  use.  On  the  contrary,  I  would  gladly 
see  them  multiplied.  But  such  a  service  is  not  a  consecration  in 
the  historical  significance  and  in  the  popular  conception  of  the 
term.  It  is  an  offering  to  God,  and  a  prayer  for  a  sanctified  use 
of  that  which  has  been  offered.  I  would  therefore  venture  to 
hope  that  some  other  word  might  be  substituted  for  consecration. 
For  places  and  things,  would  dedication  be  better?  For  persons 
I  am  not  prepared  to  suggest  a  substitute.  As  I  stated  in  the 
beginning,  my  purpose  is  to  awaken  discussion  and  not  to  affirm 
a  dogmatic  certainty. 

George  U.  Wenner. 
New   York. 


THE   LITURGICAL  USE   OF   THE   CREEDS. 


It  is,  perhaps,  a  mere  coincidence  that  the  Oecumenical  Creeds, 
which  are  Trinitarian  in  character,  should  be  three  in  number, — 
the  Nicene,  which  was  adopted  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea,  325  A, 
D.;  the  Apostles',  whose  latest  clause  was  added  650  A.  D.;  and 
the  Athayiasian,  which  originated  in  its  earliest  form  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  and  gained  its  present  form  about  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century. 

.  In  the  Communion  Service,  the  Nicene  or  the  Apostles' 
Creed  is  used  at  the  Morning  Service,  according  as  there  is  or  is 
not  a  Communion.  No  Creed  is  recited  at  the  Vesper  and  Matin 
Services.  The  Apostles'  Creed  is  found  in  several  of  the  Orders 
for  Ministerial  Acts.  The  Athanasian  Creed  appears  at  some 
place  in  the  Service- Book,  but  it  nowhere  forms  a  part  of  the 
public  worship.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  public  worship 
reaches  its  highest  point  in  the  Communion  Service  and  that  in 
this  Service  the  Nicene  Creed  alone  is  employed,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  relative  value  set  upon  the  Creeds,  in  their  Liturgical 
Use  corresponds  to  their  historical  order  (in  their  definitive 
form) — the  Nicene,  the  Apostles',  and  the  Athanasian, 

I.      THE    NICENE    CREED. 

As  has  just  been  said,  this  Creed  is  the  Communion  Confes- 
sion and  is  recited  whenever  the  Communion  is  administered. 
Its  use  in  the  Service  began  at  an  early  date.  Already  in  488  A. 
D.,  Peter  the  Fuller,  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  directed  that  it  should 
be  recited  at  every  gathering  of  a  congregation,  and  a  similar 

(xxvii) 


28  MEMOIRS. 

direction  was  given  by  Timotheus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
511  A.  D.  From  the  East  this  use  gradually  spread  to  the  West, 
entering  Europe  by  way  of  Spain,  589  A.  D.  "Thence  it  came, 
with  the  addition  of  the  filioqiie  in  the  Third  Article,  to  France 
and  Germany  under  Charlemagne.  .  .  .  Finally,  it  was  accepted 
by  Rome  under  Benedict  VIII,  in  the  year  1014.  Luther  rightly 
kept  it,  and  in  1524  gave  it  to  the  people  in  versified  form,  to  be 
sung  by  them  after  the  minister  had  introduced  the  first  line."* 

II.      THE   apostles'    CREED. 

As  the  Nicene  properly  belongs  to  the  Communion  Service, 
so  the  Apostles'  properly  belongs  to  the  Baptismal  Service  and 
the  subordinate  weekly  and  daily  services,  the  two  Creeds  corre- 
sponding to  the  two  Sacraments. t  In  this  use  is  preserved  its 
historical  character,  for  this  Creed  is  founded  on  and  developed 
from  the  Baptismal  Formula,  Matt.  28:  19.  The  Creed  itself  is 
the  gradual  development  of  the  Confession  of  Faith  required  of 
the  Catechumens  in  the  early  Church.  Its  use,  however,  formed 
no  part  of  the  public  worship.  "For  a  long  time  the  rule  of  faith 
was  regarded  as  a  secret,  and  was  withheld  even  from  the  Cate- 
chumens till  the  last  stage  of  instruction.  This  explains  the  fact 
that  we  have  only  fragmentary  accounts  of  it  in  the  writings  of 
the  sub- Apostolic  and  following  age.  Even  as  late  as  the  time 
of  S.  Augustine  we  find  him  laying  it  down  as  a  fundamental 
principle,  Symbolum  nemo  scribil  ut  legi  potest,  'No  one  writes 
down  the  Creed  that  it  may  be  read.'  ''%  When,  where  and  by 
whom  this  Creed  began  to  be  used  in  the  public  Offices  of  the 
Church,  is  not  known  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 

III.       THE    ATHANASIAN    CREED. 

This  Creed  does  not  enter  into  the  public  Service  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church  at  the  present  time.     At  the  time  when  Luther's 

*  Liturgies,     HORN.     p.   56. 

t  Jacobs'   Lutheran  Movement,     p.   302. 

+  Maclear's  Lntroduction  to  the   Creeds,     p.   10. 


THE   LITURGICAL  USE   OF  THE   CREEDS.  29 

metrical  version  of  the  Nicene  was  more  common  than  that  Creed 
itself,  the  Athanasian  was  occasionally  used,  as  on  Trinity  Sun- 
day and  at  Ordinations.  The  Te  Deuni  was  also  used  at  times.* 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  two  of  the  old  names  of  this  Symbol 
(tenth  and  eleventh  century,  respectively)  are,  Hymyius  S.  Atha- 
nasii  de  Trinitate,  "a  Hymn  of  S.  Athanasius  concerning  the 
Trinity,"  and,  Psaltnus  OtcicuTique  Vult,  "the  Psalm  Quiciuique 
Vult.''  In  a  printed  sermon  defending  the  use  of  the  Athanasi- 
an Creed  in  the  Anglican  Service-Book,  Canon  Liddon  has  this 
foot-note:  "To  refer  to  the  'Quiainque'  as  a  Psalm  may  be  only 
a  pedantic  crotchet.  But  if  it  is  intended  to  imply  that  as  a 
Psalm  the  Quiaaique  is  not  properly  a  Creed,  this  is  to  contra- 
dict the  formal  language  of  the  Church  of  England  both  in  the 
Articles  and  the  Prayer  Book."t  It  may  here  be  stated  that  in 
the  Anglican  Liturgy  the  use  of  the  Creeds  is  as  follows:  The 
Nicene  is  said  in  the  Order  for  Holy  Communion.  In  the  Order 
for  Evening  Prayer  only  the  Apostles'  is  used.  In  the  Order  for 
Morning  Prayer  the  Apostles'  is  used,  "Except  only  such  days 
as  the  Creed  of  S.  Athanasius  is  appointed  to  be  read."  There 
are  twelve  of  these  Days,  including,  of  course.  Trinity  Sunday. 
The  Athanasian  Creed  also  forms  part  of  the  Liturgy  of  the 
Greek  Church.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  said  to  be  "of  the  Father." 
The  words,  "and  of  the  Son,"  are  omitted. 

THE    POSITION    OF   THE    CREED    IN    THE    SERVICE. 

We  here  speak  of  the  Nicene  Creed.  Its  earliest  place  was 
in  the  Missa  Fideliuni  before  the  Preface,  the  place  which  it  still 
holds  in  the  Eastern  Church.  Upon  its  introduction  into  the 
Church  of  the  West,  it  was  recited  by  the  congregation  before 
the  Lord's  Prayer.  It  was  in  France  and  Germany  that  it  was 
placed  after  the  reading  of  the  Gospel. ^     In  the  Lutheran  Orders 

*  Jacob's  Lutheran  Movement,     p.   302. 

t  For  the  Sermon  advocating  the  retention  of  the  Creed,  see  University  Ser- 
mons. Second  Series,     pp.   95-114. 
X  Horn's  Liturgies,     p.   56. 


30  MEMOIRS. 

it  is  introductory  and  subordinate  to  the  Sermon.  "In  a  few 
Orders,"  says  Dr.  Jacobs,*  "it  directly  follows;  but  in  most,  it 
precedes.  In  the  latter  case,  its  Office  is  to  give  a  summary  of 
the  faith  as  a  whole  before  the  minister  expands  the  part  con- 
tained in  the  Gospel  for  the  Day.  The  whole  horizon  of  the 
faith  sweeps  before  the  view,  and,  then,  the  hearers  are  prepared 
to  enter  the  one  limited  part.  Where  it  follows  the  Sermon,  as 
in  the  Reformation  of  Cologne,  it  is  the  affirmative  answer  to  the 
Sermon.  Another  explanation  is  sometimes  given.  'The  Creed 
is  recited  after  the  Gospel  that  while,  by  the  Holy  Gospel,  there 
is  faith  unto  righteousness,  by  the  Creed,  there  may  be  confes- 
sion with  the  mouth  unto  salvation.'  (Durandus).  'After  Christ 
has  spoken  to  His  people,  it  is  proper  for  them  to  express  their 
belief  the  more  ardently  and  intently,  as  it  is  written  in  the  Gos- 
pel of  John  that  they  did,  who  had  heard  the  word  from  the 
Samaritan  woman.'     (Gerbert)." 

THE   PURPOSE   OF  THE   CREEDS   IN  THE   SERVICE. 

The  Creeds  form  a  fixed  and  normal  part  of  the  Liturgy, 
and  belong  to  the  Sacrificial  Acts  of  Christian  worship.  They 
are  a  tribute  of  praise  rendered  by  the  worshipper  to  the  Triune 
God  and  themselves  constitute  an  act  of  objective  worship. 
They  honor  God  by  this  declaration  of  faith  in  Him  as  he  has 
revealed  Himself  to  be,  and  they  honor  His  Holy  Word  by  this 
acknowledgment  of  its  absolute  truth.  To  confess  before  God 
our  faith  in  Him  is  to  describe  Him  as  He  is;  to  describe  Him  as 
He  is,  is  to  worship  Him  with  praise, — as  we  do  when  we  declare 
before  Him  our  belief  in  "One  God,  the  Father  Almighty,  Maker 
of  Heaven  and  earth.  And  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible. 
And  in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Only-begotten  Son  of  God, 
Begotten  of  His  Father  before  all  worlds,  God  of  God,  Light  of 
Light,  Very  God  of  Very  God,  Begotten,  not  made.  Being  of 
one  substance  with  the  Father,  by  Whom  all  things  were  made. 

*  Lutheran  Movement,     p.   301. 


THE    LITURGICAL   USE    OF   THE    CREEDS.  31 

....  And  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  I,ord  and  Giver  of 
Life,  Who  proceedeth  from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  Who  with 
the  Father  and  the  Son  together  is  worshipped  and  glorified, 
Who  spake  by  the  Prophet's."  Such  is  the  very  language  of  de- 
votion and  adoration, — of  a  John  the  Baptist,  "I  have  seen,  and 
hav^e  borne  witness  that  this  is  the  Son  of  God;"  of  a  Nathanael, 
"Rabbi,  Thou  art  the  Son  of  God,  Thou  art  the  King  of  Israel," 
of  a  Peter,  "We  have  believed  and  know  that  Thou  art  the  Holy 
One  of  God;"  of  a  Martha,  "Yea,  Lord,  I  have  believed  that 
Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God;"  of  a  Thomas,  "My  Lord 
and  my  God;"  of  a  St.  Paul,  "There  is  one  God  the  Father,  of 
Whom  are  all  things,  and  we  unto  Him.  And  one  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  through  Whom  are  all  things,  and  we  through  Him." 
It  is,  we  repeat,  the  very  summit  of  adoring  worship  when  we 
come  before  the  Triune  God  and  in  the  language  of  the  Creeds 
make  confession  of  our  steadfast  faith  in  God  the  Father,  Who 
has  created  us,  in  God  the  Son,  Who  has  redeemed  us,  and  in 
God  the  Holy  Ghost,  Who  has  sanctified  us. 

The  subjective  benefits  which  accrue  to  the  faithful  confessor 
in  the  Liturgical  Use  of  the  Creeds  are  manifold.  For  one  thing, 
as  Dr.  Liddon  has  pointed  out,*  they  prevent  religious  emotion 
from  becoming  a  passing  sentiment,  destined  to  evaporate  and 
disappear.  If  the  emotion  is  to  last,  it  must  not  be  separated 
from  the  event  or  person  that  called  it  forth.  As  the  event  is  lost 
from  mind,  as  the  person  fades  from  view,  the  impression  be- 
comes dim  and  indistinct,  and  then  dies  away;  and  the  emotion 
shares  its  fate.  "Here  is  the  value  of  the  Christian  Creeds:  they 
fix  in  clear  outline  before  the  soul  of  the  believer  the  great  ob- 
jects of  his  faith,  which  rouse  in  him  movements  of  love  and  awe: 
they  resist  the  tendencies  of  unassisted  emotion  to  lose  itself  on 
what  is  vague  and  indistinct:  they  place  before  him  God,  in  His 
Essential  Threefold  Nature,  and  in  His  Redeeming  and  Sanctify- 
ing work,  and  in  this  way  they  sustain  the  living  emotion  of  the 

*  Passiontide  Sermons,     p.   205. 


32  MEMOIRS, 

soul  directed  towards  God,  as  revealed  by  Himself.  The  Creeds 
are  not  a  series  of  detached  propositions:  they  are  a  collection  of 
statements  which  correspond  to  a  living  whole.  To  an  unbeliev- 
er a  Creed  only  suggests  the  reflection:  How  many  propositions — 
dogmas — for  a  man  to  believe!  To  a  believer,  before  whose  soul's 
eye  the  Divine  Object  described  in  the  Creeds  is  livingly  present, 
a  Creed  suggests  the  reflection:  How  impossible  to  omit  any  one 
of  those  elements  of  a  description  which  the  Reality  demands." 
From  Bishop  Westcott*  we  learn  several  further  uses  served 
by  the  Creeds  in  general,  and  more  particularly  in  the  Service. 
Such  a  confession  of  our  faith  gives  a  positive  distinctness  to  as- 
piration and  offers  a  watchword  for  effort.  Having  found  the 
truth  ourselves,  we  will  not  be  satisfied  merely  to  give  expression 
to  it  in  a  verbal  formula;  but  because  this  truth  concerns  others 
as  well,  we  will  be  constrained  to  impart  it  also  to  them.  Again, 
a  formal  Creed  witnesses  to  the  universality  of  our  faith.  "Let 
us  extend  our  thoughts,  and  remember  that  the  confession  which 
we  make  is  made  practically  in  the  same  form  from  day  to  day 
by  countless  congregations  in  Western  Christendom,  and  we  shall 
know  that  that  which  we  have  in  common  with  all  who  bear 
Christ's  Name  is  greater,  immeasurably  greater,  than  the  special 
beliefs,  however  precious  to  ourselves,  however  perverse  and  wil- 
ful and  unfounded  in  the  eyes  of  others,  which  keep,  and  must 
keep  us  apart."  Again,  the  Creed  which  binds  us  all  together 
now,  even  in  spite  of  ourselves,  binds  us  to  all  the  past.  "As 
often  as  we  repeat  the  Creed  of  our  Baptism  we  repeat  the  words 
by  which  Martyrs  have  lived  and  died,  the  words  under  which 
nations  have  been  enrolled  as  soldiers  of  Christ's  army,  the  words 
which  have  remained  through  every  vicissitude  the  standard  of 
Christian  belief.  And  he  must  be  something  less  than  a  man 
who  is  not  moved  by  the  power  of  this  unbroken  fellowship  with 
the  past,  which  makes  us  heirs  of  every  victory  of  Faith."  Once 
more,  the  Creed  which  unites  us  with  the  past,  preserves  for  us 

*    The  Historic  Faith,     pp.    19-22. 


THE   LITURGICAL   USE    OF   THE    CREEDS.  33 

in  complete  and  harmonious  outline  both  the  foundations  and  the 
proportion  of  Faith.  "The  Creed  is  of  no  one  age.  As  often  as 
we  repeat  it  we  are  guarded  from  forgetting  the  articles  which 
our  circumstances  do  not  force  upon  our  notice.  All  the  facts 
remain;  and  when  a  crisis  comes,  that  will  be  read 3-  to  our  hand 
which  our  fathers  have  delivered  to  us.  We  want  nothing  new, 
but  the  old  rekindled  by  a  fuller  light." 

Such,  then,  is  the  Use  of  the  Creeds  in  the  Service.  There 
are  other  incidental  offices  performed  by  such  Liturgical  Use,  but 
the  principal  functions  have  at  least  been  alluded  to.  It  is  a  ne- 
cessity arising  from  a  law  of  our  being  that  when  we  arrive  at  a 
conviction  of  truth  we  do  give  expression  to  it.  We  have  such  a 
conviction  of  religious  and  distinctively  Christian  truth,  and  we 
feel  impelled  to  declare  in  words  our  heart's  belief.  The  words 
which  express  this  belief  the  most  clearly  and  fully  are  furnished 
to  us  in  the  three  General  Creeds.  We  adopt  their  language  not 
because  the  Church  has  made  them  for  us  and  demands  of  us 
such  adoption  and  confession,  but  spontaneously,  willingly,  glad- 
ly, because  they  best  express  the  personal  convictions  which  we 
have  derived  from  God's  pure  Word  alone.  The  God  Who  has 
revealed  Himself  in  His  Holy  Word,  the  Triune  God,  Father, 
Son  and  Holy  Spirit,  Creator,  Saviour  and  Sanctifier, — it  is  this 
God  in  Whom  we  delight  to  confess  our  personal  belief.  While 
we  confess  Him,  we  moreover  worship  and  adore  Him;  and  as  in- 
dividuals and  as  a  congregation,  we  recognize  our  place  and  por- 
tion and  blessed  privilege  in  the  Holy  Christian  Church,  the 
Communion  of  Saints. 

The  Service  opens  in  the  Name  of  the  Triune  God:  it  closes 
with  a  Doxology  to  the  Triune  God.  In  the  middle  stands  the 
Creed,  explaining  and  justifying  both  the  Name  and  the  Dox- 
ology. 

John  W.  Horine. 
Charleston,  S.   C. 


J 


THE  LITURGY  OF  THE 
NORWEGIAN   LUTHERAN   CHURCH. 


The  congregation  comes  to  church  to  glorify  God  and  to  upbuild 
itself. — It  does  not  come  together  simply  to  serve  God  through 
prayer,  confession,  thanksgiving  and  praise,  but  also  to  receive 
the  peculiar  blessing  which  God  has  promised  it,  and  which  gives 
and  nourishes  a  new  spiritual  life. 

God's  means  of  blessing  are  His  Word  and  the  Sacraments. 

That  God  conies  to  His  people  through  these  means  of  grace, 
and  that  they  can  serve  Him  in  the  manner  already  stated,  are 
basic  principles  in  the  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  Service. 

These  principles  were  fixed  by  Luther  and  the  "Augsburg 
Confession." 

Luther,  in  his  Formula  Misses  of  1523  followed  the  Roman 
Catholic  Liturgy  as  closely  as  possible,  leaving  out  whatever  was 
false.  And  in  Central  and  North  Germany  this  formula  was 
made  the  basis  of  the  Order  of  Service,  while  in  Southwest  Ger- 
many, where  the  Lutherans  came  into  touch  with  the  Catholics 
and  the  Reformed,  his  Deutsche  Messe  was  used.  Even  this  latter 
formula  has  had  an  influence  on  the  Norwegian  Liturgy,  in  that 
it  has  been  followed  in  the  Order  of  Service  that  has  to  do  with 
the  Sacraments,  as  the  Formula  Missec  has  been  followed  in  what 
has  to  do  with  the  Word. 

The  Order  in  the  Formula  .Ifissa  is:  Introit,  Ajv/V,  Gloria, 
Collect,  Epistle  together  with  Gradual  and  Hallelujah,  Gos- 
pel, Nicene  Creed,  Sermon,  Preface  in  Latin,  the  Words  of 
the    Institution    in    German,    the    Sanclus,    Denedidus,    Lord's 

(xxxv) 


36  MEMOIRS. 

Prayer  and  Pax,  and  the  singing  of  the  Agnus  Dei  during  the 
Distribution,  and  finally  another  Collect  and  the  Aaronitic  bless- 
ing- 

The  Deutsche  Messe  is  more  radical,  that  is,  it  is  less  like  the 
Roman  Catholic.  In  the  first  part  of  the  Service  there  remains 
onl}^  Kyrie,  Collect,  Epistle,  Gospel,  Creed  and  Sermon.  A  note- 
worth)'  addition  were  the  hymns  sung  in  German.  Even  the 
Creed  was  made  a  hymn — but  that  goes  too  far.  The  sacramen- 
tal ceremonies  are  likewise  impoverished,  for  the  Preface  was 
dropped,  the  Lord's  Prayer  was  paraphrased  as  a  part  of  the  Ex- 
hortation, the  rich  expressions  about  the  death  of  Christ  and  the 
remembrance  were  not  given  at  all. 

The  more  strict  Lutherans  adopted  the  Formula  Misses  and 
strove  hard  to  get  a  beautiful  Service.  They  began  to  use  the 
Apostles'  Creed  instead  of  the  Nicene;  they  introduced  Confession 
and  Absolution,  and  the  General  Praj'er  after  the  Sermon;  they 
established  the  Exhortation  to  the  communicants;  and  they  pro- 
vided for  the  singing  of  the  Litany  if  there  was  no  Communion. 
Their  Service  carries  out  the  basic  principles  of  the  Lutheran 
Service  fully;  it  shows  a  harmonious  and  living  activity  by  both 
minister  and  congregation;  it  balances  between  freedom  and  rule, 
between  the  free  word  and  the  liturgical  parts. 

At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  Norway  was  united  with 
Denmark.  It  is  true  that  Norway  was  still  called  a  kingdom 
and  retained  her  old  national  laws;  yet,  as  she  was  really  gov- 
erned b}^  Copenhagen,  we  may  consider  her  little  else  than  a 
Danish  province.  Therefore  when  the  Reformation  entered  Den- 
mark, it  came  also  to  Norway. 

The  transition  from  the  Roman  Catholic  to  an  Evangelical 
faith  and  practice  was  naturally  slow;  and  during  these  many 
years  there  was  an  uncertainty  in  the  forms  of  the  Church  Ser- 
vice, When  the  authority  of  the  Pope  was  set  aside  in  1536  and 
the  State  Church  of  Denmark  was  established,  King  Christian  III 
was  obliged  to  write  to  the  Elector  of  Saxonv  to  "borrow"  Bu- 


THE    LITURGY    OF   THE    NORWEGIAN    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.     37 

genhagen  and  Melanchthon  "for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  Christian  Order."  Denmark  did  not  then  have 
capable  men  for  this  work,  and  Germany  could  not  spare  those 
asked  for. 

Thereupon  King  Christian  appointed  a  committee  of  his  own 
men  to  draw  up  an  Order  of  Service.  He  changed  it  somewhat 
and  then  sent  it  to  Luther,  who,  together  with  the  theologians  at 
Wittenberg,  approved  of  it.  At  the  same  time  that  Luther  made 
his  reply,  Bugenhagen  came  to  Denmark.  The  King  and  he 
went  through  the  Order  of  Service  again,  making  a  few  changes 
in  it  and  adding  eight  appendices.  In  1537  the  "Ordinance" 
went  into  force  and  in  1539  it  was  passed  by  the  Diet;  in  1542  it 
was  published  in  Danish.  It  treats  of  Church  Government  as 
well  as  the  Order  of  Service;  it  is  at  once  a  manual  of  Church 
Law  and  Liturgy.  As  already  stated,  it  follows  both  the  Formula 
Missa:  and  the  Deutsche  Messe.  It  remained  in  force  until  1685, 
when  it  was  superseded  by  the  "Ritual."  In  Norway  it  was 
copied  in  all  its  essentials  by  the  "Ordinance"  of  1607. 

During  this  transition  period  just  described  there  was  no 
fixed  form  of  Service,  owing  to  the  fact  that  each  pastor  was 
left  to  follow  his  own  judgment  in  the  matter.  But  even  after 
the  "Ordinance"  of  1542  was  published,  there  was  consider- 
able shifting,  because,  while  the  "Ordinance"  specified  the  Or- 
der of  Service,  it  did  not  give  the  specific  form  of  each  part. 
In  this  matter  it  simply  referred  to  other  handbooks,  of  which 
there  was  already  a  number,  such  as,  Peder  Plades'  "En- 
chiridion" of  1538,  and  Frantz  Vormordsen's  "Manual"  of  1539. 
The  first  named  is  a  translation  of  Luther's  "Enchiridion"  and 
his  book  on  Baptism  and  Marriage.  The  last  is  a  handbook 
of  the  whole  Service,  giving  forms,  Collects,  references  to  the 
speeches  that  belong  to  the  several  liturgical  parts,  etc.;  it  did 
not  contain  the  texts,  but  only  the  references  to  them  in  the 
Bible.  The  great  fault  with  these  and  other  handbooks  was, 
that  they  did  not  contain  all  that  was  to  be  used  in  each  part 


38  MEMOIRS. 

of  the  Service;  another  was,  that  they  did  not  agree  in  all  parts. 

The  "Ritual"  mentioned  above  was  the  "Ordinance"  with- 
out the  parts  on  Church  Government.  Its  authorization  was 
due  to  Bishop  Hans  Bagger,  Provost  Henrik  Bornemann,  Dr. 
Hans  Leth  and  Bishop  Thomas  Kingo.  The  "Book  of  Service" 
appeared  three  years  later  in  1688,  published  by  Bishop  Bagger, 
— the  Ritual  which,  excepting  a  few  changes,  has  been  used  in 
the  Norwegian  Church  to  the  present  day.  This  book  of  Bag- 
ger's contained  also  a  good  deal  of  pastoral  advice,  some  of  it 
very  curious  to  our  notions.  This  was  printed  in  the  Norwegian 
editions  of  the  book  until  the  "New  Ritual"  came  out.  As  an 
example  of  this  pastoral  advice,  I  quote  the  following  from  a 
Norwegian  edition  of  1879:  "Whoever  wantonly  swears  and 
curses,  and  thus  takes  the  Name  of  God  in  vain,  shall  be  consid- 
ered as  one  who  does  not  deal  honestly If,  during  the 

Service  at  church,  the  children  profane  it  by  play,  noise  or  any 
other  misdemeanor  on  the  church  grounds,  then  the  authorities 
shall  have  the  power  to  punish  the  younger  ones  with  whippings 
and  the  older  ones  with  the  pillory,"  etc. 

In  the  first  decades  after  the  Reformation  in  Denmark  there 
were  made  two  important  changes  in  the  Service:  the  one,  that 
the  Sermon  was  given  a  fixed  place;  the  other,  that  Danish 
hymns  took  the  place  of  some  of  the  old  chants  sung  by  the 
preacher  and  the  choir.  Both  of  these  changes  became  perma- 
nent. 

The  "Ordinance"  Service  began  with  silent  confession  by 
the  minister,  during  which  he  knelt  at  the  altar,  and  after  which, 
at  the  King's  desire,  he  offered  up  prayer  for  the  Word,  the 
King  and  the  realm.  While  he  was  doing  this  the  congregation, 
kneeling,  read  a  silent  confession.  In  place  of  this,  in  the  "Rit- 
ual" there  was  an  opening  prayer  which  was  read  while  the  con- 
gregation knelt.  Then,  in  the  "Ordinance,"  followed  the  Introit 
and  Kyrie  (sung  three  times  by  the  congregation),  but  in  the 
"Ritual"    the  Kyrie   followed    the   opening   prayer.     The  next 


THE   LITURGY   OF  THE   NORWEGIAN   LUTHERAN   CHURCH.    39 

part  was  the  angels'  antliem,  ''Gloria  in  Excelsis,''  which  was 
afterwards  made  a  hymn.  Then,  the  minister,  turning  to  the 
congregation,  sang,  "The  Lord  be  with  you,"  to  which  the  con- 
gregation, rising,  sang:  "And  with  thy  spirit."  The  next  was 
the  Collect,  with  an  "Amen"  by  the  congregation;  and  then  the 
Epistle,  followed  by  the  Hallelujah.  But  in  the  "Ritual"  a 
hymn  bearing  on  the  Epistle  or  introducing  the  Gospel  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  Hallelujah.  The  Gospel  was  thereupon  read  and 
replied  to  by  the  congregation  in:  "God  be  praised  for  His  glad 
tidings,"  or,  as  in  the  "Ritual,"  "Praise  be  to  Thee,  O  Christ." 
The  Creed  was  read  next,  later  replaced  by  a  hymn.  The  Ser- 
vice from  the  pulpit  was  to  begin  with  prayer.  The  "Ritual" 
required  the  minister  to  admonish  to  prayer  and  all  to  unite  in 
the  Lord's  Prayer.  In  the  festival  season  of  the  year,  from 
Christmas  to  Pentecost,  a  festival  verse  was  sung  before  the  read- 
ing of  the  Gospel  text,  and  sung  three  times  on  the  great  Festi- 
vals, while  the  minister  knelt  in  the  pulpit.  After  the  Sermon 
followed  a  general  Confession  and  Absolution,  which,  however, 
was  soon  dropped.  The  "Ordinance"  and  the  "Ritual"  pre- 
scribed the  form  of  the  General  Prayer  after  the  Sermon,  leaving 
the  contents  to  the  judgment  of  the  minister,  but  the  "Hand- 
book" of  1539  gives  a  model.  Thereupon  came  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  (in  the  "Ritual"  only)  the  Aaronitic  blessing  and  a 
hymn. 

Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  were  next.  The  Exhorta- 
tion before  Communion,  of  a  polemical-dogmatical  tone,  was  orig- 
inally from  Melanchthon's  "Articles  of  Visitation",  though  here 
from  Deutsche  Messe,  and  is  still  used.  It  was  followed  by  the 
Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Words  of  the  Institution  of  the  Sacrament 
and  the  Consecration.  The  minister  gives  the  bread  and  wine  to 
the  Communicants  saying  to  each  one:  "This  is  the  true  Body  of 
Christ"  and  "This  is  the  true  Blood  of  Christ."  This  formula 
was  introduced  for  the  first  time  by  Jesper  Brockmann,  in  1646, 
the  word  "true"  being  against  the  Calvin  doctrine.  .  The  Agnus 


40  MEMOIRS. 

Dei  was  sung  three  times  during  the  Distribution  according  to 
the  "Ritual."  A  Communion  blessing  and  a  hymn  of  thanks- 
giving closed  the  Communion  ceremony,  and  the  Aaronitic  bless- 
ing, with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and  a  hymn  and  closing  prayer 
end  the  Services. 

In  the  comparison  given  above,  it  will  be  noted  that  the 
Service  in  the  "Ritual"  is  a  little  more  meagre  than  in  the  "Or- 
dinance," though  it  may  still  be  considered  Apostolic  to  the  core. 
It  gave  the  Sermon  and  hymns  more  prominence  than  its  prede- 
cessor. 

Still  greater  changes  were  made  by  Pietism  and  Rationalism. 
The  Service  became  meagre  indeed.  Pietism  cut  out  the  formal 
prayers  and  limited  the  ceremonial  parts,  and  Rationalism  did  its 
best  to  make  it  short.  '  Bastholm  published  in  1785  "An  Attempt 
Towards  a  Better  Plan  in  the  Church  Service,"  which  aimed  to 
make  the  Service  "short,  interesting  and  inspiring."  Its  char- 
acter was  to  be  dramatic.  As  illustrating  this  may  be  mentioned: 
During  prayer  the  congregation  knelt;  they  sang  the  Amens;  the 
chants,  Creed  and  Blessings  were  omitted;  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
was  re-written  where  used.  A  new  so-called  "Evangelical  Chris- 
tian" hymnal  was  introduced.  But  the  old  hymns,  which  it  con- 
tained, had  been  so  hideously  distorted,  that  the  book  was  said 
to  be  neither  evangelical  nor  Christian. 

The  "Rescript"  of  1802  did  not  really  proceed  as  far  as  Bast- 
holm.  The  new  hymnal  wns  adopted  and  the  following  changes 
made  in  the  Service:  The  Kyrie  was  omitted;  the  Creed  and 
Gloria  were  used  alternately  every  other  Sunday,  but  both  were 
soon  omitted  in  practice;  the  Gospel  was  not  read  before  the  al- 
tar; fewer  verses  of  the  hymns  were  sung;  the  Sermon  was  made 
more  prominent.  In  short,  the  Service  had  become  very  impov- 
ished,  though  the  marks  of  glory  were  not  altogether  defaced. 

And  this  was  the  Order  of  Service  and  its  character  at  the 
time  of  the  first  Norwegian  emigration  to  America  and  even 
down  to   1887.     This  was  the  Service  that  the  Norwegians  of 


THE   LITURGY   OF   THE    NORWEGIAN    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.    41 

America  brought  along  with  them.  Its  parts  were:  Opening 
Praj'er,  Hymn,  Collect,  Epistle,  Hymn,  Sermon,  General  Prayer, 
Blessing,  Hymn,  Collect,  Hymn,  closing  Prayer.  The  Baptism 
and  Communion  parts  retained  their  character. 

In  the  meanwhile  great  changes  had  taken  place  in  Norway, 
in  religion  and  Church  affairs  not  the  least.  A  deep,  spiritual, 
religious  movement,  begun  in  about  1800  by  Hans  Nielson 
Hauge,  a  layman,  grew  apace  on  every  side,  especially  among 
the  common  people.  This  awakening  was  sound  and  Lutheran. 
The  old  devotional  literature  and  hymns  w^ere  again  in  high  hon- 
or and  pious  use.  Though  the  rationalist  Order  of  Service  was 
kept  at  the  regular  public  meetings,  other  forms  were  observed 
at  the  special  dev^otional  meetings,  which  began  to  be  common. 
At  first  the  ministry  was  very  hostile  to  the  movement,  but,  little 
by  little,  it  weakened  as  the  new  life  seemed  to  course  through 
the  veins  of  the  Church.  Minister  after  minister  became  its  de- 
fenders; until  at  last,  about  1850,  the  theological  faculty  at 
Christiania  also  were  of  this  new  mind .  Since  then  the  late  Pro- 
fessor Gisle  Johnson  has  been  the  greatest  spiritual  leader  of 
Norway. 

The  Norwegian  people  were  almost  completely  regenerated 
in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1814,  when  the 
union  with  Denmark  was  dissolved,  they  awoke  to  a  new  sense 
of  nationality  and  secured  a  Constitution,  which  made  them  as 
free  as  any  people  in  the  world.  The  King  of  Sweden  is  at  the 
same  time  King  of  Norway,  but  otherwise  she  is  independent  and 
a  land  of  freedom.  At  the  same  time  that  her  people  pushed 
forw-ard  to  political  freedom,  did  they  extend  their  activities  in 
other  ways.  Religion,  as  I  have  shown,  was  one  of  these;  it 
quickened  these  other  endeavors  and  was  in  its  turn  quickened 
by  them. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  inside  the  Church  were 
heard  demands  for  reform.  The  pulpit  revived  the  pure  doctrine 
and  breathed  a  new  spirit.     A  religious  press  came  on  the  field, 


42  MEMOIRS. 

anxious  to  propose  questions  of  moment  and  to  discuss  them. 
One  of  the  first  problems  was  as  to  a  hymnal.  The  Evangelical 
Hymnal,  which  had  never  been  popular,  had  already  been  super- 
seded by  Guldberg's.  But  Guldberg's,  again,  was  not  satisfac- 
tory either.  Here,  then,  was  a  great  problem.  And  there  arose 
the  man  to  solve  it.  This  was  M.  B.  Landstad,  a  man  thorough- 
ly in  sympathy  with  the  new  religious  spirit,  himself  a  poet, 
completely  national,  and  thus  able  to  give  expression  to  the  re- 
ligious emotions  of  the  Norwegian  heart.  By  his  side  we  may 
place  the  musician  Ludvig  Lindeman,  likewise  possessed  of  the 
new  religious  and  national  enthusiasm.  He  has  composed  many 
hymn-tunes,  the  motives  of  many  of  which  are  taken  from  the 
folk  ballads.  He  has  taught  his  people  how  to  sing  unto  the 
Lord;  he  has  done  more  than  any  one  else  to  make  the  Norwe- 
gian congregation  a  singing  congregation.  The  L,andstad-L,in- 
derman  hymnal,  which  was  prepared  to  meet  a  great  need,  has 
proved  very  satisfactory,  and  deserves  all  the  admiration  it  has 
awakened  in  all  who  know  it  well. 

In  connection  with  the  new  spirit  of  preaching  came  a  de- 
mand for  a  richer  content, — one  series  of  texts  was  felt  insuflS- 
cient.  This  problem  was  assigned  to  a  committee  to  work  out; 
after  several  years  two  new  series  of  texts  from  the  Gospels  and 
Epistles,  essentially  like  those  in  the  Swedish  Church,  were  pro- 
posed. Since  1887  the  three  series  have  been  in  general  use  in 
the  Norwegian  Church.  The  men  to  whom  we  are  most  indebt- 
ed for  the  completion  of  this  work  are  Professors  Gisle  Johnson 
and  A.  Bang  and  Rev.  Sven  Bruun. 

Still  another  question  was  in  regard  to  the  Liturgy.  Revs. 
Hesselberg  and  G.  Jensen,  whose  scholarship  on  this  point  was 
the  greatest,  undertook  the  difficult  task  of  revising  the  Book  of 
Service.  In  their  revision,  the  ministerial  acts  (Baptism,  Com- 
munion, Marriage,  Burial,  etc.)  were  left  substantially  as  in  the 
old  Book  of  Service,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Order  of  Service 
was  entirely  reconstructed.     The  royal  decree  of  January  8,  1887, 


THE   LITURGY   OF   THE   NORWEGIAN   LUTHERAN   CHURCH.    43 

which  authorized  this  new  Book  of  Service,  gave  preference  to 
the  new  Order  of  Service,  although  the  congregations  were  per- 
mitted to  use  the  old. 

The  number  of  congregations,  both  in  Norway  and  America, 
that  has  adopted  the  newer  and  richer  Order  of  Service  is  con- 
stantly increasing. 

This  new  Order  of  Service,  which  is  based  mainly  on  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Bavarian  Church,  is  as  follows: 

Opening  Prayer,  read  by  the  Assistant  (Precentor)  before 
the  Chancel,  while  the  Minister  kneels  at  the  Altar.  "O  Lord, 
we  have  come  into  this  Thy  holy  house  to  hear  what  Thou,  God 
the  Father,  our  Creator,  Thou  Lord  Jesus,  our  Saviour,  Thou 
Holy  Spirit,  our  Comforter  in  life  and  in  death,  wilt  say  unto  us. 
By  Thy  Holy  Spirit,  and  for  Christ's  sake,  O  Lord,  so  open  our 
hearts  that  we  may  learn  to  be  sorry  for  our  sins,  to  believe  in 
life  and  in  death  on  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  to  make  daily  progress 
in  holiness  of  life  and  conduct.  Hear  and  answer  us  for  Christ's 
sake.     Amen." 

Opening  Hymn,  contents  determined  by  the  Church  Year. 

Confession  of  Sin.  Minister.  "Let  us  bow  before  the  Lord 
and  confess  our  sins."  (Kneeling  before  the  Altar)  "I,  a  poor 
sinner,  confess  unto  Thee,  holy  and  almighty  God,  my  Creator 
and  Redeemer,  not  only  that  I  have  sinned  against  Thee  in 
thoughts,  words  and  deeds,  but  also  that  I  have  been  conceived 
and  born  in  sin,  so  that  before  Thee,  O  righteous  God,  I  am  al- 
together guilty  and  worthy  of  condemnation.  I  therefore  flee  for 
refuge  to  Thine  infinite  mercy,  and  pray  Thee  for  Christ's  sake: 
God  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner.  Amen."  Or:  "Holy  God, 
Heavenly  Father:  Look  in  mercy  upon  me,  a  poor,  sinful  man. 
I  have  provoked  Thee  by  thoughts,  words  and  deeds,  and  know 
the  evil  desires  that  are  in  my  heart.  Have  patience  with  me. 
Forgive  me  all  my  sins  and  grant  that  I  may  fear  and  lov^e  Thee 
alone.     Lord  have  mercy  upon  me.     Amen." 

The  Kyrie,  or  a  Litany  Hymn. 


44  MEMOIRS. 

The  Gloria.  Minister  (intones)  "Glory  to  God  in  the  high- 
est." Congregation  (sings)  "And  on  earth  peace,  good  will 
toward  men." 

Salutation  and  Collect  for  the  Day  (intoned). 

The  Epistle.     Congregation  standing. 

Short  Hymn,  corresponding  to  Epistle  or  a  Hymn  of  Praise. 

The  Gospel.  Congregation  standing,  and  singing  after  the 
Gospel  the  Response  "Praise  and  glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord,"  or 
"Blessed  be  the  Lord  for  His  glad  tidings." 

Apostles'  Creed  (Minister  facing  Altar). 

Hynin. 

Sermon,  preceded  by  a  Prayer  from  the  Pulpit  and  closed 
with  the  Gloria  Patri. 

The  General  Prayer,  for  which  two  forms  are  given,  closing 
with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Apostolic  Benediction. 

Hymn.  Here  may  follow  Baptism  of  children  or  Catechiza- 
tion. 

Hym.n,  or 

The  Preface,  including  Salutation,  Sursum  Corda,  Gratias 
Agamns  and  Vere  Dignum  (all  intoned). 

The  Sandus. 

The  Exhortation,  after  which  as  many  of  the  Communicants 
as  can  do  so  kneel  before  the  Altar  and  all  others  stand  until  the 
Distribution. 

The  Lord's  Prayer  (intoned). 

The  Words  of  Institution  (intoned). 

The  Distribution,  with  the  Sentences,  "This  is  Christ's  true 
Body,"  "This  is  Christ's  true  Blood,"  and  "Our  crucified  and 
risen  Lord,  Jesus  Christ,  Who  now  hath  bestowed  upon  you  His 
Holy  Body  and  Blood,  whereby  He  hath  made  full  satisfaction 
for  all  your  sins,  strengthen  and  preserve  you  in  true  faith  unto 
everlasting  life.     Peace  be  with  you.     Amen." 

A  Hym.71  of  Thanksgiving . 

Thajiksgiving  Collect.     Minister  faces  Congregation  and  in- 


THE    LITURGY   OF   THE    NORWEGIAN    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.    45 

tones  "Let  us  give  thanks  and  pray"  and  facing  Altar  intones 
"We  thank  Thee,  O  Lord,  Almighty  and  Everlasting  God,  that 
Thou  hast  refreshed  us  with  these  Thy  salutary  gifts.  We  now 
beseech  Thee,  of  Thy  mercy,  to  strengthen  us,  through  these 
same  gifts  of  Thine,  in  faith  toward  Thee,  and  in  fervent  love 
toward  one  another,  through  Jesus  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our  Lord." 

Salutation  and  Aaronic  Blessing  (intoned). 
The  Closing  Hymn. 

The  Closi?ig  Prayer,  read  by  the  Assistant  (Precentor)  before 
the  Chancel,  while  the  Minister  kneels  at  the  Altar.  "O  Lord, 
with  all  our  heart  we  thank  Thee  that  Thou  hast  now  taught  us 
what  Thou  wilt  that  we  shall  believe  and  do.  Help  us  now,  our 
God,  by  Thy  Holy  Spirit,  for  Christ's  sake,  to  keep  Thy  Word 
in  a  pure  heart,  thereby  to  be  strengthened  in  faith,  perfected  in 
holiness  of  conduct,  and  comforted  in  life  and  in  death.  Amen." 
This  prayer  concludes  with  the  Lord's  Prayer. 

When  the  Holy  Communion  is  not  administered  the  Hymn 
after  the  Sermon  is  followed  by  a  Collect  for  the  Word,  the  Ben- 
ediction, Closing  Hymn  and  Closing  Prayer  as  above. 

The  Minister  is  permitted  to  say  the  words  he  should  intone 
"if  he  possess  little  or  no  ability  to  sing." 

The  English  translation  of  the  "Alterbog"  here  given  is  the 
Order  of  Service  officially  adopted  by  the  United  Norwegian  Lu- 
theran Church  in  America. 

We  might,  in  passing,  note  that  this  Service  Book  was  for- 
tunately brought  forward  in  Norway  under  a  liberal  ministry,  of 
which  the  famous  Jacob  Sverdrup  was  leader.  Under  him  it  was 
sure  to  be  adopted  in  conformity  with  the  needs  of  the  Church. 
It  was  adopted,  and  has  proved  peculiarly  satisfactory. 

It  would  make  an  interesting  stud}'  to  account  for  the  char- 
acter and  form  of,  say,  Confession  and  Absolution  and  the  rea- 
sons for  the  changes  made  in  these,  as  well  as  in  the  Order  of 
Service  proper.  Here,  however,  I  will  let  it  rest  in  saying  that 
every  part  of  the  Service  has  an  interesting  history. 


46  MEMOIRS. 

But  to  mention  a  few  characteristics  of  the  new  Order  of 
Service.  The  two  fold  principle  with  which  we  started — that 
the  congregation  came  to  serve  God  and  to  receive  His  blessing — , 
is  adhered  to  throughout.  The  pastor  appears  as  God's  spokes- 
man; the  congregation  is  made  more  than  a  passive  recipient. 
Note  that  the  congregation  takes  part  not  only  in  the  singing  of 
hymns,  but  also  in  confession,  praise  and  creed.  Note  also  the 
fulness  of  the  expression  of  faith — in  confession,  praise  and 
creed.  It  is  true  that  in  spoken  prayer  the  congregation  is  not 
allowed  to  take  part  other  than  through  the  precentor,  who 
makes  the  opening  and  closing  prayers.  But  note  that  the  Gen- 
eral Prayer  following  the  Sermon  has  been  given  a  permanent 
form  and  contents  and  not  only  a  form  into  which  might  be  put 
anything  as  in  the  case  of  the  "Ordinance"  prayer.  What  is 
lacking  now  to  make  our  Services  more  ideal  is:  that  the  con- 
gregation take  part  in  the  General  Prayer  in  some  way  and  that 
there  be  an  Introit  and  Hymns  for  the  new  text  series. 

A  rich  and  complete  Order  of  Service  is  a  good  thing.  One 
who  does  not  understand  it  may  underestimate  its  value  and  even 
despise  it.  Yet,  even  though  it  is  not  understood,  even  though 
it  does  not  appeal  to  the  unbeliever,  it  is  a  great  help  in  preserv- 
ing the  spirit  and  order  among  the  believers;  in  fact,  it  is  often 
as  inspiring  as  the  Word  itself.  There  have  been  times  when  the 
Word  of  God  has  not  been  preached  from  the  pulpit;  such  times 
may  come  again.  The  new  Rationalism  is  already  at  the  church 
door  to  be  admitted  as  spokesman.  Now,  if  the  liturgic  part  of 
the  Service  be  not  heavily  freighted  with  God's  truth,  and  if  the 
dire  evil  should  come  to  pass  that  the  pulpit  again  become  ra- 
tionalistic, what  should  we  say  about  the  plight  of  the  congrega- 
tion? 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  congregation  shall  come  to  under- 
stand and  prize  its  Liturgy,  it  can  get  nourishment  for  its  spirit- 
ual existence  in  faith  through  the  Liturgy  when  the  Sermon  be- 
comes spiritless  and  unsound.     And  as  the  congregation  is  kept 


THE    LITURGY   OF   THE    NORWEGIAN    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.    47 

in  the  faith  by  the  Liturgy,  the  minister,  in  turn,  is  strengthened 
in  his  purpose  to  be  true  to  his  faith  by  the  example  of  his  con- 
gregation as  well  as  by  the  influence  of  the  Liturgy  itself. 

The  new  Liturgy  is  as  beautiful  as  it  is  inspiring  when  it  is 
properly  rendered.  The  hymns  contribute  somewhat  to  this  ef- 
fect. Also  Lindeman's  revised  chants,  which  are  more  melodic 
than  the  originals,  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  recitative. 
Another  important  contribution  is  Professor  Rydning's  arrange- 
ment of  the  communion  Liturgy  for  the  organ.  Professor  Ryd- 
ning  has  been  a  pupil  of  Lindeman  and  possesses  a  considerable 
knowledge  of  Church  Music;  he  is  the  instructor  in  music  at  the 
United  Church  Seminary. 

The  Norwegian  Church  has  a  beautiful  Order  of  Service. 
The  fixed  forms  are  inspiring.  May  God  then  grant  us  the  in- 
spired testimony  from  the  mouth  of  living  witnesses,  a  testimony 
that  permits  Christ's  glory  to  shine  forth  enlightening  and  quick- 
ening the  congregation,  while  it  reverently  listens  to  the  Word  of 
the  Lord  and  takes  it  to  heart.  Then  the  Service  will  be  in 
truth  pleasing  to  God,  a  glorifying  of  His  Name  and  an  inspira- 
tion to  His  congregation. 


E.  Kr.  Johnsen. 


United  Norwegian  Church  Seminary, 
St.  Aiithony  Park,   St.  Paul,  Minn. 


CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP 

IN  THE    FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE. 

(before  the  year  150.) 


The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  present  in  brief  form  a  picture  of 
the  worship  of  the  Christian  congregations,  so  far  as  we  are  able 
to  trace  it,  in  the  time  between  the  close  of  the  Apostolic  Age 
and  the  middle  of  the  second  Century.  No  attempt  will  be  made 
to  construct  even  a  relatively  complete  Liturgy  in  this  period,  for 
such  an  attempt  would  result  only  in  ignominious  failure  and  we 
shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  simpler  task  of  setting  down  what 
our  sources  give  us  and  accounting,  so  far  as  may  be,  for  what 
we  find. 

The  chief  danger  that  confronts  us  in  dealing  with  such  a 
subject  is  that  of  reading  into  the  sources  ideas  which  they  do 
not  actually  contain  and  of  assuming  that  customs  universally 
prevalent  in  later  times  must  have  had  their  origin  in  the  period 
imder  discussion  if  not,  indeed,  in  one  still  earlier.  A  second 
temptation,  scarcely  less  alluring,  and  equally  fatal  to  historical 
truth,  lies  in  the  assumption  that  traces  of  liturgical  customs, 
or  language  which  may  be  so  interpreted,  found  in  a  document  of 
Syrian  or  of  Roman  origin  applies  to  any  other  part  of  the  Early 
Church.  If  the  student  succeeds  in  avoiding  both  of  these 
snares,  a  third  is  still  in  his  path,  in  the  form  of  faulty  editions 
of  second  Century  documents  which  have  been  emended  by  later 
hands,  and  few  of  the  sources  for  the  history  of  the  second  Cen- 
tury have  come  down  to  us  in  their  unaltered  form.  Fortunately 
the  labors  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  reduced  the  last  dan- 

(xlix) 


50  MEMOIRS. 

ger  to  a  minimum  and  we  may  feel  at  last  reasonably  safe  in  us- 
ing any  of  the  good  modern  editions. 

Before  approaching  the  proper  subject  of  this  paper,  it  may 
be  well  to  take  account  of  certain  facts  which  bear  directly  or  in- 
directly, upon  every  phase  of  life  of  the  Church  in  the  period 
which  we  are  studj-ing. 

The  second  Century  was  not  an  age  of  forms.  It  was  on  the 
contrary,  the  most  plastic  age  of  the  Church.  The  truth  as  it  is 
in  Christ  Jesus  had  entered  the  life  of  the  Roman  Empire  as  a 
great  force,  the  full  meaning  of  which  was  only  faintly  apprehend- 
ed. It  had  to  work  upon  the  material  which  it  found,  and  the 
results  could  not  be  uniform  when  the  preparation  had  been  so 
various.  The  Jew,  the  Greek,  the  Roman,  were  bound  to  be  af- 
fected in  different  ways  by  the  message  of  the  Gospel  which  came 
to  all,  and,  centuries  were  to  pass  before  there  could  be  even  rel- 
ative unanimity  of  opinion  concerning  the  great  central  truths 
whose  possession  was  to  give  the  Church  its  power.  At  the  end 
of  the  second  Century  Christian  doctrine  was  still  in  a  fluid  state, 
and  Gnosticism,  the  earliest  of  the  heresies,  was  still  a  living 
power.  Before  the  century  ended,  however,  the  power  which 
was  eventually  to  define  the  Catholic  faith  and  extirpate  heresy 
had  begun  to  show  itself.  That  power  was  the  so-called  mo- 
narchical episcopate.  Each  Church  had  its  own  bishop  who  was 
regarded  as  the  depositary  of  Apostolic  truth. 

The  organization  of  the  Church  preceded,  and  had  to  pre- 
cede, definition  of  doctrine,  but  it  was  not  alone  the  fight  with 
heresy  which  made  the  organization  necessary.  The  second  Cen- 
tury was  a  time  of  wonderful  missionary  activity.  This  was  the 
special  work  of  the  "Apostles" — the  charismatically  endowed 
preachers  of  the  Gospel  who  wandered  from  place  to  place — but 
the  retention  of  converts  within  the  fold,  the  prevention  of  back- 
sliding into  heathenism  and  of  "lapsing"  in  times  of  persecution 
— these  things  demanded  compactly  organized  congregations.* 

*  Cf.  Harnack,  Mission  and  Ausbreitung  des  Christen ihums,  pp.  256  ff,  3i6ff. 


CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN   THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOUC   AGE.    51 

A  third  element  in  the  development  of  Church  organization 
was  the  need  of  an  officer  to  preside  over  the  administration  of 
the  finances  of  the  congregation  and  to  direct  its  charitable  work.* 
But  upon  these  points  we  do  not  wish  to  dwell.  Enough  has 
been  said  to  account  for  the  organization  which  meets  us  in  the 
second  Century — an  organization  with  the  bishop  at  its  head  and 
with  presbyters  and  deacons  under  him.  In  this  organization 
the  congregation  found  its  unity,  upon  this  organization  it  was 
at  a  later  time  to  base  its  claim  to  catholicity  and  apostolicity. 

The  beginnings  of  this  organization  the  Church  of  the  sec- 
ond Century  had  inherited  from  the  Apostolic  Age.f  It  had  also 
inherited  certain  traditions  of  worship,  together  with  certain  ru- 
dimentary forms  of  prayer,  and  it  had  inherited  the  two  Sacra- 
ments of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  triple  inheritance 
was  the  seed  from  which  the  Liturgy  was  to  spring. 

The  first  liturgical  practice  to  be  definitely  fixed  was  the  ob- 
servance of  Sunday  as  the  day  of  common  worship.  The  Church 
in  Jerusalem  had  met  every  day.  J  By  the  time  the  First  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians  was  written  Sunday  had  become  the  regular 
day  of  meeting, §  and  in  the  second  Century  all  our  sources  agree 
in  assigning  the  assembly  of  Christians  to  the  first  day  of  the 
week.  Pliny  i^Ep.  x.  96  (97)  to  Trajan)  says  simply  "on  a  fixed 
day  {die  stato)  they  are  accustomed  to  assemble."  The  DidacJie 
(ch.  xiv)  says: — "on  the  Lord's  Day  of  the  Lord,  gather  your- 


*  Hatch  in  The  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches,  and  The 
Greek  Influence  in  the  Early  Church,  traces  the  episcopate  to  this  source. 

t  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  organization  of  the  New  Testament 
Churches.  Whatever  that  organization  may  have  been,  it  was  the  result  of  condi- 
tions which  the  Church  had  to  face  and  was  not  of  Divine  institution.  The  present 
writer  is  inclined  to  believe  with  those  who  see,  in  the  "angels"  of  the  Seven 
Churches,  bishops  presiding  over  these  Churches.  The  functions  of  such  bishops, 
however,  would  differ  widely  from  those  of  the  "monarchical"  bishop  whose  claims 
are  asserted  in  the  Ignatian  letters  and  realized  in  the  second  and  third  centuries. 

X  Cf.  the  present  writer's  "Christian  Worship  in  the  Apostolic  Age,"  Memoirs, 
Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  p.  48. 

§  1.  c.  p.  49. 


52  MEMOIRS. 

selves  together  and  break  bread  and  give  thanks."  Ignatius, 
(Ad.  Magn.  ix),  Barnabas  (ch,  xv),  and  Justin  Martyr  also  tes- 
tify to  the  observance  of  the  Sunday  and  assign  reasons  for  the 
selection  of  that  special  day.  Ignatius  says:  "Those  who  had 
walked  in  ancient  practices  attained  unto  newness  of  hopC;  no 
longer  observing  Sabbaths,  but  fashioning  their  lives  after  the 
lyOrd's  Day,  on  which  our  life  also  arose  through  Him  and 
through  His  death."  Barnabas  after  an  examination  of  Old  Tes- 
tament passages  relating  to  the  Sabbath,  on  which  he  puts  a  fan- 
ciful interpretation,  concludes: — "Ye  see  what  is  His  meaning;  it 
is  not  your  present  Sabbaths  that  are  acceptable,  but  the  Sabbath 
which  I  have  made,  in  the  which,  when  I  have  set  all  things  at 
rest,  I  will  make  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  day,  which  is  the 
beginning  of  another  world.  Wherefore  also  we  keep  the  eighth 
day  for  rejoicing,  in  the  which  also  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead,  and 
having  been  manifested,  ascended  into  the  Heavens."  Justin 
Martyr  (Ap.  I,  Ixvii)  is  more  concise.  He  says:  "Sunday  is  the 
day  on  which  we  all  hold  our  common  assembly,  because  it  is  the 
first  day,  on  which  God,  having  wrought  a  change  in  the  dark- 
ness and  matter,  made  the  world;  and  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour 
on  the  same  day  rose  from  the  dead." 

The  obvious  conclusion  from  these  passages — drawn  as 
they  are  from  sources  of  the  most  various  local  origin — is  that 
the  observance  of  Sunday  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  Cen- 
tury was  universal,  and  that  the  observance  consisted  in  wor- 
ship. In  the  second  place  we  notice  that  all  of  our  authors 
regard  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  as  an  "ancient  practice" 
which  has  passed  away.  The  Sunday  takes  the  place  among 
the  Christians  that  the  Sabbath  held  among  the  Jews,  but  it  is 
regarded  neither  as  a  continuation  of  the  old  institution  nor  as 
a  substitute  for  it.  It  is  something  as  new  as  the  Gospel  itself. 
It  commemorates  not  the  end  of  the  first  creation,  but  the  begin- 
ning of  the  new  creation,  the  entering  into  the  world  of  the  new 
life  brought  by  the  Resurrection  of  the  dead.     As  such  it  is  a 


CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP    IN   THE    FIRST    POST-APOSTOLIC    AGE.    53 

day  of  joy,  which  could  not  but  find  expression  in  the  Service.* 
Three  other  seasons  which  were  destined  to  play  a  large  part 
in  the  liturgical  history  of  the  Church  call  for  passing  comment 
here.  The  first  of  these  is  Easter  Day.  That  it  was  observed  by 
the  first  converts  from  Judaism  is  certain,  and  that  it  had  a  place 
in  the  Gentile  congregations  founded  by  Paul  is  evident  from 
I  Cor.  5:  6-8.  These  two  circumstances  combined  with  the  fact 
that  Sunday  was  regarded  as  a  weekly  celebration  of  the  Resur- 
rection, make  it  certain  that  the  observance  of  Easter  was  univer- 
sal in  the  Church  from  the  beginning.  Even  in  our  period,  how- 
ever, there  are  traces  of  the  differences  in  Easter  observance  that 
were  afterwards  to  give  rise  to  the  Quarto-decimian  controversy, 
for  according  to  Irenaeus  (quoted  by  Euseb.  H.  E.  V,  24)  Poly- 
carp  (ti55)  and  Anicetus  of  Rome  (154-165)  had  disagreed 
concerning  the  day  on  which  the  celebration  was  to  take  place. 
Polycarp  claimed  to  follow  the  practice  of  S.  John  in  observing 
the  14th  Nisan,  while  Anicetus  adhered  to  the  usage  of  the  Ro- 
man Church  and  observed  the  Sunday  after  the  full  moon.  The 
controversy — which  was  to  result  in  the  first  victory  of  the  Ro- 
man tradition  over  the  Asiatic — did  not  culminate  until  the  end 


♦  The  longer  Greek  recension  of  the  Ignatian  letters,  which  dates  probably 
frnni  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  or  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  presents  an  inter- 
esting amplification  of  Ad.  Magn.  ix,  already  quoted,  which  is  in  full  accord  with 
the  spirit  of  the  shorter  and  genuine  version.     It  reads  as  follows:  — 

"Let  us,  therefore,  no  longer  keep  the  Sabbath  after  the  Jewish  manner,  and 
rejoice  in  days  of  idleness;  for  'he  that  does  not  work,  let  him  not  eat.'  .  .'  .  But 
let  every  one  of  you  keep  the  Sabbath  after  a  spiritual  manner,  rejoicing  in  medita- 
tion on  the  law,  not  in  relaxation  of  the  body,  admiring  the  workmanship  of  God, 
and  not  eating  things  prepared  the  day  before,  nor  using  luke-warm  drinks  and 
walking  within  a  prescribed  space  nor  finding  delight  in  dancing  and  senseless  ap- 
plause. And  after  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  let  every  friend  of  Christ  keep  the 
Lord's  Day  as  a  festival,  the  Resurrection-day,  the  queen  and  chief  of  all  the  days, 
.  on  which  our  life  both  sprang  up  again  and  the  victory  over  death  was  ob- 
tained in  Christ." 

The  passage  testifies  convincingly  to  the  fact  that  the  Early  Church  not  only  did 
not  regard  Sunday  as  a  substitute  for  the  Sabbath,  but  actually  in  some  localities  or 
in  some  congregations,  observed  both  days,  yet  in  the  observance  abrogated  those 
practices  which  according  to  Jewish  law  were  the  essential  things  in  the  hallowing 
of  the  day. 


54  MEMOIRS. 

of  the  century,  but  the  differences  seem  to  have  existed  from  the 
first. 

When  the  dispute  finally  attained  serious  proportions,  how- 
ever, we  find  it  involving  another  question;  that,  namely,  of  Len- 
ten observance.  It  was  customary  to  precede  the  Easter  celebra- 
tion with  a  fast.  This  fast  seems  to  have  been  universal  but  its 
duration  varied  in  different  Churches.  Irenaeus  (/.  c.)  tells  us: — 
"Some  consider  themselves  bound  to  fast  one  day,  others  two 
days,  others  still  more,  while  others  fast  for  forty."  In  this 
passage  we  observe  the  beginnings  of  the  Church  Year  with  Eas- 
ter as  its  center.  The  origin  of  the  observance  is  to  be  found  in 
the  forty  hours'  fast  preceding  the  Easter  celebration,  typical  of 
the  forty  hours'  rest  of  Jesus  in  the  grave,  which  was  the  usage 
of  the  Roman  Church.  This  period  was  subsequently  extended, 
probably  at  Rome,  to  forty  days,  the  period  of  our  Lord's  fasting 
in  the  wilderness  and  the  Roman  use  became  universal  sometime 
in  the  fourth  Century.* 

The  origin  of  the  Station  Daysf  {dies  stationum)  is  much  older 
than  that  of  the  Lenten  fast.  The  Didache  (8:  i)  is  the  earliest 
authority  for  the  observance  of  Wednesday  and  Friday  as  days 
of  fasting  and  prayer.  We  read  there: — "Let  not  your  fastings 
be  with  the  hypocrites,  for  they  fast  on  the  second  and  fifth  days 
of  the  week;  but  do  ye  keep  your  fast  on  the  fourth  and  on  the 
preparation  day."  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.  VII,  12)  re- 
fers this  custom  to  the  commemoration  of  the  council  of  Christ's 
enemies  (Mark  xiv:  i)  and  the  crucifixion. 

This  custom  is  especially  noteworthy  as  showing  the  im- 
portance which  the  Early  Church  attached  to  the  Christian 
week,  before  the  development  of  the  Christian  year.  Each 
week  was  a  repetition  of  the  week  of  our  Lord's  Passion,  cul- 
minating in  the  Sunday  celebration  of  His  victory  over  death. 
Even   after   the   Church    Year    had    reached   its   full   develop- 


*  See  MoELLER,  Kg    I,  346  and  literature  there  cited. 
+  So  named  first  in  Herm.  Sim.  V,  i. 


CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN   THE    FIRST   POST- APOSTOLIC    AGE.    55 

ment*  the  cycle  of  the  Week  maintained  itself  and  has  remained 
in  the  Roman  usage  to  the  present  day.f 

Along  with  this  development  of  the  liturgical  seasons  we 
find  another,  which  has  its  origin  in  our  period  and  which  was 
destined  to  a  rapid  growth,  to  long  duration  and  to  serious  abuse. 
In  the  letter  of  the  Smyrneans  (ch.  i8)  describing  the  death  of 
Polycarp  (155  A,  D.)  we  find  the  following  passage: — "So  we 
afterwards  took  up  his  bones  .  .  .  ,  and  laid  them  in  a  suitable 
place  where  the  Lord  will  permit  us  to  gather  ourselves  together, 
as  we  are  able,  in  gladness  and  joy,  and  to  celebrate  the  birthday 
of  his  martj^rdom  for  the  commemoration  of  those  that  have  al- 
ready fought  in  the  contest  and  for  the  training  and  preparation 
of  those  that  shall  do  so  hereafter."  In  this  celebration  of  the 
"birthdays  of  the  martyrs"  (i.  e.  the  days  of  their  martyrdom) 
we  find  the  origin  of  the  Saints'  Days  which  had  such  a  large 
place  in  the  Catholic  period  of  the  Church's  history.  They  were 
at  first  purely  local,  each  Church  commemorating  its  own  mar- 
tyrs, and  down  to  the  time  of  Cyprian  we  have  no  evidence  to 
show  that  they  were  observed  with  the  celebration  of  the  Eucha- 
rist, but  the  outbreak  of  the  general  persecutions,  which  multi- 
plied the  numbers  of  the  martyrs  and  placed  on  martyrdom  such 
a  high  valuation,  made  the  observance  universal  and  opened  the 
way  for  later  abuses. 

*   Not  later  thnn  the  fifth  century.     See  Ap.  Const.  V,  13,  20. 

t  In  an  interesting  passage  in  the  V  SimilituJt  Hkrmas  thus  describes  the 
"acceptable  fast."  "This,  then,  is  the  way  that  thou  shalt  keep  the  fast.  First  of 
all  keep  thyself  from  every  evil  word  and  every  evil  device,  and  purify  thy  heart 
from  all  the  vanities  of  this  world.  If  thou  keep  these  things  thy  heart  shall  be  per- 
fect for  thee.  And  thus  shalt  thou  do.  Having  fulfilled  what  is  written,  on  that 
day  on  which  thou  fastest,  tiiou  shalt  taste  nothing  but  bread  and  water;  and  from 
thy  meals  which  thou  wouldst  have  eaten,  thou  shalt  reckon  up  the  amount  of  that 
day's  expenditure,  which  thou  wouldst  have  incurred,  and  shalt  give  it  to  a  widow 
or  an  orphan,  or  to  one  in  want,  and  so  shalt  thou  humble  thy  soul,  that  he  that  re- 
ceiveih  from  thy  humiliation  may  satisfy  his  own  soul,  and  may  pray  for  thee  to  the 
Lord.  If,  then,  thou  shalt  so  accomplish  this  fast,  as  I  have  commanded  thee,  thy 
sacrifice  shall  be  acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God  and  this  fasting  shall  be  recorded; 
and  the  service  so  performed  is  beautiful  and  joyous  and  acceptable  to  the  Lord." 
(^Sim.  V,  3). 


56  MEMOIRS. 

Our  survey  of  the  liturgical  seasons  has  carried  us  somewhat 
far  afield.  Let  us  return  to  the  traditions  of  worship  which  the 
Church  of  the  second  Century  inherited  from  the  Apostolic  Age. 

The  New  Testament  offers  clear  testimony  to  the  custom 
prevailing  in  the  Church  at  Corinth  and,  by  legitimate  inference, 
in  many  other  of  the  Gentile  congregations,  of  holding  on  each 
Sunday  two  assemblies  for  worship.  That  this  custom  was  still 
followed  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  Century  is  evident  from 
l^liny's  description  of  the  worship  of  the  Bythinian  Christians 
about  III  or  113  A.  D.  (Pliny  Ep.  x.  96  (97)  to  Trajan).  One 
of  these  Services  was  held  early  in  the  morning  i^mite  hiceni)  and 
may  be  assumed  to  correspond  to  the  Service  for  edification  ex- 
isting in  Corinth.  The  elements  of  this  Service  were  Prayer, 
Scripture-reading,  Hymns  and  Preaching.  The  second  Service 
was  held  later  in  the  day  and  was  devoted  to  the  common  meal 
(known  later  as  the  Agape')  which  culminated  in  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per.* We  shall  see  that  the  tv  Services  were  soon  combined 
into  one  and  that  the  combination  of  the  two  is  the  starting  point 
for  the  chief  Service  of  all  later  Liturgies,  but  for  the  present  we 
are  concerned  chiefly  with  the  second,  or  evening  Service,  at 
which  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered. 

The  oldest  prescriptions  for  liturgical  worship  which  we  pos- 
sess are  those  contained  in  the  section  of  the  Didache  which  deals 
with  this  Service.  It  comprises  chapters  ix,  x  and  xiv,  and  reads 
as  follows: — 

14.  "And  on  the  Lord's  Day  of  the  Lord,  gather  yourselves 
together  and  break  bread  and  give  thanks  (evxa-pio-Trja-are) ,  first 
confessing  your  transgressions,  that  your  sacrifice  may  be  pure. 
And  let  no  man  having  his  dispute  with  his  fellow  join  your  as- 
sembly until  they  have  been  reconciled,  that  your  sacrifice  may 
not  be  de filed ;t  for  this  sacrifice  it  is  that  was  spoken  of  by  the 


*  See  the  present  writer's  "Christian  Worship  in  the  Apostolic  Age,"  Memoirs 
Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  pp.  49  ff, 
t  Cf.  Matt.  5 :  23,  24. 


CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN   THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE.    57 

Lord;  In  every  place  and  at  every  time,  offer  Me  a  pure  sacrifice; 
for  I  am  a  great  King,  sait/i  the  Lord,  ajid  My  Name  is  W07iderful 
amo7ig  the  natio^is.^''^ 

g.  "But  as  touching  the  Eucharistic  thanksgiving  (evxapwr- 
Tta),  give  ye  thanks  thus: 

"First  as  regards  the  cup: 

"We  give  Thee  thanks,  O  our  Father,  for  the  holy  vine  of 
Thy  son  David,  which  Thou  madest  known  to  us  through  Thy 
Son  Jesus;  Thine  is  the  glory  for  ever  and  ever. 

"Then  as  regards  the  broken  bread: 

"We  give  Thee  thanks,  O  our  Father,  for  the  life  and 
knowledge  which  Thou  didst  make  known  unto  us  through  Thy 
Son  Jesus;  Thine  is  the  glory  for  ever  and  ever. 

"As  this  broken  bread  was  scattered  upon  the  mountains 
and  being  gathered  together  became  one,  so  may  Thy  Church  be 
gathered  together  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  into  Thy  Kingdom; 
for  Thine  is  the  glory  and  the  power  through  Jesus  Christ  for 
ever  and  ever. 

"But  let  no  one  eat  of  this  Eucharist  but  they  that  have  been 
baptized  into  the  Name  of  the  Lord;  for  concerning  this  also  the 
Lord  hath  said:     Give  not  that  which  is  holy  tinto  the  dogs.f 

lo.     "And  after  ye  are  filled  thus  shall  ye  give  thanks: 

"We  give  Thee  thanks.  Holy  Father,  for  Thy  holy  Name 
which  Thou  hast  made  to  tabernacle  in  our  hearts,  and  for  the 
knowledge  and  faith  and  immortality  which  Thou  hast  made 
known  unto  us  through  Thy  Son  Jesus;  Thine  is  the  glory  for 
ever  and  ever. 

"Thou,  Almighty  Master,  J  didst  create  all  things  for  Thy 
Name's  sake,  and  didst  give  food  unto  men  for  enjoyment,  that 
they  might  render  thanks  to  Thee;  but  didst  bestow  upon  us 
spiritual  food  and  drink  and  eternal  life  through  Thy  Son.     Be- 


*  Mai,  I :  II,  14. 

t  Matt.  7:  6. 

X  SefTwoT-Qi—lhe  regular  form  of  address  to  the  Father  in  the  Greek  Liturgies. 


58  MEMOIRS. 

fore  all  things  we  give  Thee  thanks  that  Thou  art  powerful; 
Thine  is  the  glory  for  ever  and  ever. 

"Remember,  Lord,  Thy  Church  to  deliver  it  from  all  evil 
and  to  perfect  it  in  T.hy  love;  dixxd  gather  it  together  fro77i  the  four 
winds'^ — eyen  th^  Church  which  has  been  sanctified — into  Thy 
Kingdom  livhich  Thou  bast  prepared  for  it;  for  Thine  is  the  power 
and  the  glory  for  ever  and  ever. 

"May  gracCj  come  and  this  world  pass  away. 

"Hosanna  to  the  God  of  David. 

"If  any  man  is  holy  let  him  come;  if  any  man  is  not,  let  him 
repent. 

"Maranatha. 

"Am,ep. 

"But  permit  the  prophets  to  offer  thanks  as  much  as  they 
will." 

In  these  prayers  there  are  several  things  which  deserve 
special  attention. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  first  of  all,  that  the  prayers  here 
set  down  are  not  regarded  as  inflexible  forms  which  must  always 
be  followed,  but  are  intende4  to  provide  against  a  contingency 
which  would  seldom  arise  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  Church  but 
would  become  more  common  as  time  went  on.  This  contingency 
is  indicated  in  the  last  sentence  quoted, — "Permit  the  prophets 
to  offer  thanks  as  much  as  they  will." 

,  The  proper  officiating  personage  is  "the  prophet,"  not  the 
bishop  and  not  the  presbyter.  A  bishop  or  presbyter  might,  in- 
deed, be  a  prophet  and  exercise  "prophetic"  functions,  but  his 
"ordination"  and  the  official  position  in  the  congregation  which 
it  conferred,  carried  with  it  no  right  to  preside  at  the  Agape  or  to 
offer  the  Eucharistic  prayer.  That  was  the  prerogative  of  the 
man  who  had  the  special  endowment  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  his 
sole  right  to  perform  this  duty  rested  upon  his  possession  of  the 
charisma.     Such  a  man  would  be  a  member  of  the  congregation 

*  Matt.  24:  31. 


CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN  THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE.    59 

and  is  entitled  to  congregational  support  {^Did.  xiii),  "For," 
saj'S  the  author  of  the  Didache  significantly,  "they  are  your  chief- 
priests."  The  prayer  of  a  prophet,  however,  like  all  his  other 
utterances,  was  regarded  as  the  result  of  a  direct  inspiration  of 
the  Spirit  and  could  not,  therefore,  be  confined  to  any  formula. 
Accordingly  he  was  to  be  allowed  "to  offer  thanks"  (cvxapto-Tciv) 
in  whatever  way  he  pleased,  i.  e.,  extemporaneously.  The  ex- 
tempore character  of  the  Eucharistic  prayer  seems  to  have  main- 
tained itself  for  a  considerable  time.  Justin  Martyr,  in  the  pas- 
sages which  will  be  quoted  later,  says  that  the  president  "offers 
thanks  at  considerable  length"  {Apol.  I,  Ixv)  or  "according  to 
his  ability"  (ch.  Ixvii)  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (Bk.  VII, 
ch.  xxvi)  quote  the  words  of  the  Didache,  substituting  "presby- 
ter" for  "prophet." 

But  in  the  days  when  the  prayers  of  the  Didache  were  com- 
posed the  charismatic  ministry  was  dying  out.  "Speaking  with 
tongues"  (I  Cor.  xii  fif)  lasted  for  so  short  a  time  that  it  has 
sometimes  been  supposed  to  have  existed  only  at  Corinth.  By 
the  beginning  of  the  second  century  it  was  quite  possible  that  a 
congregation  should  have  no  prophet  among  its  members  and  un- 
der such  circumstances  there  could  be  no  inspired  prayer.  It 
was  to  meet  such  a  contingency  that  the  prayers  above  quoted 
were  composed.  As  the  prophetic  gift  became  more  rare  these 
and  similar  set  forms  would  become  the  ordinary  usage  of  the 
Church  and  extempore  prayer  would  become  less  and  less  fre- 
quent until  eventually  it  would  entirely  disappear. 

Meanwhile  the  question  must  have  arisen — "In  the  absence 
of  a  prophet,  who  is  to  offer  these  prayers  and  preside  at  the  ad- 
ministration?" The  Didache  does  not  answer  this  question  at  all, 
and  Justin  Martyr  calls  this  functionary  simply  "the  president  of 
the  brethren"  or  "that  one  of  the  brethren  who  presides,"  for 
the  Greek  text  admits  of  either  translation.  We  may  assume, 
however,  that  the  duty  would  naturally  devolve  first  upon  one  of 
the  presbyters,  and  then,  as  the  single  bishop  gained  authority, 


60  MEMOIRS. 

upon  him.  Just  when  this  transference  of  duties  began  it  is  im- 
possible to  say.  The  charismatic  and  the  official  ministry  were 
beginning  to  run  into  one  another  as  early  as  the  time  of  the 
Pastoral  Epistles  where  we  find  (I  Tim.  iii.  3)  "aptness  to  teach" 
— a  distinctly  charismatic  trait  according  to  I  Cor.  xii.  28 — de- 
manded of  the  candidate  for  the  bishop's  (or  presbyter's)  office. 
The  Ignatian  letters  (110-117  circ.)  represent  the  first  clear 
emergence  of  the  later  monarchical  bishop  from  among  his  preby- 
ters.  They  form,  so  to  speak,  the  platform  of  the  episcopal  party 
aad  claim  for  the  bishop  a  position  which  he  had  not  by  any 
means  attained  and  was  not  to  attain  for  many  years.  When, 
therefore,  we  find  Ignatius  writing  to  the  Smyrneans  i^ad  Smyr. 
viii): — "Let  that  be  held  a  valid  Eucharist  which  is  under  the 
bishop  or  one  to  whom  he  shall  have  committed  it;"  and  again: — 
"It  is  not  lawful  apart  from  the  bishop  either  to  baptize  or  to 
hold  a  love-feast;"  we  are  not  to  conclude  that  this  was  the 
universally  accepted  view  of  the  Church,  but  we  may  assume 
that  the  episcopate,  in  its  development,  was  on  the  way  to 
absorb  those  liturgical  functions  which  belonged  primarily  to  the 
"prophets." 

Turning  again  to  the  prayers  we  notice  in  the  second  place 
that  we  are  still  in  the  time  when  the  Lord's  Supper  was  preced- 
ed by  a  common  meal.  The  whole  procedure  was  regarded  as  a 
religious  rite  and  was  jcnown  as  the  Eucharist  or  breaking  of 
bread,  while  the  prayers  that  introduce  the  two  parts  of  the  Ser- 
vice show  the  spirit  in  which  it  was  conducted. 

The  Service  was  preceded  by  a  public  confession  of  sins  and 
no  man  having  a  quarrel  with  a  fellow-Christian  was  allowed 
to  come  to  the  assembly  (ch.  xiv).  After  this  they  sat  down 
to  the  meal  and  prayers  were  offered  in  consecration  of  the 
bread  and  wine  that  were  set  before  them.  After  this  eating 
and  drinking,  more  prayers  were  offered,  to  each  of  which, 
as  to  each  of  the  preceding  prayers,  the  congregation  would 
respond  with  the    "Amen."     Then,   with   the   sentences  given 


CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP    IN   THE    FIRST    POST-APOSTOLIC    AGE.    61 

at    the   close  of  ch.   x,    the  solemn   administration   was  begun: 

"May  grace  come  and  this  world  pass  away!"     Amen. 

"Hosanna  to  the  God  of  David!"     Amen. 

"If  any  man  is  holy  let  him  come;  if  any  man  is  not,  let  him 
repent.     Maranatha!"     Amen. 

The  Distribution  would  follow  and  the  congregation  would 
be  dismissed. 

We  could  wish  that  our  information  was  more  detailed. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  many  things  were  customary  in 
this  Service  which,  as  matters  of  well-known  observance,  are  not 
here  set  down.  Still  we  may  believe  that  the  essentials  of  the 
rite,  or  those  things  which  were  then  regarded  as  essential  are 
given  us.  These  were  simply  the  elements,  the  Eucharistic 
prayers,  and  the  communication,  and  even  the  nature  of  the 
prayers  would  vary  when  a  prophet  was  present  (v.  supra). 

It  remains  only  to  ask:  what  conception  of  the  Sacrament  is 
here  expressed? 

In  chapter  xiv  the  Service  is  spoken  of  as  a  "sacrifice."  It 
is  true  that  this  word  was  used  in  a  wholly  figurative  sense  as  re- 
ferring chiefly  to  the  prayers  of  the  communicants,  but  these 
prayers  had  already  given  the  Service  a  new  name.  By  S.  Paul 
and  by  numerous  writers  of  the  Early  Church  it  had  been  called 
the  "breaking  of  bread,"  but  here  (ch.  ix)  and  in  the  Ignatian 
letters  (e.  g.,  ad  Smyrn.  viii)  it  is  called  for  the  first  time  the 
Eucharist,  and  this  title  was  eventually  to  become  universal. 
We  mzy  say,  therefore,  that  while  there  was  as  yet  no  idea  of  a 
repetition  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  upon  the  Cross  connected  with 
the  Lord's  Supper,  the  Service  was  nevertheless  conceived  even 
at  this  time  under  the  category  of  sacrifice  rather  than  under  that 
of  sacrament.  It  was  a  Service,  a  spiritual  sacrifice  of  thanks- 
giving offered  to  God. 

We  are  not,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  sacramental  ele- 
ment was  not  consciously  present.  The  idea  of  a  sacramental 
gift  is  very  clear  in  the  second  of  the  prayers  given  in  ch.  x. 


62  MEMOIRS. 

That  gift,  however,  does  not  involve  the  doctrine  of  the  Real 
Presence  in  any  way.  It  is  "spiritual  food  and  drink  and  eter- 
nal life;"  it  is  the  "Holy  Name;"  "knowledge,  faith  and  immor- 
tality." In  the  prayer  over  the  cup  (ch.  ix),  where  we  would 
expect  to  find  a  reference  to  Christ's  atoning  death,  there  is  no 
direct  allusion  to  the  communion  of  the  Saviour's  blood,  but  on- 
ly thanks  "for  the  Holy  Vine  of  Thy  servant  David."  The 
prayer  over  the  bread  (ch.  ix)  and  the  final  prayer  (ch.  x),  es- 
pecially the  former,  allude  most  beautifully  to  the  body  of  Christ, 
but  it  is  His  spiritual  body,  which  is  the  Church,  that  is  there 
symbolized.  Such  is  the  interpretation  which  the  Early  Church, 
or  a  part  of  it,  placed  upon  the  words  of  Paul: — "The  bread 
which  we  break,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the  body  of  Christ." 

We  need  not  wonder  that  the  teaching  of  St.  Paul  had  been 
thus  obscured.  It  is  doubtful  how  far  the  Church,  even  in  the 
Apostolic  Age,  had  been  able  to  receive  the  Apostles'  teaching, 
and  it  is  certain  that  the  atonement  had  a  smaller  place  in  the 
theology  of  the  second  Century  than  it  had  in  the  theology  of 
Paul.  The  Incarnation  was  regarded  as  the  one  fact  of  supreme 
importance.  The  Resurrection  was  conceived  as  a  testimony  to 
the  reality  of  the  Incarnation,  and  the  Parousia  (vapova-uv)  as  the 
completion  of  all  that  the  Incarnation  had  begun.  With  a  doc- 
trine which  made  the  life  of  Jesus,  with  its  revelation  of  life, 
light  and  immortality,  the  chief  things  in  the  Gospel  and  reduced 
His  atoning  death  to  an  episode,  these  prayers  are  in  thorough 
harmony.  That  they  were  not  in  accord  with  the  later  views  of 
the  Church  is  shown  by  the  alterations  and  insertions  made  in 
them  at  a  subsequent  period.* 

The  question  may  be  asked,  if  the  connection  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  with  Christ's  death  has  been  lost,  what  idea  has  been  sub- 
stituted for  it?  As  a  matter  of  fact  there  was  no  substitution. 
The  meaning  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  not  exhausted  by  the  refer- 
ence to  the  sacrifice  on  Calvary,  and  the  obscuration  of  that  ref- 
*  Comp.  Note  I  at  the  end  of  this  article. 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP   IN  THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE.    63 

erence  has  only  brought  two  other  ideas,  subordinate,  but  inher- 
ent in  the  rite,  into  prominence.  The  first  of  these  is  the  unity 
of  the  Church,  a  unity  amid  diversity,  here  on  earth  symbolized, 
but  not  realized,  in  the  common. participation  of  the  consecrated 
bread.  Seldom  has  that  idea  been  pore  beautifully  or  more  rev- 
erently expressed  than  by  the  unknown  author  of  this  prayer:— 
■"As  this  broken  bread  was  scattered  upon  the  mountains  and  be- 
ing gathered  together  became  one,  so  may  Thy  Church  be  gath- 
ered together  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  into  Thy  Kingdom." 
"Remember,  Lord,  Thy  C^hurch,  to  deliver  it  from  all  evil  and 
perfect  it  in  Thy  love;  and  gather  it  together  from  the  four  winds 
into  Th}'  Kingdom  which  Thou  hast  prepared  for  it." 

The  second  idea  is  that  of  the  prophetic  character  of  the  Sac- 
rament, It  looks  forward  devoutly  to  the  second  coming  of  the 
Lord  and  symbolizes  the  consummation,  when  the  Lord  Himself 
shall  with  His  followers  "drink  anew  with  them  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Heaven."  "May  grace  come  and  this  world  pass  away! 
Maranatha  (the  Lord  cometh)"  is  the  formula  that  immediately 
precedes  the  Distribution,  ^hich  is  a  continual  reminder  of  the 
Parousia,  that  vivid  hope  which  dwelt  so  deep  in  the  heart  of  the 
Early  Church.  Of  the  Holy  Supper  Paul  had  written  (I  Cor.  xi. 
26) : — "As  often  as  ye  eat  this  bread  and  drink  of  the  cup  ye  pro- 
claim the  Lord's  death  till  He  come.' '  When  the  first  idea  was 
obscured  the  second  came  into  greater  prominence.  The  Church 
afterwards  changed  the  emphasis  and  laid  all  importance  to  the 
first  idea,  with  the  natural  consequence  of  all  but  disregarding  the 
second  thought — viz.,  that  the  Lord's  Supper  is,  and  should  be, 
a  prophetic  symbol  as  well  as  the  memorial  of  an  accomplished 
fact. 

Leaving  the  Didache  we  turn  now  to  the  second  main  source 
for  the  worship  of  the  Early  Church.  In  his  First  Apology,  ad- 
dressed to  the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius,  written  not  later  than 
A.  D.  150,  and  perhaps  as  early  as  A.  D.  138  or  139,  Justin  Mar- 
tyr gives  a  double  description  of  the  Eucharistic  Service.     Chap- 


64  MEMOIRS. 

ter  Ixv  connects  directly  with  Ixi  in  which  the  rite  of  Baptism  has 
been  described  and  discussed.     It  reads  as  follows: — 

"But  we,  after  we  have  thus  washed  him  who  has  been  convinced  and 
assented  to  our  teaching,  lead  him  to  the  place  where  those  who  are  called 
brethren  are  assembled,  in  order  that  we  may  offer  hearty  prayers  in  com- 
mon for  ourselves  and  for  him  who  has  been  illuminated  (i.  e.,  baptized, 
cf.  chapt.  Ixv),  and  for  all  others  in  every  place,  that  we  may  be  counted 
worthy,  now  that  we  have  learned  the  truth,  by  our  works  also  to  be  found 
good  citizens  and  keepers  of  the  commandments,*  so  that  we  may  be  saved 
with  an  everlasting  salvation. 

"Having  ended  the  prayers,  we  salute  one  another  with  a  kiss. 

"Bread  and  a  cup  of  wine  mingled  with  water  are  then  brought  to  the 
president  of  the  brethren ; 

"And  he,  taking  them,  gives  praise  and  glory  to  the  Father  of  the  Uni- 
verse, through  the  Name  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  offers 
thanks  at  considerable  length,  for  our  being  counted  worthy  to  receive  these 
things  at  His  hands. 

"And  when  he  has  concluded  the  prayers  and  thanksgivings,  all  the 
people  present  express  their  assent  by  saying  'Amen.'  This  word  Amen  an- 
swers in  the  Hebrew  language  to  yivoiro  (i.  e..  So  be  it!). 

"And  when  the  president  has  given  thanks  and  all  the  people  have  ex- 
pressed their  assent,  those  who  are  called  by  us  deacons  give  each  of  those 
present  the  bread  and  wine  mixed  with  water  over  which  the  thanksgiving 
was  pronounced,  and  they  carry  away  a  portion  to  those  who  are  not  pres- 
ent." 

The  opening  sentences  of  chapter  Ixvii  should  be  connected 
with  the  close  of  chapter  Ixv.  They  complete  the  description  of 
the  Eucharistic  Service. 

"And  we  afterwards  continually  remind  each  other  of  these  things. 

"And  the  wealthy  among  us  help  the  needy;  and  we  always  keep  to- 
gether. 

"And  for  all  the  things  wherewith  we  are  supplied  we  bless  the  Father 
of  all  through  His  Son  Jesus  Christ  and  through  the  Holy  Ghost." 

This  then  is  the  Service  which  follows  the  administration  of 
Baptism.      Let  us  turn  to  the  same  author's  description  of  the 


*  The  words  have  no  special  doctrinal  significance,  but  are  a  part  of  the  au- 
thor's refutation  of  the  charge  of  lawlessness  so  commonly  brought  against  the 
Christians.  / 


CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP    IN    THE    FIRST    POST-APOSTOLIC    AGE.    65 

regular  Sunda}^  worship.     It  takes  up  the  greater  part  of  chapter 

Ixvii. 

"And  on  the  day  that  is  called  Sunday  all  who  live  in  cities  or  in  the 
country  gather  together  to  one  place,  and  the  memoirs  of  the  Apostles  (i.  e., 
the  Gospels,  cf.  above  chap.  Ixvi)  or  the  writings  of  the  prophets  are  read, 
as  long  as  time  permits: 

"Then,  when  the  reader  has  ceased,  the  president  verbally  instructs  and 
exhorts  to  the  imitation  of  these  good  things.  ,it 

"Then  we  all  rise  together  and     -a)'; 

"And,  as  we  before  said,  bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought,  and  the 
president  in  like  manner  offers  prajers  and  thanksgivings,  according  to  his 
ability  (or,  with  all  his  might),  and  the  people  assent,  saying  Amen;  and 
there  is  a  distribution  to  each  and  a  participation  of  that  over  which  thanki 
has  been  given  (or  of  the  Eucharistic  elements),  and  to  those  who  are  ab- 
sent a  portion  is  sent  bj'  the  deacons.  "And  they  who  are  well-to-do  and 
the  willing,  give  what  each  thinks  fit;  and  what  is  collected  is  deposited 
with  the  president,  who  succors  the  orphans  and  widows  and  those  who 
through  sickness  or  any  other  cause  are  in  want,  and  those  who  are  in  bonds 
and  the  strangers  sojourning  among  us,  and  in  a  word  takes  care  of  all  who 
are  in  need." 

The  first  thing  that  we  notice  in  this  description  as  com- 
pared with  the  condition  of  affairs  indicated  in  the  Didache  is  that 
the  Agape  has  fallen  away  from  the  regular  Sunday  Service. 
This  separation  must  have  occurred  in  various  parts  of  the  Em- 
pire at  different  times  and  was  doubtless  due  to  various  reasons. 
We  have  seen*  that  the  custom  gave  rise  to  serious  abuses  even 
in  the  Apostolic  Age  and  these  abuses  would  increase  rather  than 
diminish  as  time  went  on.  Then,  too,  the  increasing  number  of 
the  Christians  would  soon  render  it  impossible  for  the  whole  con- 
gregation to  take  part  in  the  common  meal.  Finally  the  imperi- 
al prohibition  against  secret  societies,  in  localities  where  it  was 
strictly  enforced  would  have  exposed  the  Christians  to  the  danger 
of  legal  suppression  if  not  of  persecution. 

This  last  reason  seems  to  have  led  to  the  complete  abandon- 
ment of  the  custom  in  Bythinia.     Pontus  as  early  as  112  A.  D.,y 

*  Mkmoirs,  Vol.  VI,    No.  4,  pp.  61  f. 

t  Pliny  writes  to  Trajan: — "But  even  from  this  they  had  desisted  after  my 


66  MEMOIRS. 

and  the  fact  that  Justin  nowhere  refers  to  the  love-feasts  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  same  law  had  resulted  in  their  abandon- 
ment in  Rome  before  the  year  140.  But  even  where  the  custom 
was  still  maintained*  the  reasons  first  mentioned  seemed  early  to 
have  brought  about  its  entire  severance  from  the  sacramental 
Service.! 

The  place  of  the  love- feast  in  the  Service  was  supplied,  how- 
ever, by  the  consolidation  of  the  early  Service  for  edification ;{: 
with  the  Service  of  the  Sacrament  and  this  is  the  Liturgy  the 
main  features  of  which  are  described  in  the  long  passage  from 
Justin  Martyr.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  Services  is  by  no  means  lost  to  view.  On 
days  when  a  baptism  was  performed  the  baptismal  Service  takes 
the  place  of  the  Service  for  edification.  The  niissa  catechumenor- 
um  of  a  later  day  was  essentially  the  original  early  Service  as 
described  by  Paul  in  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  stripped 
of  its  charismatic  features  and  expanded,  while  the  Morning 
Prayer  of  the  Church  of  England  and  the  weekly  Morning  Ser- 
vice of  our  own  Liturgies  preserve  the  old  distinction. 

Upon  closer  examination  of  the  description  of  the  Service 
given  by  Justin  we  find  that  it  consists  of  the  following  elements. 

I.  The  Reading  of  the  Scriptures,  here  specified  as  the 
"memoirs  of  the  Apostles  (by  which  are  meant  the  Gospels,  cf. 
ch.  Ixvi)  or  the  writings  of  the  Prophets."  The  Old  or  the  New 
Testament  might  therefore  be  read,  and  the  rubric  would  say 
"as  long  as  time  permits." 


edict;  in  which,  in  pursuance  of  your  commands,  I  had  forbidden  the  existence  of 
clubs  (sodalitates). 

*  e.  g.,  in  Africa,  see  Tertullian,  Apol.  ch.  xxxix.  It  is  also  referred  to  in 
Clement  Alex,  and  in  several  passages  in  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus. 

+  The  letter  of  Ignatius  to  the  Smyrneans  (ch.  viii)  speaks  of  the  Eucharist 
and  the  love-feast  in  such  a  way  as  to  imply  that  they  were  separately  observed. 
For  argument  to  the  contrary  see,  however,  Lightfoot,  Apostolic  Fathers,  pt.  ii, 
Vol.  II,  p.  312. 

X  See  above  p.  56. 


CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP   IN   THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE.    67 

2.  The  Sermon,  based  upon  the  text  just  read  and  deliv- 
ered by  the  "president  of  the  brethren."  Originally  this  duty 
had  fallen  to  the  lot  of  the  "prophet,"  but  like  the  right  of  pre- 
siding at  the  Eucharist,  it  had  passed  into  official  hands,  i.  e., 
into  the  hands  of  the  bishop  or  of  one  of  his  presbyters,  for  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  by  this  time  presbyters  and  bishops  were 
distinct.  An  interesting  example  of  this  early  preaching  has 
come  down  to  us  from  this  period  in  the  so-called  Second  Epistle 
of  Clement  which  is  a  fragment  of  an  ancient  homily. 

3.  Praj^er.  This  was  the  General  Prayer  for  all  sorts  and 
conditions  of  men  to  which  reference  is  made  in  I  Tim.  ii.  i,  2. 
That  this  prayer  while  still  the  function  of  the  man  with  the 
charisma  was  extempore,  goes  without  saying.  That  it  would 
soon  acquire  some  kind  of  a  fixed  form  when  it  was  offered  by 
men  who  had  not  the  spiritual  gift  is  equally  certain,  and  the 
common  consent  of  scholars  declares  the  prayer  found  in  the  First 
Epistle  of  Clement  (chs.  lix,  Ix,  Ixi)  to  be  a  part  of  the  Roman 
Liturgy  or,  at  all  events,  a  good  specimen  of  congregational 
prayer,  dating  from  the  close  of  the  first  or  beginning  of  the  Sec- 
ond Century  (probably  about  96  A.  D.).* 

A  fourth  element  was  the  Singing  of  Hymns,  not  mentioned 
in  this  passage  probably  because  regarded  by  the  author  as  be- 
longing to  the  non-essentials  of  worship,  but  referred  to  in  Ap.  I, 
ch.  xiii.     We  "offer  thanks  by  invocations  and  hymns." 

5.  The  Kiss  of  Peace  is  mentioned  by  Justin  in  connection 
with  the  Baptismal  Service  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  ap- 
pear a  part  of  that  Service  rather  than  of  the  Eucharistic  Service 
which  follows.  In  speaking  of  the  ordinary  Sunday  worship  he 
omits  all  reference  to  it,  but  it  will  be  noted  that  in  the  Baptismal 
Order  it  follows  immediately  upon  the  General  Prayer,  from  which 
the  congregation  passes  to  the  Eucharist.  In  the  Clementine 
Liturgy — probably  the  oldest  that  we  possess — the  Kiss  is  given 
at  that  point  in  the  Mass  of  the  faithful  where  the  doors  are 
*  See  Memoirs,  Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  pp.  53  ff. 


68  MEMOIRS. 

closed  and  the  solemn  celebration  properly  begins.*  From  this 
and  the  New  Testament  passagesf  which  seem  to  imply  that  the 
Kiss  of  Peace  was  even  then  a  liturgical  custom 4  we  infer  that 
it  formed  the  first  part  of  the  Eucharistic  observance,  and  pre- 
ceded the  bringing  in  of  the  elements. 

6.  The  Consec7-ation  follows  upon  the  Kiss.  Bread  and 
mingled  wine  are  brought  to  the  president  who  offers  the  Eucha- 
ristic prayer  "at  considerable  length"  (ch.  Ixv),  "according  to 
his  ability"  (ch.  Ixvii).  The  words  of  chapter  lxvi§  are  usually 
understood  as  interpretative  of  this  Eucharistic  prayer,  and  are 
commonly  quoted  as  authority  for  the  statement  that  the  prayer 
of  consecration  included,  as  in  later  Liturgies,  a  repetition  of  the 
Words  of  Institution,  but  of  this  we  cannot  be  certain.  It  seems 
probable,  but  with  the  fact  in  mind  that  the  Didache  makes  no 
reference  to  them,  our  assertions  must  be  guarded. || 

As  to  the  further  content  of  this  Eucharistic  prayer  we  may 
safely  say  that  the  forms  of  the  Didache  or  similar  forms  inde- 
pendently derived — for  Justin  is  writing  at  Rome — would  proba- 
bly be  followed.^ 

7.  The  Distribution  was  the  work  of  the  deacons,  (ch.  Ixv) 
who  carried  the  elements  to  the  congregation  and  reserved  a  por- 
tion to  be  sent  to  those  who  were  unavoidably  absent.  Justin 
and  the  Didache  are  both  silent  concerning  any  post-Communion 
usage. 

8.  After  the  Eucharist  followed  the  Collection.  The  offer- 
ings of  the  congregation  being  gathered  and  deposited  with  the 
"president"  who  distributes  them  to  the  needy.  This  fact  alone 
would  indicate  that  "president"   was  with  Justin  only  another 

*  Ap.  Const.     Bk.  VIII,    ch.  xi. 

t  Rom.  xvi,  16;    I  Cor.  xvi,  20;    II  Cor.  xiii,  12;    I  Thess.  v,  26;  I  Pet.  v,  14. 
+  The  writer  withdraws  the  statement  made  in  Memoirs  VI,  No.  4,  p.  63. 
§  See  below  Note  II. 

II   Compare,  hoivever,  Memoirs,  Vol.  VI,    No.  4,  p.  63. 

IT  For  a  very  interesting  hypothetical  analysis  of  those  prayers  see  Kliefoth, 
Lihtrgische  Abha7idlu?tgen,   Bd.  IV,   pp.  302  ff. 


CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP    IN   THE    FIRST    POST- APOSTOLIC    AGE.    69 

name  for  "bishop."  The  administration  officer  of  the  congrega- 
tion and  the  leitourgos  are  one  and  the  same  man  and  the  claims 
of  Ignatius  are  in  a  fair  way  to  realization.* 

With  Justin  Martj-r  our  period  ends.  The  traditions  of  wor- 
ship and  the  organization  which  the  Church  inherited  from  the 
Apostolic  Age,  both  have  taken  on  new  forms,  but  both  are  rec- 
ognizable for  both  bear  upon  them  the  marks  of  their  origin.  Of 
greatest  significance,  however,  is  the  fact  that  the  organization 
in  its  development  has  displaced  the  old  charismatic  ministry  and 
taken  the  worship  of  the  Church  into  its  own  hands.  When  the 
new  conception  of  the  ministry,  the  germs  of  which  are  to  be 
seen  in  the  Ignatian  letters,  has  taken  full  possession  of  the 
Church's  thought,  when  the  "president"  of  Justin  Martyr  has 
become  the  "priest"  of  TertuUian  a  new  era  will  open  up  in  the 
history  of  the  Liturgy. 

Note  I. 

Later  Variations  in  the  Prayers  of  the  Didache. 

In  the  Seventh  Book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  the  prayers 
of  the  Didache  are  given  in  an  expanded  form  which  is  instructive 
as  showing  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in  the  view  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  the  new  emphasis  which  was  now  laid  upon 
the  death  of  Christ.  The  variations  are  of  sufficient  importance 
to  warrant  us  in  presenting  them  without  further  comment,  in 
parallel  columns: 

Didache. 

Ch.  9.  We  give  Thee  thanks,  O 
our  Father,  for  the  holy  vine  of  Thy 
son  David,  which  Thou  niadest 
known  through  Thy  Son  Jesus. 

We  give  Thee  thanks  O  our  Fath-  Ch.  25.     We  give  Thee  thanks,  O 

er  for  the  life  and  knowledge  which       our  Father,  for  that  life  which  Thou 

*  For  Justin  Martyr's  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper  see  Note  II   at  the  end  of 
this  article. 


Ap.  Const.     Bk.  VII. 


70 


MEMOIRS. 


Thou     didst     make     known     to    us 
through  Thy  Son  Jesus. 


As  this  broken  bread  was  scattered 
upon  the  mountains  and  being  gath- 
ered together  became  one,  so  may 
Thy  Church  be  gathered  together 
from  the  ends  of  the  earth  into  Thy 
Kingdom. 


Ch.  lo.  We  give  Thee  thanks, 
Holy  Father,  for  Thy  holy  Name 
which  Thou  hast  made  to  tabernacle 
in  our  hearts,  and  for  the  knowledge, 
and  faith,  and  immortality  which 
Thou  hast  made  known  to  us  through 
Thy  Son  Jesus. 

Thou,  Almighty  Master,  didst  cre- 
ate all  things  for  Thy  Name's  sake, 
and  didst  give  food  unto  man  for  en- 
joyment,   that    they    might    render 


hast  made  known  to  us  through  Thy 
Son  Jesus,  through  Whom  also  Thou 
makest  all  things  and  takest  thought 
for  the  whole  world;  Whom  too  Thou 
didst  send  to  become  man  for  our 
salvation,  and  didst  permit  Him  to 
suffer  and  to  die.  Whom  Thou  didst 
also  raise  up  and  wast  pleased  to 
glorify  and  hast  seated  Him  on  Thy 
right  hand;  through  Whom  also 
Thou  hast  promised  us  the  Resurrec- 
tion from  the  dead. 

Do  Thou,  O  Lord  Almighty,  eter- 
nal God,  as  this  grain  was  once  scat- 
tered and  afterwards  gathered  to- 
gether so  as  to  form  one  loaf,  so 
gather  Thy  Church  together  from 
the  ends  of  the  earth  into  Thy  King- 
dom. 

Furthermore  we  thank  Thee,  O 
our  Father,  for  the  precious  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ,  which  was  shed  for  us, 
and  for  His  precious  body,  whereof 
we  celebrate  the  antitype.  He  Him- 
self having  commanded  us  to  show 
forth  His  death. 

(The  Doxology  follows). 

Ch.  26.  We  give  Thee  thanks,  O 
God  and  Father  of  Jesus  our  Sav- 
iour, for  that  holy  thing  which  Thou 
hast  made  to  tabernacle  within  us, 
and  for  the  knowledge,  and  faith, 
and  love,  and  immortality,  which 
Thou  hast  given  unto  us  through 
Thy  Son  Jesus. 

Thou,  O  Almighty  God,  the  God 
of  the  universe,  didst  create  the 
world  and  the  things  which  are 
therein,  through  Him;  and  didst  im- 


CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP    IN   THE    FIRST    POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE.    71 


thanks  to  Thee;  but  didst  bestow  up- 
on us  spiritual  food  and  drink  and 
eternal  life  through  Thy  Son  Jesus. 
Before  all  things  we  give  Thee 
thanks  that  Thou  art  powerful. 


Remember,  Lord,  Thy  Church  to 
deliver  it  from  all  evil  and  to  perfect 
it  in  Thy  love;  and  gather  it  togeth- 
er from  the  four  winds — even  the 
Church  which  has  been  sanctified — 
into  Thy  Kingdom  which  Thou  hast 
prepared  for  it. 


plant  a  law  in  our  souls,  and  didst 
prepare  things  beforehand  for  their 
reception  by  men.  O  God  of  our 
holy  and  blameless  fathers,  Abra- 
ham, Isaac  and  Jacob,  Thy  faithful 
servants,  Thou  art  powerful  and 
faithful  and  true  and  without  deceit 
in  Thy  promises.  Thou  didst  send 
upon  earth  Jesus  Thy  Christ,  to  con- 
verse among  men  as  man  and  to  take 
away  error  by  the  roots,  being  Him- 
self both  God  the  Word  and  man. 

Do  Thou,  even  now,  through  Him, 
remember  this  holy  Church  which 
Thou  hast  purchased  with  the  pre- 
cious blood  of  Thy  Christ,  and  de- 
liver it  from  all  evil,  and  perfect  it 
in  Thy  love  and  Thy  truth  and  gath- 
er us  all  together  into  Thy  Kingdom 
which  Thou  hast  prepared. 


Note  II. 

Justin  Martyr's  Conception  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  view  of  the  Lord's 
Slipper  contained  in  the  prayers  of  the  Didache  and  it  seems  ad- 
visable to  add  a  word  touching  the  view  held  by  Justin.  The 
reader  is  left  to  make  comparisons  and  deductions  for  himself. 

In  the  midst  of  the  description  of  the  rite  already  quoted  we 
find  {Apol.  I,  ch.  66)  the  following  passage: — 

"And  this  food  is  called  among  us  Eii;(ttpicrrta,  of  which  no  one  is  al- 
lowed to  partake  but  he  who  believes  that  the  things  which  we  teach  are 
true,  and  who  has  been  washed  with  the  washing  that  is  for  the  remission 
of  sins  and  unto  regeneration,  and  who  is  so  living  as  Christ  hath  enjoined. 
For  not  as  common  bread  and  common  drink  do  we  receive  these,  but  in 
like  manner  as  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour,  having  been  made  flesh  by  the 
Word  of  God,  had  both  flesh  and  blood  for  our  salvation,  so  likewise  have 


72  MEMOIRS. 

we  been  taught  that  the  food  which  is  blessed  by  the  prayer  of  His  Word, 
and  from  which  our  blood  and  flesh  by  transmutation  is  nourished,  is  the 
flesh  and  blood  of  that  Jesus  Who  was  made  flesh.  For  the  Apostles  in  the 
memoirs  composed  by  them,  which  are  called  Gospels,  have  thus  delivered 
unto  us  what  was  enjoined  upon  them;  that  Jesus  took  bread  and,  when  He 
had  given  thanks,  said:  'This  do  in  remembrance  of  Me;  this  is  My  body;' 
and  that  after  the  same  manner  He  took  the  cup  and  gave  thanks  and  said; 
'This  is  My  blood;'  and  gave  it  to  them  alone." 

With  this  passage  we  may  now  compare  three  others,  which 
occur  in  the  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  and  which  throw  some  light 
upon  the  vexed  question  of  Justin's  meaning. 

The  first  of  these  is  in  ch.  41: — 

"And  the  offering  of  fine  flour  which  was  prescribed  to  be  presented  on 
behalf  of  those  purified  from  leprosy,  was  a  type  of  the  bread  of  the  Eucha- 
rist, which,  in  remembrance  of  His  suffering  which  He  suffered  in  behalf  of 
those  men  who  are  purified  in  soul  from  all  evil,  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord  pre- 
scribed to  be  made,  in  order  that  we  may  at  the  same  time  thank  God  for 
having  created  the  world,  with  all  things  therein,  for  the  sake  of  man,  and 
for  delivering  us  from  the  evil  in  which  we  were,  and  for  utterly  overthrow- 
ing principalities  and  powers  by  Him  Who  suffered  according  to  His  will." 

Then,  quoting  Mai.  i,  10-12,  he  continues: — 
"He  speaks,  then,  of  those  Gentiles,  namely  of  us,  who  in  every  place 
offer  sacrifices  to  Him,  i.  e.,  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist  and  likewise  the  cup 
of  the  Eucharist." 

The  second  passage  is  in  the  same  writing  ch.  70: — 
"Now  it  is  evident  that  in  this  prophecy  (Is.  xxxiii,  13-19)  [He  alludes} 
to  the  bread,  which  our  Christ  commanded  us  to  eat*  in  remembrance  of  His 
being  made  flesh  for  the  sake  of  those  who  believe  on  Him,  for  whose  sake 
also  He  became  a  sufferer;  and  also  to  the  cup,  which  He  commanded  those 
who  partake  in  the  Eucharist  to  drink*  in  remembrance  of  His  blood." 

The  third  passage  is  that  of  ch.  116.  Quoting  again  MaL 
i,  10-12  Justin  comments: — 

"God  says  that  He  is  pleased  with  the  prayers  of  that  nation  then  dis- 
persed and  calls  their  prayers  sacrifices.  Now  that  prayers  and  thanksgiv- 
ings, when  offered  by  worthy  men,  are  the  only  sacrifices  perfect  and  well- 
pleasing  to  God,  I  also  admit.     For  these  alone  Christians  have  undertaken 


*  Literally  "to  do"  aprov  TroteTv,  TroTrjpiov  Trotetv  are  used  zs  termini  technici 
in  speaking  of  the  Eucharist. 


CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP    IN    THE    FIRST    POST- APOSTOLIC    AGE.    73 

to  offer,  and  that  in  the  remembrance  of  their  food,  solid  and  liquid,  in 
which  also  the  suffering,  which  the  Son  of  God  endured  for  them,  is  brought 
to  mind. 

With  these  passages  before  us,  it  now  remains  to  ask,  What 
view  of  the  Lord's  Supper  did  their  writer  hold?  Space  compels 
us  to  sum  it  up  very  briefly. 

1.  The  Eucharist  is  regarded  as  essentially  a  sacrifice.  The 
idea  which  we  found  in  the  prayers  of  the  Didache  is  here  made 
very  prominent. 

2.  The  sacrifice  is,  however,  still  entirely  spiritual. 
"Prayers  and  thanksgivings  are  the  only  sacrifices  perfect  and 
well-pleasing  unto  God"  (Dial.  ii6).  Nevertheless  the  Eucha- 
ristic  Service  culminates  in  the  prayer  over  the  bread  and  wine, 
so  that  the  consecrated  elements,  not  the  bread  and  wine  before 
the  consecration,  as  Kliefoth  maintains,  are  regarded  as  the  visi- 
ble, tangible  expression  of  the  spiritual  sacrifice  and  are  them- 
selves called  "sacrifice."      (Dial.  41). 

3.  The  sacramental  idea  is  retained,  however,  in  the  Dis- 
tribution. That  which  is  distributed  is  "the  flesh  and  blood  of 
that  Jesus  Who  was  made  flesh"  {Apol.  I,  ch.  66).  This  single 
statement  is  taken  by  many  writers  to  be  a  proof  that  Justin  held 
the  doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence.  To  this  opinion  we  can  only 
assent  with  an  important  qualification.  Verbally  he  did  hold 
such  a  doctrine,  but  he  had  not  reflected  upon  it  and  it  is  out  of 
harmony  wath  the  main  trend  of  his  thought.  What  Justin  did 
see  in  the  Lord's  Supper  was  primarily  a  memorial,  first  of  the 
Incarnation  {Apol.  I,  ch.  66;  Dial.  ch.  70)  and  then  of  the  Pas- 
sion (Dial.  ch.  41,  70,  116). 

4.  The  sacramental  importance  of  the  Lord's  Suppfer  takes, 
however,  in  the  mind  of  our  author  a  subordinate  place.  As  in 
later  times,  when  the  Eucharist  was  conceived  as  the  repetition 
of  what  transpired  on  Calvary,  it  came  to  be  regarded  as  the 
Sacrament,  and  Baptism  was  relegated  to  the  lower  place  of  the 


74  MEMOIRS. 

ceremony  of  initiation,  so  in  Justin's  time  we  find  Baptism  in  the 
first  place  and  the  Eucharist  thought  of  as  the  rite  in  which 
"those  who  are  purified  in  soul  from  all  evil"  (Dial.  ch.  41)  of- 
fer their  spiritual  sacrifice,  call  to  mind  the  Incarnation  and  the 
Passion  of  their  Lord,  fulfill  His  command,  "This  do,"  and — it 
seems  almost  like  an  afterthought — receive  the  Body  and  Blood 
of  Christ. 

Charles  M.  Jacobs. 
Allentown,  Pa. 


THE  APPLICATION  OF   LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES 
TO  THE   CHURCH    BUILDING. 


Der  Kirchenbau  des  Protestantismus  von  der  Ref- 
ormation BIS  ZUR  Gegenwart.  Herausgegeben  von  der  Ver- 
einigung  Berliner  Architekten.  Mit  1041  Grundrissen,  Durch- 
schnitten  und  Ansichten.     Berlin.     Toeche.      1893.* 

Handbuch  des  Evangelisch-Christlichen  Kirchen- 
BAUES,  von  Dr.  Phil.  Oskar  Mothes,  K.  S.  Baurath.  Mit  59  II- 
lustrationen  im  Text.     Leipzig.     Tauchnitz.      1898.! 

It  is  said  that  the  Lutheran  Churches  of  the  United  States  build 
a  new  House  of  Worship  for  every  day  of  the  year.  Many  of 
these  are  small  and  are  built  of  perishable  material.  They  are 
intended  to  give  place  to  more  substantial  structures.  They  fol- 
low the  styles  of  building  which  obtain  in  the  regions  in  which 
they  are  built,  and  bear  curious  marks  of  the  untrained  taste  of 
those  who  have  contributed  to  their  erection.  Even  if  pastor 
and  committee  have  some  peculiarity  of  taste  or  a  little  knowl- 
edge of  architecture,  their  means  are  limited;  they  must  borrow 
and  must  hasten  to  pay;  and  there  are  so  many  incongruous  ends 
to  be  served  by  the  building,  that  it  seems  vain  to  aim  at  unity 
or  to  consider  symbolism,  or  any  of  the  rules  of  art.  If  the  edi- 
fice, on  the  other  hand,  is  to  be  built  of  brick  or  stone,  and  is  in 
any  sense  built  for  the  future,  as  well  as  the  present  generation, 

•  Church- Building  of  Protestantism  from  the  Reformation  until  the  present 
time.  Edited  by  the  Society  of  Architects  of  BerHn.  With  1041  plans,  sec- 
tional drawings  and  views.     Berlin.     Toeche.     1893. 

t  Handbook  of  Evangelical- Christian  Church- Building,  by  Dr.  Phil.  Oskar 
MoTHES,  K.  S.  Baurath.  With  59  illustrations  in  the  Text.  Leipzig.  Tauchnitz. 
1898.  (Ixxv) 


76  MEMOIRS. 

it  is  recognized  to  be  wise  and  necessary  to  consult  an  architect; 
but  not  one  architect  in  a  thousand  has  any  knowledge  of  Ger- 
man Church  Architecture,  or  of  the  requisites  of  a  Lutheran 
Church;  and  they  therefore  copy  either  Protestant  Episcopal 
Churches,  whose  principles  are  altogether  different  from  ours,  or 
Methodist  or  Zwinglian  Churches  whose  spirit  is  opposed  to  ours; 
or,  if  a  well-schooled  German  architect  is  chosen,  his  work  does 
not  find  the  sympathetic  cooperation  of  the  builders  or  the  ap- 
proval of  the  community.  The  time  has  come,  I  think,  for  a 
consideration  of  the  principles  of  Lutheran  Church  Architecture. 
In  what  respect  do  these  differ  from  the  principles  of  Roman 
Catholic  or  Reformed  architecture?  Is  there  a  history  of  Lu- 
theran Church  Building?  Is  there  any  distinctively  Protestant 
style  of  architecture;  any  distinctively  Lutheran?  What  peculiar 
arrangement  or  style  is  demanded  by  the  genius  and  history  of 
Lutheran  belief  and  worship? 

The  books  whose  titles  accompany  this  article  dispose  of  the 
notion  that  the  Protestant  Reformation  merely  adopted  the 
church  buildings  that  had  been  in  use,  with  few  and  no  charac- 
teristic modifications  of  their  interior,  and  that  there  has  been 
little  church  building  in  Germany  until  the  recent  immense 
growth  of  cities  required  the  formation  of  new  parishes  and  a 
heavy  outlay  upon  new  places  of  worship.  Instead,  they  tell  us 
of  hundreds  of  churches,  many  of  them  of  monumental  construc- 
tion and  style,  of  all  varieties  of  architectural  style,  obedient  to 
the  tastes  prevalent  in  different  eras,  in  some  cases  of  daring  ex- 
periments undertaken  to  invent  new,  distinctive,  evangelical 
styles  of  architecture,  and  beginning  in  the  age  of  the  Reforma- 
tion and  sprinkled  through  all  the  years  that  have  elapsed  since. 
Both  books  give  us  a  lively  scientific  criticism  of  these  attempts, 
and  discuss  the  theories  of  architects;  while  the  Berlin  architects 
give  us  pictures  and  plans  which  make  the  discussion  intelligi- 
ble. They  make  it  perfectly  clear  that  there  is  no  postulate 
which  has  not  been  considered  in   the   Fatherland,  no  novelty 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES    OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         77 

which  has  not  been  tested.  They  also  show  us  that  German  ar- 
chitecture is  peculiar.  At  another  time  I  may  attempt  a  compar- 
ison of  English  Church  Architecture  with  the  same  art  in  Lu- 
theran Germany,  a  subject  that  promises  the  utmost  interest  and 
instruction.  They  demonstrate,  moreover,  that  Protestantism  is 
not  wedded  to  any  particular  style  of  architecture  but  may  make 
use  of  all  the  historical  styles.  While  Mothes  agrees  in  this,  he 
evidently  prefers  the  Gothic  style  and  urges  that  it  is  native  to 
the  German.  They  hold  that  certain  modifications  of  pre-Refor- 
mation  architecture  are  required  by  the  principles  of  Evangelical 
Protestantism;  but,  at  the  same  time,  that  these  modifications  are 
a  return  to  the  usage  of  the  Church  in  the  ages  preceding  the 
dominance  of  Roman  Catholicism. 

Mothes  closes  his  suggestive  preface  with  these  words: 
"Luther  did  not,  and  the  Evangelical  Church  neither  can 
nor  will,  cast  to  one  side  the  tradition  of  the  Christian  Church, 
but  they  would  cleanse  it  from  the  human  opinions  and  the 
abuses  which  have  formed  upon  it  in  the  course  of  time;  and  they 
demand  the  same  purification  of  ecclesiastical  art,  of  architecture. 
"A  Handbook  for  this  art  therefore  should,  first  of  all,  give 
a  veracious  description  of  the  development  of  ecclesiastical  art 
before  the  Reformation,  based  on  careful  investigation,  and  show 
how  this  followed  the  course  of  the  history  of  the  Church,  and 
in  what  places,  within  what  limits,  and  in  what  way,  the  result- 
ant tradition  can  be  u.sed  by  the  Evangelical  Church  or  must  be 
rejected  by  her.  It  must  show  what  has  been  done  for  Evangel- 
ical ecclesiastical  art  since  the  Reformation,  its  achievements, 
failures,  and  faults.  With  this  it  should  give  suggestions,  how 
the  edifices  of  the  Evangelical  Church  should  be  shaped  and 
completed  so  as  to  agree  in  their  ARRANGEMENT  with  the 
ritual-liturgical  as  well  as  with  the  practical  requirements  of  our 
Church:  in  their  CONSTRUCTION  with  the  modern  technical 
standpoint  and  the  general  principles  now  acknowledged:  in  their 
FORM  and  CHARACTER  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity  in  gen- 


78  MEMOIRS. 

eral,  the  simplicity  and  inexhaustible  depth  of  the  nature  and 
word  of  Jesus  given  in  the  Gospel,  with  the  Evangelical  Church 
especially,  which  is  built  on  this  foundation;  and  with  the  un- 
changeable laws  of  BEAUTY,  which  have  their  origin  in  the  will 
of  God,  are  symbolized  to  us  in  Nature,  and  therefore  answer  to 
that  spirit." 

An  attempted  condensation  of  the  contents  of  these  books 
would  be  tedious.  To  discuss  even  a  few  of  the  topics  they  sug- 
gest, might  bewilder  the  reader  and  lead  his  attention  away  from 
the  points  which  are  really  essential.  I  cannot  pretend  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  subject  which  would  give  value  to  any  opinion 
I  may  express.  It  is  more  important  that  I  should  tell  what 
those  who  are  of  authority  say.  Yet  it  is  a  duty  of  those  who 
have  given  anxious  attention  to  the  matter,  and  see  the  errors 
which  ought  to  be  corrected,  to  state  the  conclusions  to  which 
those  of  authority  lead  them.  I  propose,  therefore,  to  lay  down 
a  few  propositions  which  I  hope  may  become  a  basis  of  discus- 
sion, and  to  add  to  them  in  the  form  of  Notes  material  drawn  for 
the  most  part  from  these  books.  It  will  be  evident  from  my 
omissions  what  I  consider  to  be  open  questions,  and  the  attentive 
reader  will  discover  that  in  some  cases  I  am  not  convinced  by  the 
books.  And  it  is  right  to  add  that  though  I  think  that  these 
principles  should  be  much  more  closely  observed  than  they  have 
been,  I  do  not  think  that  they  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  law  and 
that  every  reverend  old  church  ought  to  be  altered  to  accord  with 
them.  The  truth  is,  that  we  may  learn  a  great  deal  from  the 
ways  in  which  our  fathers,  who  certainly  were  not  without  the 
"Lutheran  consciousness,"  endeavored  to  satisfy  what  they  knew 
to  be  essential  to  their  faith  and  their  traditions. 


■  lutheran  principles  of  church  architecture.      79 

Propositions   for   Discussion. 

I.  The  Lutheran  Church  is  bound  to  no  particular  style  of 
Architecture.  The  style  should  be  chosen  with  reference  to  the 
site  of  the  building,  its  surroundings,  and  its  purpose. 

While  the  Gothic  style  may  seem  to  have  especial  claims,  on 
the  other  hand  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Gothic  is  suited  to  the 
small  structures  which  many  are  compelled  to  build.  A  large 
Gothic  church  with  nave  and  aisles  is  not  favourable  to  a  Service 
where  the  minister  must  be  seen  in  all  parts  of  the  Service  and 
distinctly  heard. 

II.  While  many  churches  which  had  been  built  before  the 
Reformation  were  taken  over  and  in  some  respects  were  altered 
to  adapt  them  to  their  new  use,  so  many  new  Lutheran  churches 
have  been  built  in  all  periods  since  the  Reformation,  so  many  ex- 
periments have  been  tried,  that  the  requirements  and  character 
of  a  distinctivelj^  Lutheran  church  building  are  fully  known. 

III.  A  Lutheran  Church  differs  from  a  Roman  Catholic 
Church 

1.  in  having  but  one  Altar; 

2.  in  making  due  provision  for  the  preaching  of  the 
Word; 

3.  in  providing  that  the  whole  congregation  may  intelli- 
gently take  part  in  the  whole  Service  of  worship; 

4.  in  not  making  a  separation  between  a  "clergy"  and  a 
"laity;" 

5.  in  providing  for  the  Communion  of  the  people,  instead 
of  a  Celebration  of  the  Sacrament; 

6.  in  arranging  for  a  Service  whose  reality  depends  on 
the  presence  and  participation  of  the  Congregation.  On  the  oth- 
er hand,  the  sanctity  of  a  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  guaranteed 
by  the  supposed  Presence  of  Christ  upon  the  Altar,  and  the  Con- 
secration of  the  church. 


80  MEMOIRS. 

IV.  A  Lutheran  Church  differs  from  a  Non-IyUtheran  Prot- 
estant Church  because  in  the  former 

1.  Christ  is  present  in  His  Word  and  Sacraments,  through 
them  speaks  to  us,  and  through  them  imparts  Himself  to  us; 

2.  and  the  Holy  Communion  is  not  merely  a  mark  of  the 
confession  and  communion  of  the  people  of  God,  but  is  a  Sacra- 
ment. 

(The  word  "Reformed"  is  used  in  German  books  to  connote 
what  we  have  attempted  to  express  by  "Non-Lutheran."  We 
acknowledge  that  there  are  Churches  in  other  communions  than 
the  Lutheran  which,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  accord  with  Lu- 
theran principles.  By  "Non- Lutheran"  we  mean  the  whole  of 
Protestantism  which  rejects  and  stands  opposed  to  the  positive 
principles  confessed  by  the  Lutheran  Churches.) 

V.  It  is  for  these  reasons  that  a  place  must  be  accorded  the 
Word  and  Sacraments  in  a  Lutheran  Church  separate  from  the 
Congregation,  speaking  to  it  in  the  Name  of  God,  and  dominat- 
ing the  whole  arrangement  of  the  church.  The  Altar  should  be 
central,  at  the  end  of  the  main  axis  of  the  church,  because  it  is 
the  place  of  direct  communion  with  God  in  the  Sacrament  and  in 
prayer;  the  Pulpit  and  the  Lectern  should  be  in  organic  relation 
to  it;  and  all  must  be  so  arranged  that  the  minister  at  the  Altar, 
or  in  the  Pulpit  or  at  the  Lectern,  will  be  visible  and  his  voice 
will  be  intelligible  from  every  seat  in  the  church. 

VI.  No  place  of  worship  can  be  arranged  to  answer  the 
purposes  of  both  a  Sunday  School  and  a  Church.  The  former  is 
a  School,  the  latter  is  a  Church.  In  the  former  the  Altar  and 
the  Pulpit  are  out  of  place,  in  the  latter  they  are  essential. 
There  ought  to  be  but  one  Altar  of  the  congregation.  It  is  man- 
ifestly unfitting  that  the  Altar  and  the  Altarspace  (Choir,  Chan- 
cel) should  be  used  in  any  way  and  for  any  purpose  other  than 
the  worship  of  the  congregation  conducted  by  the  Minister.     (We 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         81 

use  the  word  Altarspace  as  well  as  Choir  for  the  German  Chor- 
raiim,  instead  of  the  usual  term  "recessed  chancel."  The  Ger- 
mans say  "Kanzel,"  where  we  say  Pulpit.) 

VII.  The  Organ  and  the  Choir  of  Singers  should  be  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  church  opposite  the  Altar. 

The  Organ  should  hot  be  placed  behind  the  Altar.  This 
position  is  defended  by  those  who  hold  that  the  whole  Service 
depends  on  the  Congregation,  and  deny  the  Real  Presence  in  the 
Word  and  Sacraments;  and  by  those  who  declare  that,  the  Ser- 
vice properly  consisting  of  responsive  interchange  between  Chris- 
tian people,  it  is  part  of  the  function  of  the  Choir  to  preach  the 
truth.  It  is  also  urged  that  in  this  position  the  organ  and  choir 
lead  the  singing  of  the  congregation  more  eflSciently.  This  is 
not  the  case.  Their  leadership  lessens  in  power  with  the  length 
of  the  church.  It  is  most  efficient  when  the  music  of  the  choir 
and  organ  proceeds  in  the  same  direction  as  the  singing  of  the 
people,  when  coming  from  behind  the  congregation  it  is  the  back- 
ground, and  gathers  up  the  singing  and  holds  it  together.  Sing- 
ing for  entertainment  or  display  is  out  of  place  in  the  church. 
The  choir,  as  a  part  of  the  congregation,  confesses  the  truth  giv- 
en by  God  through  His  Word.  It  does  not  dispense  the  Word. 
The  Word,  the  division  of  the  Word,  the  Ministry  of  the  Word, 
and  the  administration  of  the  Word  in  the  Holy  Sacrament,  must 
be  distinguished  as  the  sole  .source  of  the  congregation's  life  and 
being. 

Neither  should  the  Organ  and  the  Choir  be  in  the  Chancel 
nor  to  the  side  of  it  in  view  of  the  congregation.  This  custom  is 
derived  from  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  which  teaches 
that  there  is  a  distinction  between  Clergy  and  Laity,  and  does 
not  hesitate  to  adopt  the  imitation  of  a  priestly  choir  and  to 
throw  the  Choir  between  the  people  and  the  Means  of  Grace. 
In  a  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  the  worshippers  may  consist  of 
Clergy,  Choir,  and  People.     In  a  Lutheran  Church  only  the  Peo- 


82  MEMOIRS. 

pie  are  in  the  presence  of  God;  the  Choir  is  a  part  of  the  Congre- 
gation; the  Minister  exercises  the  OflBce  of  the  Word,  in  which 
God  speaks.  There  are  the  same  practical  objections  to  this  po- 
sition as  to  the  position  rejected  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

VIII.  An  open  space  should  be  preserved  before  the  seats 
of  the  congregation  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  go  to  and 
from  the  Table  of  the  Lord. 

IX.  There  should  not  be  a  screen  or  closed  rail  between  the 
Altar  and  the  people.  A  rail  is  needed  only  for  those  who  kneel 
at  the  Altar.  It  is  most  accordant  with  Lutheran  principle  and 
usage  to  erect  the  rail  at  each  side  of  the  Altar  and  not  in  front 
of  it. 

X.  The  Altarspace  should  be  raised  above  the  floor  of  the 
church  to  render  all  that  goes  on  in  it  visible,  and  to  give  it  dig- 
nity; but  for  the  convenience  of  the  minister  and  the  communi- 
cants the  floor  of  the  Altarspace  should  not  be  raised  more  than 
two  steps  -above  the  floor  of  the  church. 

XI.  The  Altar  itself  should  stand  upon  a  little  platform 
raised  one  step  above  the  floor  of  the  Altarspace.  It  should 
stand  free  from  the  wall,  at  least  so  far  from  it  that  the  commu- 
nicants may  be  able  to  walk  around  it.  Its  size  and  shape  are 
regulated  by  the  uses  made  of  it,  and  its  derivation  from  a  table, 
from  the  grave  of  a  martyr,  and  from  its  character  as  the  altar- 
hearth  of  the  congregation. 

XII.  The  Pulpit  is  most  conveniently  placed  at  the  pillar 
of  the  Chancel-arch.  Historically  it  should  be  on  the  "Epistle 
Side,"  i.  e. ,  to  the  South  side  of  the  church  when  the  Altar  is  in 
its  historical  position  at  the  Eastern  end.  It  should  not  obstruct 
the  view  of  the  Altar  from  any  part  of  the  church. 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         83 

XIII.  The  Desk  from  which  the  Gospel  is  read  should 
stand  in  a  corresponding  position  on  the  other  side. 

XIV.  The  Font  should  have  a  place  of  its  own,  correspond- 
ing to  the  ancient  baptisteries.  This  may  be  found  in  the  corner 
of  the  nave  to  the  Gospel  side  of  the  Altarspace. 

XV.  The  Altarspace  should  be  lighted  by  a  window  or 
windows.  Windows  of  coloured  glass,  leaded,  often  interfere  se- 
riously with  light  and  ventilation.  But  it  is  necessary  to  shut 
out  the  sights  of  everyday. 

XVI.  A  modern  prejudice  against  Galleries  is  not  justified. 
They  are  necessary  in  a  large  church  where  Preaching  is  a  part 
of  the  Service,  in  order  to  bring  as  many  as  possible  within  sound 
of  the  preacher's  voice.  They  ought  to  be  built  in  harmony 
with  the  general  style  of  the  church.  They  should  not  extend 
into  the  Altarspace,  but  should  stop  at  such  a  distance  from  it 
that  the  Altar  will  not  be  hidden  from  any  seat  in  them.  Where 
there  are  transepts,  it  would  be  better  to  put  them  in  these. 
Where  there  are  galleries,  there  should  be  two  rows  of  windows. 

XVII.  luvthe  decoration  of  the  church  and  of  the  windows 
all  the  traditional  symbolism  of  the  church  (colours,  emblems, 
etc.)  should  be  observed. 

XVIII.  Every  detail  of  the  church  should  be  in  harmony 
with  the  architectural  stvle  chosen. 


84  MEMOIRS. 

Note  A. 

THE   EISENACH    REGULATIVE. 

(Set  forth  June  5,  1861,  by  the  Coriference  of  German  Authorities 

in  Eisenach.') 

The  notes  inserted  in  italics  are  critical  remarks  by  Mothes. 
The  notes  marked  R  are  the  remarks  appended  to  the  Regulative 
by  Rietschel  in  bis  Liturgik,  Vol.  I. 

1 .  Every  church  should  be  orientated  according  to  ancient 
custom,  i.  e.,  so  built  that  the  Altarspace  lies  towards  the  East. 
{^T he  custom  is  prcc- Catholic,  and  is  founded  on  the  breaking  of  the 
dawn,  the  coming  of  the  light  of  faith.  The  Jestdt  cjistom  of  turn- 
ing to  the  West,  reminds  us  of  the  coming  of  darkness.  A  practical 
reason  is  that  the  chief  Service  takes  place  in  the  early  part  of  the 
day,  and  again,  that  it  is  uplifting  to  look  towards  the  East.) 

Rietschel:  We  hold  the  question  of  Orientation  to  be  non- 
essential. Where  possible,  the  old  custom  should  be  kept,  but  it 
should  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  suitability  of  the 
building  for  its  purposes.  If  much  light  pours  in  through  the 
altar  windowS;  it  will  be  necessary  to  curtain  them  through  the 
whole  Service.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  Altar  be  towards  the 
West,  windows  of  a  dark  colour  will  hardly  answer  their  purpose 
on  dark  winter  days. 

2.  The  ground  plan  of  a  church  which  best  answers  to  the 
Evangelical  worship  is  an  oblong  right-angled  parallelogram. 

(  This  is  rarely  found  except  in  the  often  abominable  and  inap- 
propriate prayer  rooms  of  fiationalism,  etc.). 

The  external  height  including  the  main  gable  in  churches 
with  a  single  nave  should  be  in  the  proportion  of  '^^  of  the 
breadth,  while  the  acoustics  of  a  church  are  better  in  proportion 
as  the  breadth  of  it  approaches  its  length. 

(yHere  two  soitences  are  jammed  together  both  of  which  are  un- 
founded and  both  co7ifounded.     Many  a  church  with  only  a  nave  is 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         85 

Oily  6m.  broad,  and  then  ought  the  roof  be  more  than  ^^4/«.  high? 
The  second  sentence  leads  to  the  paradox  that  the  sqtcare  is  acoustical- 
ly the  best  parallelogram,^ . 

A  prolongation  to  the  East  for  the  Altarspace  (Apse,  Trib- 
une, Choir),  and  on  the  Eastern  part  of  the  long  sides  for  a 
Northern  and  a  Southern  Transept  {which  is  impossible  except  in 
ihe  case  of  a  pretty  long  parallelogram^  gives  to  the  building  the 
suggestive  form  of  the  Cross.  In  a  church  built  about  a  centre 
without  cross-arms,  the  octagon  is  acoustically  permissible,  but 
for  the  same  reason  a  round  church  is  inadmissible.  (  This  dic- 
tum cannot  be  established  either  from  theory  or  from  practice;  it  is 
unfortunate  because  not  supported  by  examples.  Polygons  and  ro- 
tiindas  already  have  been  excluded  by  the  requiremeyit  of  an  exten- 
sion for  the  Altar^. 

R.  The  question  between  a  long  nave  or  a  "central"  build- 
ing must  not  be  considered  essential.  For  smaller  churches  a 
single  long  nave  will  answer,  while  for  churches  of  greater  size 
the  "central"  arrangement  will  be  suitable,  because  it  permits  a 
larger  number  of  seats  to  be  placed  not  far  from  the  pulpit  and 
Altar.  As  to  the  size  of  the  building,  Luther's  advice  is  deci- 
sive: "Peine  maessige  Kirchen  mit  niedrigen  Gewoelben  sind  die 
geeignetsten  fuer  Prediger  und  Hoerer."  Monumental  churches, 
in  so  far  as  they  no  longer  let  the  church  appear  as  a  house  in 
which  the  congregation  assembles  around  the  preaching  of  the 
Word,  in  whose  further  parts  the  human  voice  no  longer  is  intel- 
ligible, can  never  again  be  regarded  as  suitable  for  Evangelical 
churches. 

3.  The  Dignity  (  This  icord  is  not  zvell  chosen.  ^'Dignity  is 
aimed  at  in  heathen  styles.  What  is  meant  is  the  Christian  Char- 
acter of  ihe  church)  demands  {for  the  present^  the  use  of  one  of 
the  historically  developed  Christian  styles  of  architecture,  and 
recommends  in  the  fundamental  form  of  a  long  parallelogram  be- 
sides the  old  Christian  Basilica  {found  also  in  the  form  of  a  square  ^ 
shorter  than  its  breadth ^  and  made  to  appear  longer  by  the  arrange- 


86  MEMOIRS. 

tnent  of  the  nave:  e.  g.,  cella  tricJiora,  oratorium  cruciforme,  basilica 
cruciformis)  and  the  so-called  Romanesque  {pre-Gothic)  style  {this 
word  scientific  zcriters  apply  rather  to  the  manner  of  cojistruction  than 
to  the forni)  especially  the  so-called  German  (^Gothic)  style.  {^Biit 
the  German  Renaissa7ice ,  Norman,  Byzantine,  02ight  7iot  to  be  sum- 
marily rnled  out).  The  choice  of  the  system  of  architecture 
(  What  is  meant  here? — the  style  of  buildiyig  or  the  system  of  form?) 
for  the  particular  case  should  follow  not  merely  the  artistic  taste 
of  the  builder,  {Does  this  mean  the  one  who  pays  the  cost,  or  the 
designer f)  but  the  prevailing  character  of  the  architecture  of  the 
locality.  {Many  a  region  has  no  such  character,  or  one  that  is  un- 
dignified, or  Catholic,  or  the  like).  Remains  of  older  church  build- 
ings that  can  be  used,  should  be  preserved  carefully  and  used  as 
a  model.  {^Here  is  no  warning  cigainst  the  despotism,  of  such  por- 
tio7is  of  old  bjiildings  belo7iging  to  different  periods).  And  so  all 
the  parts  of  the  building  in  its  inner  arrangement,  from  the  Altar 
and  its  vessels  down  to  the  seats  and  furniture,  even  the  organ, 
must  correspond  with  the  style  of  the  church. 

R.  We  must  object  strenuously  to  the  rigid  insistence  on 
one  of  the  old  styles.  We  must  regard  it  as  an  advance  of  mod- 
ern development  that  the  question  concerning  the  specifically 
church  style  has  fallen  more  and  more  into  the  background.  Of 
course  voices  still  are  heard  urging  that  the  Gothic  or  the  Renais- 
sance is  the  only  one  endorsed  by  history.  But,  if  we  see  aright, 
the  newer  development  shows  an  increasing  emancipation  from  a 
strict  imitation  of  any  historical  style  of  the  past,  that  no  partic- 
ular style  is  urged,  and  that  according  to  the  needs  of  Evangel- 
ical worship  and  with  reference  to  the  character  of  the  city  and 
region,  the  manifold  motives  of  different  styles  come  to  harmoni- 
ous but  free  employment.  Only  in  this  way  can  there  be  a  sound 
evolution,  since  neither  in  a  simple  return  to  a  past  time,  nor  in 
the  invention  of  a  new  style  {iiew  styles  are  not  invented  by  reflex- 
io7i  but  a7'e  the  fruit  of  an  orga7iic  groivth)  lies  the  calling  of  our 
time. 


LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES  OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         87 

A  simple  revival  of  the  Gothic  of  the  Middle  Ages  would 
conflict  with  sound  Evangelical  feeling.  As  certainly  as  the 
Evangelical  were  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  Gothic  church 
buildings  of  the  Middle  Ages,  so  little  can  their  great  choirs, 
which  place  the  Altar  out  of  sight  of  the  congregation  and  there- 
fore make  a  side  Altar  necessary  for  the  liturgical  Altar  Service, 
be  regarded  as  a  model  for  new  buildings.  IJere  also  a  chief 
principle  of  the  Gothic  is  violated.  A  Gothic  structure  with  its 
columns  cutting  off  the  view  of  Altar  and  Pulpit  is  not  especially 
suited  to  the  Evangelical  Service.  There  are  objections  to  the 
dominion  of  the  Gothic  on  account  of  acoustics.  And  the  more 
the  several  ornaments  of  the  Gothic  style  must  stand  in  inner 
connexion  with  the  whole  organism  of  the  building,  the  more 
objectionable  will  be  the  employment  of  the  various  motives  of 
the  Gothic  separated  from  the  whole.  It  is  certain  also  that  a 
simple  revival  of  the  Basilica  or  the  Romanesque  style,  with  its 
high  choir  and  its  strong  columns,  will  not  answer  for  the  Evan- 
gelical Church.  Yet  the  noble  and  simple  motives  of  the  Ro- 
manesque have  found  fruitful  use  in  the  Evangelical  Church  in 
recent  times. 

4.  The  church  building  requires  durable  material  and  a 
solid  construction,  without  any  deceptive  covering  or  wash. 
(//  would  be  better  to  say,  A  chtirch  building,  as  a  building  for  a 
congregation  that  survives  for  ages,  should  be  and  appear  monument- 
al; and  therefore  should  be  of  durable  material  and  construction;  for 
truth' s  sake  all  prete^ise  should  be  avoided,  and  every thi?ig  that  seems 
perishable,  and  therefore  all  accotnmodation  to  the  passing  fashion.^ 
If  wood  be  chosen  for  the  interior,  which  in  the  ceiling  is  espe- 
cially favourable  to  acoustics,  it  must  not  be  made  to  represent 
stone.  The  Altarspace  in  any  case  should  be  massively  vaulted. 
( ' '  Massively ' '  is  u  n  necessa  ry . ) 

5,  The  chief  entrance  of  the  church  is  most  appropriately 
in  the  middle  of  the  small  Western  end,  so  that  the  long  axis  of 
the  church  extends  from  it  straight  to  the  Altar.      ( The  tnotive 


bo  MEMOIRS. 

sho2ild  be  stated:  e.  g.,  strhdng  forwards  to  the  light,  drawing  nigh 
to  God,  the  Altar  is  the  goal  of  the  arrangement  of  the  church,  the 
Sacrament  is  the  culmination  of  the  Service,  etc.). 

6.  There  should  always  be  a  tower,  if  the  means  permit  it; 
and  if  these  are  wanting  at  the  time  of  building,  it  should  be 
added  afterwards.  It  is  desirable  (^No,  indispensable)  that  it 
should  be  in  organic  connexion  with  the  church,  and  as  a  rule  it 
should  be  over  the  Western  entrance.  {This  is  not  eiurgctic 
enough.  A  motive  is  not  given,  e.  g.,  to  summon,  to  show  the  way). 
Two  towers  may  either  stand  at  the  sides  of  the  choir  {first  in- 
troduced by  Odo  of  Chiny,  t942,  only  Catholic  and  Mo7ikish)  or 
close  the  West  front  of  the  church  {as  early  as  §26  by  the  Arians, 
therefore  not  Catholic,  a7id  therefore  permissible.) 

7,  The  Altarspace  (Choir)  is  to  be  elevated  several  {better  at 
least  two,  at  most  five)  steps  above  the  floor  of  the  nave.  It  is 
large  enough  if  on  every  side  of  the  Altar  it  affords  the  room 
that  is  needed.  No  other  seats  except  those  for  the  ministers 
and  the  authorities  of  the  congregation,  arid,  where  it  is  usual, 
the  Confessional,  belong  in  it.  {No  seats  for  the  Bridal  Pair  and 
wit?iesses,  for  the  Communicants,  and  Confirmantsf)  Nor  should 
any  rails  separate  the  Altarspace  from  the  nave.  (  Very  question- 
able. The  argume?it  that  every  appearance  of  an  hierarchical  spirit 
is  to  be  avoided,  has  7io  force  against  a  rail  with  a  broad  open  eyi- 
trance. ) 

R.  In  the  Wiesbaden  Program  it  is  desired  that  there  be 
no  Choir,  because  with  the  removal  of  a  separate  priesthood 
there  is  no  longer  use  for  a  place  for  the  priests.  But  the  sepa- 
rate choir  in  the  Evangelical  sense  is  to  be  taken  not  as  a  room 
for  the  clergy,  but  as  the  place  of  the  celebration  of  the  Holy 
Supper.  The  Lutheran  Church  will  not  give  up  the  Altar  and 
the  Altarspace,  though  she  does  not  think  of  it  as  the  place  of 
sacrifice  but  as  the  Table  of  the  Lord.  Whether  the  Altar  be 
put  into  a  building  made  for  it  (not  too  deep  a  recess,  however), 
or  if  it  be  found  in  the  church  building  proper,   it  will  always 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         89 

have  its  own  separate  place.  Nor  may  it  be  placed  on  one  side. 
In  this  the  Eisenach  Regulative  and  the  Wiesbaden  Program 
agree.  If  now  the  significance  of  the  Altar  as  the  Table  of  the 
Lord  requires  this,  its  position  is  fixed  in  the  chief  axis  of  the 
church  by  the  fact  that  in  confirmation  and  marriage  the  con- 
gregation within  the  church  gathers  closely  around  the  Altar. 
The  Altar  requires  for  practical  uses  a  large  special  Altarspace 
before  it,  which  could  not  be  given  it  in  a  side  position  with- 
out destroying  the  symmetry  of  the  building.  This  necessity 
is  as  great  in  a  Reformed  Church  as  in  a  Lutheran  Church. 
But  for  aesthetic  reasons  also  a  separate  Altarspace  should  be 
preserved. 

That  the  Altarspace  is  raised  a  little  above  the  floor  of  the 
nave  does  not  mean  that  it  is  considered  holier,  but  is  grounded 
on  its  use  for  the  celebration  of  the  Supper  and  in  occasional  acts. 
And  primarily  this  is  required  by  the  practical  purpose,  that  the 
minister  oflSciating  at  the  Altar  may  be  seen  and  understood  the 
better.  But  the  elevation  should  not  be  unreasonably  great. 
The  Altar  itself  should  be  raised  one  or  (better)  two  steps,  be- 
cause thus  at  confirmations,  marriages,  and  other  rites  it  is  ren- 
dered possible  to  kneel,  and  because  it  is  easier  for  the  minister 
to  give  the  Cup  to  Communicants  if  he  stands  higher  than  they. 

8.  The  Altar  may  be  placed,  according  to  liturgical  and 
acoustic  requirements,  to  the  rear  between  the  choir-arch  and  the 
rear  wall  of  the  choir,  but  never  against  this  wall.  {Here  should 
be  giveji  the  minimum  width  of  the  passage  behind  the  Altar,  and 
7vith  referetice  to  the  ivindows  of  the  choir  the  maximum^ .  One 
step  above  the  floor  of  the  choir  {better  tivo)  it  must  have  rails 
(NO,  the  platform  must  have  side  arms,  appodiatorien) ,  and  pro- 
vision for  the  kneeling  of  confirmants,  communicants  and  wed- 
ding couples  {for  the  second  at  the  sides,  thotigh  this  is  fiot  the 
custom  everywhere;  and  for  the  first  and  third  at  the  front).  The 
Altar  is  marked  as  such  by  the  Crucifix;  and  if  over  the  Altar- 
table  an  architectonic  addition  be  erected,  the  picture,   relief  or 


90  MEMOIRS. 

image  upon  it  must  represent  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  re- 
demption. 

9.  The  Font  can  stand  within  the  walls  of  the  church  in  the 
vestibule  of  the  main  entrance  {iiot  a  very  dignified  position,  often 
draughty,  and  obstructive') ,  or  in  a  chapel  erected  for  the  purpose 
near  the  choir.  Where  Baptism  is  administered  in  the  presence 
of  the  congregation,  the  best  place  for  the  Font  is  just  before 
the  entrance  to  the  Altarspace.  (^Here  it  obstructs  the  view  of  the 
Altar,  is  in  the  way,  a?id  is  likely  to  be  used  for  profane  purposes. 
For  the  one  Sacrainent  as  zvell  as  for  the  other  only  one  position 
should  be  assigned.)  It  may  not  be  replaced  by  a  portable  table. 
(  Good;  but  neither  may  it  be  replaced  by  a  basi?i  set  on  the  Altar. ) 

10.  The  Pulpit  may  stand  neither  before  nor  behind  nor 
over  the  Altar,  nor  in  the  choir.  Its  proper  place  is  where  choir 
and  nave  meet,  on  a  column  of  the  choir- arch  towards  the  nave; 
in  churches  having  several  aisles,  on  one  of  the  Eastern  columns 
of  the  middle  aisle.  (  This  is  too  vague.  Better  to  keep  to  the  first 
sentence. )  The  height  of  the  Pulpit  must  depend  on  that  of  the 
galleries,  and  should  be  as  low  as  possible  {not  under  27n.from 

floor  to  floor,  and  not  over  jY^vi.)  so  that  the  preacher  may  be  seen 
from  the  galleries  and  from  the  space  under  them.  (  The  height 
of  the  galleries  also  may  be  adjusted  to  the  height  of  the  Pulpit. ) 

R.  If  it  be  conceded  that  the  Altar  for  theoretical,  aesthetic 
and  practical  reasons  ought  to  be  kept  as  heretofore  in  the  chief 
axis  of  the  church,  the  question  arises  whether  the  same  argu- 
ment applies  to  the  Pulpit,  This  has  been  urged  in  recent  times 
with  the  greatest  pertinacity.  It  can  be  effected  only  in  one  of 
three  ways:  Pulpit  and  Altar  must  be  thoroughly  united  with 
each  other;  or  the  Pulpit  must  stand  separate  behind  the  Altar; 
or  it  must  be  placed  before  the  Altar. 

The  first  way  has  often  been  adopted  in  the  Evangelical 
Church,  the  Pulpit  being  made  to  spring  from  the  Altar  and 
hang  over  the  altar-table.  It  is  extravagant  to  say  that  thus  the 
Altar  is  trodden  underfoot,  or  is  desecrated.     In  the  Evangelical 


LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         91 

Church  the  Altar  as  a  piece  of  furniture  has  no  especial  sanctity. 
Only  while  it  is  in  use  has  it  a  meaning.  But  lesthetic  reasons 
speak  against  this  arrangement,  and  among  more  recent  archi- 
tects there  will  be  found  hardly  one  champion  of  this  form.  An 
especial  objection  is,  that  in  this  case  the  preacher  is  separated 
from  his  hearers  by  a  great  open  space,  which  must  be  kept  free 
for  communicants,  confirmants,  or  a  wedding  party.  The  very 
argument  urged  in  favor  of  this  arrangement,  that  a  preacher 
ought  to  stand  in  the  midst  of  the  congregation,  is  thus  nullified. 
He  becomes  a  pulpit  orator  who  speaks  to  an  assemblage  sepa- 
rated from  him  by  an  open  space.  Sulze's  proposal,  to  unite 
Pulpit,  Altar  and  Font,  so  that  the  table  by  the  addition  of  a  desk 
becomes  a  pulpit,  cannot  make  the  open  space  unnecessary,  and 
is  too  much  in  conflict  with  historical  usage  to  find  many  adher- 
ents. Besides,  for  acoustic  reasons  the  preacher  ought  to  be 
raised  above  the  hearers  in  the  nave  of  the  church. 

v^sthetically  it  is  better  to  place  the  Pulpit  separate  from 
the  Altar  behind  the  Altar.  This  arrangement  can  be  defended 
from  the  custom  of  the  ancient  Church.  Yet  we  must  admit 
that  this  suggests  a  distinction  between  the  clergy  and  the  laity. 
There  is  also  the  practical  objection  that  the  separation  between  the 
preacher  and  the  congregation  is  greater  than  in  the  former  case. 

These  objections  are  obviated  by  placing  the  Pulpit  in  front 
of  the  Altar.  But  if  a  separate  room  exclusively  devoted  to  the 
Holy  Supper  is  not  provided,  the  concealment  of  the  Altar  by 
the  Pulpit  will  always  be  offensive.  The  view  of  the  Pulpit  from 
the  Altar  will  be  unpleasant  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  Pulpit 
will  then  interrupt  the  view  of  the  nave  from  the  Altar  and  the 
view  of  the  Altar  from  the  nave.  Such  an  arrangement  renders 
a  second  altar  necessary  in  front  of  the  Pulpit  for  the  liturgical 
Service,  and  thus  the  old  unevangelical  arrangement  of  an  High 
Altar  and  a  lesser  altar  is  revived.  And  how  shall  the  sounding- 
board  be  put  into  place  or  the  so-called  Schallpfciler  to  which  it 
must  be  affixed? 


92  MEMOIRS. 

Sq  there  is  left  for  the  Pulpit  the  position  at  the  side,  which 
has  been  usual  hitherto.  The  best  place  for  it  is  on  one  of  the 
pillars  of  the  Chancel-arch.  This  position  is  often  opposed  on 
practical  and  sesthetic  grounds  and  said  to  be  abnormal  in  a  sym- 
metrical church.  The  placing  of  the  Pulpit  in  the  axis  is  de- 
manded as  an  unconditional  evangelical  postulate.  But  wrongly. 
When  the  Pulpit  is  put  forward  into  the  nave  the  congregation 
can  gather  immediately  around  the  preacher.  He  is  not  a  pulpit 
orator  standing  before  them,  but  a  witness  standing  in  their 
midst,  who,  inwardly  connected  with  them  utters  the  faith  which 
binds  them  all  together.  The  Pulpit,  however,  should  not  be  too 
high,  lest  the  minister  appear  like  one  standing  over  the  congre- 
gation and  out  of  living  connexion  with  it.  As  to  the  alleged 
offense  against  symmetry,  there  is  no  such  offense  if  the  Pulpit  is 
recognized  as  a  necessary  member  of  the  building.  It  gives  life 
to  the  building,  while  a  mechanical  symmetry  would  only  give  an 
impression  of  stiffness.  The  transference  of  the  Pulpit  to  one  of 
the  middle  pillars  of  the  nave  is  indeed  often  necessary  in  the 
older  structures  from  the  Catholic  period,  but  should  be  avoided 
in  new  buildings  because  it  occasions  great  difl&culty  and  dishar- 
mony in  the  arrangement  of  the  seats. 

1 1 .  The  Organ,  at  which  also  the  precentor  and  the  singing 
choir  must  be  stationed,  finds  its  natural  position  opposite  the 
Altar  at  the  West  end  of  the  church  upon  a  gallery  over  the 
main  entrance,  but  its  view  of  nave  and  choir  must  not  be  ob- 
structed by  the  beams  of  the  gallery. 

R.  The  position  of  the  Organ  is  also  a  subject  of  debate  in 
our  day.  The  champions  of  a  combination  of  Altar  and  Pulpit 
in  the  middle  axis  hold,  in  contradiction  to  the  Eisenach  Regula- 
tive, that  the  Organ  ought  to  be  in  view  of  the  congregation  at 
the  East  end  of  the  church.  They  argue  that  in  listening  to  the 
rendition  of  a  piece  of  music  one  naturally  turns  his  face  tow'ards 
the  musician.  The  fallacy  of  this  argument  lies  in  the  false  view 
that  the  organ  and  the  singing  have  an  independent  sesthetical 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES    OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         93 

significance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fir.st  use  of  the  organ  and 
the  choir  is  to  lead  the  singing  of  the  congregation.  The  Liturgy 
with  its  responses  between  the  minister  and  the  congregation 
makes  the  position  of  the  organ  opposite  the  Altar  the  most  suit- 
able one  for  the  Organ.  Otherwise  the  minister  during  the  Lit- 
urgy would  stand  between  the  choir  and  the  congregation,  which 
properly  belong  together  and  are  to  respond  to  him.  The  parts 
in  which  the  choir  and  organ  have  independent  action  are  quite 
different  from  the  presentations  of  the  concert-room.  Another 
external  reason  for  putting  the  organ  and  choir  in  the  rear  of  the 
congregation  is,  that  sometimes  members  of  the  choir  must  move 
about,  and  sometimes  there  is  difficulty  in  maintaining  order, 
which  would  greatly  disturb  a  congregation. 

The  only  argument  in  favor  of  placing  the  organ  and  choir 
in  the  Altarspace  in  view  of  the  congregation  which  is  worthy  of 
consideration,  is  the  sound  thought  of  Spitta,  that  responsive 
singing  between  the  choir  and  the  congregation  ought  to  be  in- 
troduced. But  this  would  require  only  the  stationing  of  a  choir 
in  view  of  the  congregation,  not  the  transference  of  organ  and 
choir  to  the  Altarspace. 

12.  Where  a  Confessional  or  a  Lehrsfiihl  is  used  it  belongs 
in  the  Altarspace.  (  IV/iy?  S/iall  every  penitciit  be  exposed  to  the 
view  of  the  congregatioyif)  The  latter  should  be  before  the  Altar 
or  on  one  of  the  steps  that  lead  from  the  nave  to  the  choir  {there- 
fore very  near  the  Font,  ichieh  often  leads  to  pHtti>ig  the  desk  on  the 

Font^,  yet  so  that  the  view  of  the  Altar  be  not  hindered;  or  on  a 
column  of  the  choir- arch,  in  order  that  it  may  be  turned  before 
the  Altar  for  the  purpose  of  catechisation,  etc.  (//  should  be  a 
special  desk.  The  Gospel  desk  should  not  be  movable,  J2ist  as  the 
Gospel,  the  firm  foundation  of  our  faith,  is  immovable. ~) 

13.  Galleries,  if  they  cannot  be  avoided  {a  concession  to  their 
enemies'),  except  the  Western,  must  be  put  on  the  long  sides  of 
the  church,  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  not  interfere  with  the 
free  survey  of  the  church.     In  no  ca.'^e  may  they  extend  into  the 


94  MEMOIRS. 

choir.  The  breadth  of  these  galleries,  whose  seats  are  to  rise  in 
rows  one  above  the  other,  unless  the  extension  of  the  transepts 
allows  a  greater  depth,  may  not  exceed  one- fifth  of  the  whole 
width  of  the  church,  and  their  height  above  the  floor  of  the 
church  should  not  exceed  one-third  the  height  of  the  walls.  Of 
several  galleries  one  above  the  other  no  mention  can  be  made. 
In  planning  new  buildings  in  which  provision  must  be  made  for 
galleries,  it  is  best  to  put  above  the  galleries  longer  windows 
which  will  serve  to  light  the  church,  and  smaller  windows  to 
light  the  space  beneath,  instead  of  long  windows  which  would  be 
broken  by  the  galleries. 

R.  For  the  sake  of  room  galleries  cannot  be  dispensed  with 
in  many  new  edifices,  and  their  advantageousness  for  acoustics 
must  be  considered.  But,  as  the  Regulative  says,  they  must  not 
be  treated  as  arbitrary  additions,  but  must  be  organically  con- 
nected with  the  church.  The  unfavorable  impression  made  by 
many  galleries  is  due  to  a  wrong  execution  of  this  architectural 
motive.  "It  may  not  be  overlooked  that  the  use  of  galleries  in 
the  architecture  of  Protestantism,  as  Semper  emphasized,  has 
been  justified  by  history,  and  that  by  giving  them  up  we  would 
deprive  ourselves  of  the  most  essential  means  of  characterizing 
the  Protestant  House  of  God." 

14.  The  seats  for  the  congregation  are,  if  possible,  to  be  so 
arranged  that  from  them  Altar  and  Pulpit  may  be  seen  through- 
out the  Service.  Before  the  steps  leading  up  to  the  Altarspace  a 
convenient  space  should  be  left  free  of  seats.  A  broad  aisle 
should  run  through  the  middle  of  the  nave,  or  if  it  be  not  needed 
then  two  aisles  of  proper  breadth  should  run  along  the  pillars  or 
the  supports  of  the  galleries.  {This  often  is  less  necessary  than 
aisles  along  the  walls,  where  the  heatitig  apparatiis  may  be  placed.) 
The  bases  of  the  columns  are  not  to  be  taken  for  seats.  {All  re- 
versible seats  should  be  avoided. ) 

15.  The  church  needs  a  sacristy,  not  a  room  taken  from 
the  interior   of  the  building  {i.  e.,  not  an  inorganic ,  disturbing 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF    CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         95 

thing)  but  an  adjoining  structure  {often  more  disturbing),  adja- 
cent to  the  Altarspace,  roomy,  cheerful,  bright,  beatable,  and 
that  may  be  arranged  and  furnished  in  churchly  style. 

R.  The  so-called  grouped  church  buildings,  recommended 
by  March,  in  which  all  sorts  of  rooms  for  various  purposes  are 
added,  are  not  to  be  approved,  even  if  some  of  the  purposes  men- 
tioned by  March  have  to  be  omitted,  as  parsonage,  apothecary, 
Krippe,  rooms  for  sewing  and  housekeeping  classes,  little  dwell- 
ings for  the  sick  and  aged,  rooms  for  the  Church  Council,  for 
social  and  intellectual  entertainment  of  all  sorts,  reading  rooms, 
libraries,  kitchens,  and  the  like.  The  church  as  the  place  of 
worship  and  edification  must  be  separate  from  the  dissipation  of 
everyday  life,  a  place  that  admonishes  to  self -recollection. 


Note  B. 

THE    WIESBADEN    PROGRAM. 

{^In  general  accord  with   the  pri^iciples  of  Sulze  in  Dresden.     By 
Pastor  Veesenmeyer  in  Wiesbaden.) 

1.  A  church  should  bear  in  general  the  character  of  the 
house  for  the  assembling  of  the  worshipping  congregation,  and 
not  that  of  a  House  of  God  in  the  Catholic  sense. 

2.  The  unity  of  the  room  should  give  expression  to  the 
oneness  of  the  congregation  and  to  the  principle  of  the  priesthood 
of  all  believers.  Therfore  it  should  not  be  separated  into  several 
naves,  nor  should  there  be  a  division  between  nave  and  choir. 

3.  The  celebration  of  the  Supper  should  not  take  place  in  a 
room  separated  from  the  place  of  assembly,  but  in  the  midst  of 
the  congregation.  The  Altar,  provided  with  a  passage  around 
it,  therefore  should  have  a  place  at  least  symbolically  accordant 
with  this  rule.     All  lines  of  view  should  converge  upon  it. 


96  MEMOIRS. 

4.  The  Pulpit,  as  the  place  where  Christ  is  offered  to  the 
congregation  as  their  spiritual  food,  is  to  be  treated  with  at  least 
as  much  respect  as  the  Altar.  Its  place  should  be  behind  the 
Altar,  and  it  should  be  organically  combined  with  the  organ  and 
the  platform  for  the  singers,  in  full  view  of  the  congregation. 


Note  C. 
Quotation  from  Der  evangelische  Gottesdienst  of  Julius  S.mend. 

The  former  part  of  this  quotation  is  given  in  order  to  show 
the  extreme  non- Lutheran  position  and  the  grounds  on  which  it 
rests,  and  also  the  manner  in  which  it  meets  what  might  be  de- 
scribed as  an  extreme  Lutheran  position.  The  latter  part  shows 
the  reasons  Smend  gives  for  still  retaining  the  Choir. 

N  Der  evangelische  Gottesdienst  is  a  most  readable  book,  and 
will  help  a  Lutheran  to  a  clear  recognition  of  the  essential  princi- 
ples which  accord  with  our  faith,  over  against  the  Roman  Church 
or  modern  unchurchliness.  In  \h&  Mo7iaisc/irift  fuer  Gottcsdie7ist 
U7id  Kirchliche  Kimst,  edited  by  Smend  and  Spitta,  there  has 
been  much  debate  of  these  principles  and  their  application. 

"Instead  of  seeking  the  light  on  this  subject,  many  wish  to 
reduce  the  whole  difference  of  views  to  the  contrast  between  Re- 
formed and  Lutheran.  Accordingly,  a  view  is  presented  as  the 
Lutheran,  which  has  for  its  champion  neither  Luther  nor  the  Lu- 
theran Confessions,  but  on  the  other  hand  seems  to  be  defended 
by  Reformed  theologians,  as,  for  instance,  Achelis.  The  strife 
has  finally  been  concentrated  upon  the  question  concerning  a 
Choir  {C/iorrawn,  or,  as  we  say,  a  Chancel'),  especially  in  the 
Monatschrift  fuer  Gottesdienst  7i?id  Kirchliche  Kunst.  We  may 
take  the  following  (from  Brathe)  as  the  classical  expression  of  a 
widespread  and  still  dominant  view:  'The  church  building  is  in- 
tended to  be  the  place  of  worship  of  the  Christian  community. 


LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES  OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         97 

In  this  there  is  an  actual  communion  between  God  and  the  con- 
gregation. Both  are  active  in  it.  As  now  it  is  useful  to  have  a 
room  for  the  congregation,  so  is  it  useful  to  have  one  for  the  ac- 
tion of  the  Omnipresent  God,  Who  here  acts  within  time  and 
space.  By  means  of  a  definite  second  room  adjoining  that  of  the 
congregation,  having  as  its  middlepoint  the  Altar,  the  practical 
need  is  supplied,  and  tne  consciousness  is  awakened  that  besides 
the  visible  congregation  the  Invisible  God  is  present  and  deals 
with  His  people.'  That  these  thoughts  have  been  derived  from 
thoroughly  Catholic  ideas,  is  clear.  Only  a  Tabernacle  over  the 
Altar  is  needed  to  make  of  such  a  church  a  Mass-church.  The 
visible  place  of  God  and  the  subordination  of  the  people  to  a  min- 
istry operating  thence,  stand  in  intelligible  connexion.  'The  ac- 
tion of  the  worshipping  congregation  is  receptive,  therefore  indeed 
most  active,  though  not  spontaneous.'  {Achelis.)  The  Means  of 
Grace  are  offered  it  as  immediate  gifts  of  God,  in  whose  origin, 
mediation  and  administration  it  takes  no  part.  Of  course,  bridal 
parties,  confirmands,  and  guests  at  the  Holy  Supper  may  occasion- 
ally enter  the  place  of  God,  but  the  permanent  use  of  this  place  by 
the  members  of  the  congregation,  would  be  improper.  {Brathe.^ 
'  'The  objection  that  our  people  are  not  in  sympathy  with  this 
view,  has  not  much  weight.  On  the  contrary,  the  belief  in  the 
sanctity  of  the  Altar  is  deeplj^  rooted  in  many  Evangelical  coun- 
tries. But  this  does  not  change  the  case.  What  a  mixture  of 
thoroughly  unevangelical  and  sub-christian  notions  are  at  home 
in  the  masses  of  Protestant  people!  We  do  not  need  to  take  ac- 
count of  such  outgrowths  of  popular  syncretism.  That  a  view 
of  worship,  which  culminates  in  a  demand  for  a  Holy  of  Holies, 
is  edifying  for  many  of  the  people,  cannot  be  denied.  But  it  ap- 
pears objectionable  to  build  on  popular  sentimentalism,  because 
it  has  some  worth  for  edification,  theoretical  constructions  which 
demand  quite  a  different  foundation.  Luther's  words  in  the  Tor- 
gau  Consecration  Sermon,  so  often  quoted,  that  in  the  worship 
of  God  nothing  else  takes  place  than  that  'our  dear  I<ord  speaks 


98  MEMOIRS. 

to  US  through  His  Holy  Word,  and  we  in  reply  speak  to  Him  in 
prayer  and  praise,'  are  thoroughly  intelligible  to  the  people  and 
have  an  enduring  value.  But  homiletical  figures  like  these  do 
not  afford  a  basis  for  a  liturgical  theory,  a  doctrine  of  'two  sub- 
jects dealing  with  each  other  in  the  Cultus.'  We  may  show 
what  really  may  be  learned  from  this  for  the  arrangement  of  the 
church.  But  for  the  moment  we  stand  on  the  ground  of  scien- 
tific explanation.  The  requirement  of  two  spaces,  as  devotees  of 
the  choir-apse  mean  it,  proceeds  upon  the  assumption  of  a  cul- 
tus of  the  fellowship  of  believers  either  commanded  or  imparted, 
a  cultus  which  founds  that  fellowship  and  calls  it  into  being, 
which  was  there  without  its  contribution  and  before  it  began  to 
be,  and  remains  on  the  whole  independent  of  its  cooperation. 
Word  and  Sacrament  as  'the  constitutive  factors  in  worship'  are 
held  to  be  of  purely  Divine  origin.  This  shows  their  value  over 
against  that  which  the  Christian  Church  has  created,  over  prayer, 
Church-song,  and  sermon.  In  these  God's  people  speaks;  but  in 
those,  God.  What  is  more  natural  than  to  give  to  these  histor- 
ically and  actually  so  unequal  utterances  spaces  in  the  House  of 
God  of  different  dignity?  It  is  not  enough  to  make  a  difference 
of  degree;  there  is  a  difference  of  kind.  Accordingly,  the  fourth 
of  the  Eisenach  Counsels,  like  Sec.  4  of  the  Regulative,  requires 
that  'the  Altarspace  in  every  case  be  massively  vaulted;'  and 
the  seventh  Coimsel  proceeds  from  the  same  motive  to  say:  'The 
greatest  care  is  to  be  given  to  the  ornamentation  of  the  Altar- 
space.'  The  repeated  commandment  to  raise  the  floor  of  the  choir, 
hardly  springs  from  the  practical  consideration  that  the  minister 
during  the  Liturgy  must  be  seen  from  every  part  of  the  church. 
"Now  it  is  evident  that  this  estimate  of  the  Word  and  Sacra- 
ment is  not  historically  valid.  That  the  Christian  Church,  or 
rather  its  hierarchical  representatives,  gave  the  Scriptures  of  the 
New  Testament  to  itself  as  a  Canon,  and  put  the  collection  which 
was  derived  from  the  Synagogue  by  its  side,  is  well  known.  For 
the  contents  of   these  books   the   name  'God's  Word'   is,  apart 


LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         99 

'from  its  religious  signification,  scientifically  inadmissible.  Our 
Sacraments  were  not  ordained  by  Jesus,  and  in  their  present  form 
it  is  doubtful  whether  they  were  the  creation  of  the  Church. 

"If  for  religious  considerations  this  estimate  of  the  Word  and 
Sacrament  is  rejected,  then  we  shall  be  compelled  to  acknowledge 
that  sermon,  hymn  and  prayer  are  the  work  of  God,  and  there- 
fore are  to  be  considered  only  from  a  purely  religious  standpoint. 
God's  Word  teaches  us  to  pray,  to  sing,  to  bear  testimony;  the 
churchly  sanction,  which  is  not  wanting  to  these  methods  of 
utterance  in  worship,  is  of  later  date,  but  just  as  really  was  it 
mediated  through  men  as  were  the  words  of  the  Bible  and  the 
celebration  of  the  Sacrament. 

"We  do  not  assail  the  judgment  of  faith  according  to  which 
the  Hoh"  Scriptures  and  those  early  Christian  observances  are  held 
much  higher  than  all  Agendas,  Hymnbooks  and  Postils  in  the 
world.  We  mereh^  refuse  to  acknowledge  that  a  liturgical  theo- 
ry based  on  that  estimate  has  any  claim  to  scientific  validity. 
Judged  from  a  religious  standpoint,  everything  that  goes  on  in 
our  worship  and  belongs  to  it,  has  been  given  by  God;  and  the 
congregation  itself  is  God's  counsel  and  deed.  But  it  is  just  as 
certain  that,  tried  by  the  Canons  of  scientific  investigation  the 
whole  content  of  our  Cultus,  without  any  exception  whatever,  is 
the  ordinance  and  expression  of  the  life  of  the  Christian  congre- 
gation. 

"And  therefore  the  requirement  of  a  separate  space  as  a  place 
of  God,  separated  from  the  place  of  assembly  of  the  congregation, 
is  groundless. 

"A  thoroughly  sounder  thought  lives  however  in  the  wish  to 
retain  or  recover  the  old  /hisi/ica-apse.  It  has  been  repeated  oft- 
en enough  in  these  pages  that  congregational  worship  in  order 
to  be  inwardly  and  outwardly  living,  must  have  an  ordered  re- 
sponsive Service.  Such  a  Service  is  impossible  or  at  least  diffi- 
cult if  the  room  be  not  so  divided  that  in   the  place  of  the  litur- 


100  MEMOIRS. 

gical  action  an  actual  and  immediate  exchange  can  go  on  between 
the  worshippers.  The  traditional  arrangement  of  our  churches 
provides  for  this  by  having  the  minister  stand  facing  his  fellow- 
worshippers  so  that  most  of  them  can  see  him  and  many  of  them 
can  hear  him.  But  here  the  exchange  in  worship  is  limited  to 
dialogue  between  the  minister  and  the  congregation,  or  perhaps 
between  the  minister  and  the  choir.  Even  the  sermon  is  not  un- 
derstood everywhere  to  be  an  exhortation  to  activity  in  worship. 
If,  however,  the  minister  turns  his  back  to  all  the  people,  the 
last  remnant  of  dialogue  is  taken  away,  on  which  the  livingness 
of  the  action  depends. 

"How  much  more  Evangelical  is  the  suggestion  of  Szdze,  to 
take  the  room  of  the  congregation  as  the  extended  and  true  choir, 
which  comprises  in  itself  all  that  in  the  old  Church  was  reserved 
for  the  priests.  Yet  it  may  not  be  forgotten  that  this  united 
fraternal  fellowship  in  order  to  worship  must  come  out  of  itself, 
and  w^e  cannot  agree  with  the  same  theologian  that  a  separate 
room,  not  visible  from  the  church-room  proper,  is  to  be  reserved 
for  special  actions  in  a  smaller  circle,  such  as  Marriage,  Baptism 
and  the  Holy  Supper.  It  is  true  that  the  view  that  our  churches 
have  a  double  purpose  as  the  house  of  God  and  as  the  house  of 
the  congregation,  has  a  justification  apart  from  all  practical 
necessities,  if  only  two  points  be  kept  in  mind,  namely,  that  here 
we  do  actually  offer,  experience  and  accept  the  revelation  of  God 
and  in  response  confess  it;  and  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  one 
as  well  as  the  other  takes  place  through  the  lips  of  the  congrega- 
tion, and  it  is  perfectly  free  to  choose  whom  it  will  entrust  with 
the  Word  of  God,  and  whom  with  the  word  of  confession. 

"And  thence  it  follows  of  necessity  that  that  arrangement  of 
the  space  in  the  church  is  most  rational,  /.  <?.,  the  best  adapted 
to  the  case,  which  offers  the  best  facilities  to  such  responsive  in- 
terchange. Everj'thing  that  is  done  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue, 
requires  a  standing  face  to  face.  In  other  words,  what  the  con- 
gregation would  have  offered  to  it  obviously  must  be  offered  in 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.       101 

face  of  it,  from  before  it.  And  for  this  purpose  the  former 
priestly  choir-space,  provided  it  is  large  enough,  is  admirably 
adapted.  To  unite  in  it  Pulpit,  Altar,  Organ  and  Choir  of  Sing- 
ers in  one  group,  is  the  most  natural  thing  in  the  world,  and  is 
well  known  to  be  no  new  thing,  though  this  good  Ev'angelical 
arrangement  has  fallen  into  forgetfulness  in  many  places,  or  has 
been  rejected  in  renovations  as  contrary  to  a  true  style.  Newer 
examples  furnish  the  proof  that  this  arrangement  not  only  does 
not  detract  from  edification  but  furthers  it,  and  that  the  cesthetic 
objections  made  to  it  are  not  valid.  Whoever  frequently  takes 
part  in  a  church  arranged  in  this  way  will  afterwards  have  to 
overcome  a  great  deal  before  he  can  feel  at  home  again  in  a 
church  arranged  according  to  the  Regulative y 


Note  D. 
MoTHEs'  List  of  Technical  Requirements  to  be 

PROVIDED    FOR    IN    MAKING    PLANS    FOR    A  ChuRCH-BUILDING. 
A.       TECHNICAL    REQUIREMENTS. 

I.  The  building  must  present  and  represent  an  organized 
and  unified  group  of  spaces;  (a)  for  the  assembly  of  the  congre- 
gation and  preaching  of  the  Word,  (b)  for  the  reception  of  the 
gifts  of  Grace  in  the  Sacrament,  Benediction,  etc.,  and  separate 
spaces  (c)  for  the  administration  and  the  life  of  the  congregation. 

The  space  intended  for  the  assembl)'  of  the  congregation  to 
hear  the  Word,  and  for  their  common  prayer,  thanksgiving  and 
praise  (not  a  separate  room,  and  improperly  often  called  a  Prrd- 
igtkirche)  must  provide  for  the  number  of  persons  it  expects  to 
accommodate  so  that  these  niny  be  able  to  follow  the  sermons 
with  undivided  attention  and  to  t;:ke  their  due  part  in  the  litur- 
gical rites.      This   ret^uires    bodily   comfort,   protection    against 


102  MEMOIRS. 

noise  and  profane  sights,  and  the  satisfaction  of  all  requirements- 
connected  with  such  hearing  and  participation,  especially  a  good 
view,  good,  acoustics,  maintenance  of  necessary  quiet,  and  avoid- 
ance of  all  motions  that  do  not  belong  to  the  Service  and  amelio- 
ration of  those  that  do. 

2.  The  room  must  therefore  be  large  enough  and  must  be 
provided  with  the  necessary  number  of  comfortable  and  accessi- 
ble fixed  seats,  which,  with  a  few  standing  places,  will  permit 
the  eye  and  ear  to  follow  the  course  of  the  Service  without  effort 
from  every  one  of  them.  They  are  to  be  so  arranged  that  from 
every  one  of  them  a  person  can  easily  see  the  minister  at  the  Al- 
tar, in  the  Pulpit,  or  wherever  he  may  have  to  officiate,  and  hear 
all  that  he  says,  and  take  part  in  all  the  appropriate  rites;  and 
therefore  should  be  provided  with  arrangements  for  the  h3min- 
books  and  for  kneeling.  No  special  seats  should  interfere  with 
the  others.  In  every  place,  moreover,  the  print  of  the  hymn- 
books  and  the  numbers  on  the  hymnboards  should  be  legible. 
But  the  good  lighting  here  required  should  not  blind  or  distract. 
The  windows  also  should  not  present  to  any  seat  a  distracting 
view  of  profane  life.  Good  acoustic  arrangement  and  construc- 
tion for  speech  and  music  require  that  there  should  be  insurance 
against  outside  noise.  Doors,  passages  and  steps  should  be  pro- 
vided in  sufficient  number,  and  so  arranged,  that  easily,  without 
disturbance,  there  may  be  access  to  all  the  seats  at  the  beginning 
of  the  assembly,  and  at  the  end  of  it,  or  if  there  be  danger  of  a 
panic  there  may  be  an  exit  convenient  to  every  one.  The  ex- 
clusion of  the  profane  may  be  secured  by  vestibules,  which  also 
may  answer  as  storm  doors. 

3.  In  order  to  provide  pure  air  for  several  hours  in  sufficient 
volume,  dryness,  humidity  and  temperature,  there  are  needed 
plentiful  and  well-arranged  means  for  ventilation  and  heating. 

4.  In  the  main  room,  considered  as  a  place  for  preaching, 
are  required  besides  the  hymnboards  a  pulpit  and  a  desk  for  the 
Gospels.     Both  must  be  comfortable  and  convenient  to  the  minis- 


f 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.       103 

ter,  visible  to  all  present,  so  placed  that  all  may  hear  him,  and 
constructed  on  good  acoustic  principles.  They  should  be  elevat- 
ed; the  pulpit  on  a  higher  level  than  the  reading-desk,  but  not 
so  high  as  to  make  the  preacher  dizz}^  and  to  compel  his  hearers 
to  look  straight  up  into  his  eyes.  It  should  not  be  overlooked 
that  the  pulpit  has  developed  out  of  the  Epistle-ambon,  which 
like  its  predecessor,  the  Trupyos,  stood  on  the  Epistle  side,  a  little 
farther  forward  than  the  Altar,  and  that  the  reading-desk  is  the 
successor  of  the  Gospel-ambon.  We  may  keep  their  origin  in 
mind  without  reference  to  the  use  of  both;  remembering  also  that 
the  reading-desk,  because  of  the  comparatively  brief  use  made  of 
it,  does  not  so  often  have  an  Uebcrbau  or  Rucckwand  as  the  pul- 
pit, and  that  the  former  is  used  for  the  most  part  only  in  early 
Service,  while  the  latter  is  used  at  every  part  of  the  day.  When 
the  sun  is  in  the  South,  or  in  the  Southwest,  it  strikes  more 
upon  the  Gospel  column  than  upon  the  Epistle  column.  Both 
should  cover  the  lower  body  and  legs  of  the  minister,  because 
this  gives  to  the  majority  of  speakers  a  feeling  of  greater  securi- 
ty. Both  are  not  pieces  of  furniture,  but  fixed  organic  parts,  for 
the  Word  is  the  firm  refuge,  the  immutable  basis,  of  our  faith. 

5.  Since  galleries  not  only  are  necessary-  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  a  greater  number  and  for  economical  reasons,  but  also 
contribute  in  fairly  large  congregations  to  a  family-like  gathering 
of  the  assembly  around  the  speaker,  in  contrast  with  other  audi- 
toriums, and  therefore  are  almost  characteristic  of  Evangelical 
architecture,  they  must  be  arranged  in  connection  with  the  pulpit 
in  such  a  way  that  the  preacher  can  be  seen  and  heard  equally 
well  by  those  in  the  galleries  and  those  under  them,  and  so  that 
the  unity  of  the  room  is  presented.  Therefore  the  seats  in  the 
gallery  must  be  so  arranged  that  no  straining  of  the  neck  will  be 
needed  to  see  the  Altar,  and  so  that  those  sitting  in  them  will  not 
have  their  attention  diverted,  and  that  those  on  the  rear  seats 
will  not  have  the  heads  of  those  before  them  between  them  and 
the  preacher. 


104  MEMOIRS. 

6.  The  organ  is  intended  first  of  all,  alone  or  supported  by 
a  choir  of  singers  or  by  other  instruments,  to  open,  accompany 
and  close  the  Services  in  a  clear,  significant  but  not  obtrusive 
way,  and  especially  to  complete  and  dignify,  lead  and  accompany 
the  unison  singing  of  the  congregation.  A  further  employment 
for  concerts,  etc. ,  must  give  place  to  this  liturgical  purpose  and 
function.  Therefore,  according  to  acoustic  principles,  its  tones 
ought  to  go  forth  in  the  same  direction  as  the  song  of  the  congre- 
gation, not  come  towards  it,  and  the  playing  of  it  and  the  person- 
ality of  choir  and  soloists  should  neither  obtrude  upon  the  congre- 
gation nor  seem  to  be  a  part  of  what  is  offered  to  the  congrega- 
tion, but  rather  a  part  of  what  is  done  by  it.  The  proper  place 
for  the  organ,  therefore,  is  in  the  rear  of  the  congregation.  The 
organ-loft  should  be  built  at  such  a  height  that  the  tones  will 
quickly  and  evenly  spread  through  the  whole  room,  even  its  low- 
est parts;  apd  the  size  of  the  organ  and  its  power  must  be  care- 
fully adapted  to  the  size  of  the  room.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  make  it  too  large.  The  organ  case  should  be  firm  enough, 
should  protect  the  instrument  against  dust  and  other  disturbing 
bodies,  against  sudden  and  excessive  variations  of  temperature, 
should  provide  room  enough  within  for  repairs,  and  accessibility 
and  convenience  within  and  without,  and  also  protection  of  the 
keyboard  and  the  performer  against  injury  and  crowding.  Be- 
fore the  completion  of  the  building-plan  all  that  is  necessary  con- 
cerning size,  accessibilit}',  position,  protection,  temperature,  etc., 
for  instrument,  case,  the  mechanism  and  size  of  the  bellows,  bel- 
lows-room, manner  of  blowing,  console,  the  organist's  view  of 
the  minister,  of  the  congregation,  singers  and  musicians,  should 
be  agreed  upon  between  builder,  architect,  contractor  or  musical 
director,  organist  and  organ-builder.  The  latter  often  wish  to 
build  too  large  organs,  and  5^et  do  not  provide  for  large  enough 
and  convenient  bellows-rooms.  This  warning  is  in  place  even 
against  many  modern  architects. 

b)      The  space  intended  for  the  admiJiistratioi  of  the  Sacra- 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.       105 

7nents  and  other  gifts  of  grace,  to  the  parts  of  the  Liturgy  which  re- 
fer to  the  self-offering  of  Christ  and  the  thank-offering  therefor, 
should  provide  room  enough  for  those  participatiiig  and  for  the  neces- 
sary furniture . 

7.  The  Altarspace  especially  is  not  for  us  Lutherans  a  spe- 
cially sacred  spot,  not  a  holy  of  holies,  or  hierarchically  enclosed 
abatofi,  adyton,  aphauston,  atheaton,  anaktoron,  but  the  place  of 
those  distributions  and  liturgical  rites  in  which  not  the  whole 
congregation  yet  a  certain  group  out  of  it  take  part,  those  rites 
which  are  to  be  solemnly  celebrated  in  view  of  the  congregation. 
Therefore  it  must  be  an  especial  space  adjoining  that  intended 
for  the  assembly  of  the  congregation  and  distinguished  from  it, 
yet  an  integral  part  of  it,  not  a  separate  room  (Altar-kirche),  but 
rather  so  arranged  that  the  rites  performed  in  it  may  be  followed 
by  the  whole  congregation  with  lively  sympathy,  may  be  seen 
and  heard  by  all,  therefore  wide  open  in  front  and  somewhat 
elevated,  yet  so  that  those  rites  may  not  be  hindered  by  those 
who  are  not  taking  part  in  them. 

The  Supper  is,  in  our  conception,  not  merely  a  memorial- 
supper  of  believers  among  themselves,  nor  a  memorial  of  Christ's 
Offering  and  a  thanksgiving  for  it;  but  a  Sacrament;  a  distribution 
of  the  gracious  gift  of  the  inmost  union  with  the  Lord  in  the  new 
covenant  sealed  by  that  Offering;  and  has  its  roots  not  in  what 
we  do,  but  in  what  the  Lord  does  to  us.  Therefore  the  Altar  is 
primarily  the  Table  of  the  Lord;  but  not  only  this,  but  also  the 
place  of  this  inmost  communion,  of  the  thanksgiving,  of  the  un- 
spoken vow  involved  in  such  a  communion  of  fidelity  to  this  cov- 
enant, and  of  further  rites  of  initiation,  and  of  vows  of  confirmandi, 
bridal  pairs,  ordinandi,  etc.,  of  benedictions,  blessings  for  those 
who  offer,  celebrate,  and  vow-;  for  the  whole  congregation  there- 
fore, not  as  a  place  of  offering  in  a  heathen  sense.  Both  its  form 
and  material  should  be  monumental,  if  possible  of  stone;  although, 
because  it  is  a  table  and  is  developed  from  a  table,  a  solid  and 
thorough  construction  of  wood  is  not  excluded.     It  should  be  of 


106  MEMOIRS. 

a  table  form;  should  not  be  formed  like  a  grave  in  reference  to  the 
Risen  One;  nor  like  a  hearth  as  the  heathen  and  Jewish  altars  for 
burnt  offerings  were.  It  should  be  set  with  a  Crucifix.  It  should 
be  large  enough  for  the  necessary  vessels,  lights,  etc.,  convenient, 
broad  enough  for  all  who  may  have  to  officiate  at  it,  elevated  so 
that  it  may  be  seen,  and  therefore  provided  with  a  Podest  in  front, 
which  again  should  be  surrounded  by  a  kneeling-step.  Two 
such,  that  is,  three  in  all,  might  be  inconvenient  to  the  officiant. 
No  rails  around  it  are  needed,  but  two  supports  for  the  arms  at 
the  sides  of  the  Podest.  It  does  not  stand  like  a  Catholic  grave- 
altar  or  Mass-altar  or  lay-altar  or  cross-altar,  against  the  wall, 
but — like  the  old  Christian  table-altar  and  the  high- altar  that 
grew  out  of  this  and  afterwards  was  taken  from  the  laity — it 
should  stand  free.  To  put  the  Altar  against  the  wall  is -a  return 
to  Catholic  ways,  just  as  is  its  position  before  a  windowless  wall 
in  a  dark  Chancel. 

8.  The  Font  as  the  place  of  the  second  Sacrament  should  not 
be  movable,  and  should  not  be  fashioned  like  a  piece  of  furniture. 
It  should  be  so  placed  and  shaped  that  there  will  be  no  hin- 
drance to  those  taking  part  in  a  Baptism,  that  a  fair  part  of  the 
congregation  may  take  part  as  witnesses,  and  that  all  profana- 
tion of  it  even  when  not  in  use  will  be  prevented.  Provision 
should  be  made  for  necessary  attention  to  the  child,  and  the  pro- 
tection of  its  health. 

c)     Rooms  must  be  provided  for  the  various  offices  of  the  Church. 

g.  Here  belong  the  necessary  stairways  and  passages,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  congregation  and  other  circumstances, 
one  or  more  sacristies  and  confessional  rooms,  a  room  for  con- 
firmandi,  toilets,  chambers  for  paraments  and  furniture,  heating 
apparatus,  cloak-chamber,  bell-room,  bellows-room,  wardrobes, 
etc.  All  these  rooms  should  be  placed,  sized  and  arranged  ap- 
propriately and  conveniently,  before  all  else  so  as  not  to  interfere 
with  the  chief  rooms,  and  so  that  one  of  them  does  not  interfere 
with  another,  especially  with  one  more  important.     Whether  all 


I 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.       107 

of  these  rooms,  or  only  some  of  them,  how  many,  and  what  rooms 
besides  these,  may  eventually  be  necessary,  what  space  and  ar- 
rangement will  be  needed,  all  this  should  be  considered  in  the 
program.      (Local  needs  should  be  considered.) 

d)  The  building  belongs  to  the  Congi^egation  as  such,  therefore 
to  no  one  mortal,  but  to  an  itnmortal  owner,  zuho  often  comprises  a 
whole  district.      This  mnst  fi^id  expression  in  position  and  form. 

10.  The  spot  chosen  for  the  building  should  be  easy  of  ac- 
cess to  all  parts  of  the  congregation,  and  generally  visible,  and 
should  be  provided  with  entrances  enough  properly  distributed. 
Bell  and  clock  and  dial  should  be  audible  and  visible  in  every  di- 
rection, 

1 1 .  The  building  should  provide  for  all  these  things  and  for 
their  security,  not  for  one  generation  only,  but  for  the  whole  life 
of  the  congregation.  It  should  therefore  be  solid,  monumental, 
without  being  strange  in  style  or  expensive.  All  that  can  be 
known  of  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  the  nature  of  materials  and 
of  technical  mastery  and  use  of  the  materials  should  be  devoted 
to  this  end. 

B.       DEMANDS    UPON    ART,    IN    REFERENCE   TO    FORM    AND 
CHARACTER. 

a)  The  building  should  also  aim  at  ideal  ends.  It  dare  not 
bear  the  character  of  profane  places  of  assembly  or  auditoriums,  but 
must  give  expression  to  its  higher  purpose.  The  t7vo  spaces  already 
described,  xvithout  diminution  of  their  fitness  for  their  several  pur- 
poses must  be  wrought  out  to  a  higher  unity,  even  as  Goethe  says, 
"  Unity  of  conception  and  livitig  organization  according  to  the  differ- 
efice  of  the  parts  must  characterize  every  work  of  art.''' 

12.  Within  this  unity,  the  place  of  the  congregation  in  its 
arrangement  must  contribute  to  devout  hearing  of  purely  spiritu- 
al addresses,  to  active  participation  in  song,  prayer,  praise  and 
adoration,  to  self-surrender  in  all  the  rites  of  worship;  it  must 
even  excite  thereto,  and  therefore  it  should  be  solemn,  dignified. 


108  MEMOIRS. 

elevated,  free  from  every  suggestion  of  that  which  is  profane,  not 
humble  or  disturbing,  and  not  strangely  uncomfortable,  exciting, 
distracting;  but  it  should  raise  above  the  everyday  world,  clarify 
and  collect,  and  before  all  things  make  one  feel  at  rest.  Its 
form  and  arrangement  should  not  suggest  outside  tendencies,  nor 
difference  of  rank,  etc.,  but  rather  in  recognition  that  all  are 
alike  before  God  it  should  make  every  member  of  the  congrega- 
tion feel  his  equal  rights,  so  far  as  official  station  in  the  congrega- 
tion does  not  make  a  difference. 

13.  The  Altarspace,  open  to  every  eye,  and  an  integral  part 
of  the  whole,  should  serve  to  increase  this  feeling  of  exaltation 
above  all  that  is  earthly.  It  should  appear  to  be  the  culmination 
and  goal  and  completion  of  the  place  of  the  congregation  and  so 
announce  that  it  is  the  place  for  communion  with  the  Lord.  If, 
as  we  have  said,  there  should  be  no  Altar-screen,  this  does  not 
forbid  the  low  rail  that  was  in  use  before  L,eo  III,  with  a  broad 
and  always  open  entrance.  There  may  be  fixed  seats  for  the 
representatives  of  the  congregation;  never,  however;  behind  the 
Altar. 

14.  Every  part,  even  the  smallest,  should  not  only  be  in 
perfect  unity  with  the  whole,  but  also  should  show  that  it 
serves  a  nobler  and  more  abiding  purpose  than  like  things  do  in 
profane  buildings — walls,  floors,  footstools  and  other  parts  must 
be  monumental,  not  in  the  passing  fashion  nor  of  a  trivial  elegance. 
They  must  suggest  the  super-earthly.  They  must  have  a  holy- 
day,  not  a  holiday,  character.  The  perfection  of  workmanship 
should  not  provoke  admiration  of  cunning  or  skill.  There  ought 
to  be  a  quiet  feeling  rather  than  a  clear  consciousness  of  security 
against  the  outer  world,  without  any  thought  of  the  means  which 
have  produced  it.  The  inside  walls  should  not  be  carried  out 
with  naked  bricks  for  instance,  but  if  hewn  stone  is  too  costly, 
should  be  colored  with  something  like  the  style  of  a  tapestry. 
(Smoothness  and  convenience  for  cleaning  are  the  rule  for  the 
inside  walls;  solidity  and  firmness  for  the  outside.)     The  use  of 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.       109 

the  forms  of  plants  and  figures  depends  on  the  confessional  char- 
acter; symbolical  representations  are  to  be  taken  only  from  the 
circle  of  evangelical  symbolism.  Pictures  from  the  Bible,  or  of 
angels,  require  great  premeditation;  the  representation  of  God  in 
a  human  form  had  better  be  avoided,  at  least  in  active  intercourse 
with  men.  Besides  Biblical  figures,  like  the  patriarchs,  prophets, 
Apostles,  etc.,  reformers  and  persons  connected  with  the  lo- 
cality of  the  congregation  can  be  represented,  but  only  in  histor- 
ical .scenes,  or  in  modest  portraits,  and  the  method  of  representa- 
tion or  the  place  assigned  to  the  picture  should  never  incite  to 
adoration,  or  to  any  transgression  beyond  a  mere  memorial  or 
celebration  of  an  example.  As  to  texts  and  mottoes,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  they  suggest  thoughts  which  may  interfere 
with  attention  to  the  sermon. 

15.  The  various  vessels  must  have  a  more  solid  character 
than  the  same  sort  of  things  would  have  in  dwellings  and  the  like. 
The  seats  must  differ  from  those  of  concert  halls,  schools  or  the- 
atres, the  reading-desk  and  pulpit  from  a  teacher's  desk  or  a  mu- 
sic stand  or  a  platform,  galleries  and  organ-loft  from  the  galleries 
and  orchestra  in  a  dancing-hall  or  theatre.  And  especially  should 
the  Altar-table  not  be  at  all  like  a  dining-table,  or  the  buffet  in  a 
palace. 

16.  There  should  be  an  antechamber,  and  if  possible  a  l^or- 
platz,  whether  this  be  a  churchyard,  a  garden,  or  an  elaborate 
court. 

b)  The  character  of  the  Evangelical  Church  should  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  exterior  as  well  as  in  the  interior  of  the  building  ivhich 
serves  it.  It  should  be  distinguished  from  buildings  for  prof a7ie  pur- 
poses, and  also  front  the  temples  of  other  religions  or  other  confes- 
sions. 

17.  The  chief  form  should  witness  that  the  building  serves 
no  small  but  the  greatest  purpose,  no  passing  end  but  an  eternal, 
no  material  use  but  an  ideal,  no  worldly  aim  but  a  spiritual,  no 
lowly  purpose  but  the  very  highest;  that  it  belongs  to  no  person. 


110  MEMOIRS. 

but  to  the  whole  congregation,  invites  the  whole  congregation  to 
enter,  take  part  in  assembly,  prayer,  praise,  illumination  through 
pure  doctrine,  in  short  to  the  adoration  of  God  and  exaltation  to 
Him;  but  also  that  the  chief  principle  of  the  worship  celebrated 
in  it  in  Evangelical  freedom  is  embraced  in  the  notions  of  congre- 
gational assembly,  common  hearing  of  the  Word,  thanksgiving 
for  Christ's  work  of  redemption,  reception  of  the  gifts  of  His 
grace,  and  therefore  has  nothing  to  do  with  processions,  the  sac- 
rifice of  the  Mass  and  other  mystical  ceremonies,  the  worship  of 
the  saints,  etc.  For  such  a  witness  the  building  needs  primarily, 
earnestness  and  dignity  of  appearance,  great  simple  masses,  even 
with  modest  additions  and  wide  organization  of  members,  an 
ideal  form,  aspiring  relations,  avoidance  of  forms  which  are  sub- 
ject to  passing  fashion,  declaration  and  awakening  of  assurance 
of  long  continuance  by  means  of  solidity,  external  signification  of 
inner  sanctity  by  great  windows,  and  a  broad  entrance  under  a 
tower  rising  up  towards  Heaven.  In  all,  in  every  particular,  in 
every  part,  mass  and  form,  the  exterior  should  render  the  inner 
purpose,  that  inner  organization  in  antechamber,  congregational 
space  and  Altarspace,  and  their  unified  combination,  visible.  On 
the  room  of  the  congregation  should  be  impressed  the  character 
of  rest  and  quietness;  on  the  Altarspace  of  motion,  of  aspiration; 
without  interfering  with  the  artistic  unity.  But  everything  that 
might  remind  one  of  a  mystery,  of  the  advance  of  a  procession, 
of  a  separation  of  the  priesthood  from  the  laity  in  contradiction 
of  the  universal  priesthood  of  the  congregation,  or  of  adoration 
of  the  saints,  is  to  be  strictly  avoided. 

1 8.  The  separate  forms  are  also  to  bear  the  stamp  of  Mif/i 
and  clearness.  Necessary  side  rooms,  e.  g.,  the  sacristy,  confes- 
sionals, toilets,  are  not  to  be  masked  under  forms  which  do  not 
belong  to  Evangelical  Churches,  e.  g.,  chapels  for  saints,  great 
windows  not  intended  to  give  light,  e.  g.,  behind  the  organ,  are 
to  be  avoided,  great  doors  before  little  rooms,  and  every  other 
pretense.     This  rule  also  forbids  the  concealment  of  necessary 


LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.       HI 

constructions  behind  parts  thought  to  be  true  to  the  architectural 
style,  and  superfluous  ornaments. 

b)  If  then  the  progress  of  techniq^le  is  not  to  be  concealed  by  a 
mask  taken  from  antique  art,  if  the  talent  given  to  us  is  not  to  be  hid 
in  the  earth,  and  therefore  the  adoption  of  the  whole  otitwom  system 
of  construction  of  an  old  style  is  forbidden,  this  does  not  forbid  the 
employment  of  an  antique  style  as  if  the  Evangelical  Church  had 
broken  with  the  older  Christia^i  tradition. 

Rather,  because  Papism  pushed  the  traditional  development 
off  from  its  true  course,  it  must  leave  the  false  way  then  taken, 
resume  the  old,  true,  pre- Catholic  tradition,  and  carry  it  on  on 
the  right  way. 

19.  Purist  or  archaic  employment  of  a  style  is  not  desired 
nor  defended,  but  a  conscientious  employment  of  one  style  only 
in  all  parts  of  the  work  according  to  its  own  rules. 

20.  Among  the  universal  Christian  but  not  Catholic  princi- 
ples are  the  choice  or  the  artificial  creation  of  an  elevated  site  for 
the  church-building,  which  in  olden  times  was  advised  and  even 
prescribed,  and  its  orientation.  By  the  introduction  of  the  East- 
ern position  of  the  Altar  in  420,  no  ritual  prescription  was  broken, 
but  only  the  Jewish  and  heathen  custom  of  placing  the  doors  to 
the  East.  This  was  for  the  sake  of  the  place  of  the  Crucifix  and 
the  direction  in  prayer,  with  which  the  position  of  the  Priest  at 
the  Altar  no  longer  corresponded.  Catholicism  fought  against 
the  logical  removal  of  the  seats  of  bishops  and  priests  from  behind 
the  Altar,  by  elevating  these  still  more;  and  giving  them  addi- 
tional ornamentation;  and  against  the  logical  admission  of  the 
sunlight  in  the  morning  directly  upon  the  Altar  (which  the  Ari- 
ans  adopted)  by  having  the  apse  windowless,  on  account  of  tran- 
substantiation  and  other  mysteries;  but  about  the  ninth  century 
gave  up  the  fight,  and  built  upon  the  rear  of  the  Altar  a  retable 
or  superfrontal.  Out  of  this  was  developed  the  Altar  Bildschrein 
(altar-screen,  reredos)  (first  mentioned  1240).  The  eastward 
position  of  the  Altar  was  retained  by  Catholicism  on  account  of 


112  MEMOIRS. 

its  sj^mbolism  of  the  coming  of  Christ,  etc.  In  later  times  the 
congregations  and  masons  succeeded  in  establishing  the  custom 
of  having  East  windows,  but  shortl}^  after  the  Reformation,  in 
the  Counter-reformation,  the  Jesuits  returned  to  the  Western 
Altar,  to  the  region  of  darkness.  The  position  in  the  East  and 
the  "Iticida"  therefore  is  Evangelical  and  proper,  though  not  di- 
rectly required.  The  traditional  old  Christian  way  of  burying 
the  dead  agrees  with  it,  and  a  change  would,  as  I\Ie7iser  says,  dis- 
turb. So  Hoelscher  rightly  lays  stress  on  the  fact,  that  the  orien- 
tated churches  of  old  cities  gives  the  picture  of  a  city  so  great 
and  monumental  quietness.  And  as  much  is  to  be  said  for  the 
traditional  West  portal  entrance  of  the  church,  facing  towards  the 
Altar. 

21.  The  Tower,  as  a  sign  and  summons,  stands  properly 
over  the  chief  entrance,  at  the  West.  In  spite  of  all  attempts  to 
find  a  proper  position,  as  early  as  the  Seventh  Century,  therefore 
long  before  Leo  III,  that  over  the  West  portal  became  the  favor- 
ite and  almost  the  rule.  The  few  exceptions  were  either  due  to 
necessity  or  to  the  incompleteness  of  the  building,  or  like  the 
double  towers  at  the  Choir,  which  were  derived  from  Cluny  and 
were  of  monkish  origin.  Therefore  another  position  of  the  chief 
tower  is  to  be  allowed  only  to  local  necessities. 

2  2.  Where  the  form  of  the  Communion  requires  that  the 
Communicants  pass  around  the  Altar  from  the  bread  side  to  the 
cup  side,  in  order  to  avoid  confusion  and  the  distraction  of  the 
minds  of  those  standing  before  the  Altar  a  reredos  may  be  erect- 
ed, which,  ornamented  with  a  representation  of  one  of  the  chief 
events  of  our  redemption,  may  offer  to  the  eye  an  elevating  and 
inspiring  point.  It  must  not  interfere  with  other  parts,  nor  with 
the  light  from  the  windows. 

23.  The  Pulpit  belongs  in  the  room  of  the  congregation  and 
to  the  Epistle  side.  In  large  churches  it  cannot  be  put  behind 
the  Altar  without  injury  to  the  acoustics.  This  was  perceived 
1500  years  ago.     In  larger  churches  it  does  not  often  occur,  but 


LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.      113 

in  churches  of  a  moderate  size  it  often  occurs  that  there  is  an  evil 
echo  if  the  pulpit  be  put  in  the  main  axis  of  the  church.  To 
place  the  pulpit  in  the  middle  of  the  square  before  the  Altar, 
spoils  the  acoustics  for  all  in  its  neighborhood  and  interferes  with 
the  view  of  the  Altar.  Its  construction  ivith  the  Altar  or  behind 
it  detracts  from  the  dignity  of  the  latter,  and  fuses  the  instruction 
and  admonition  of  the  congregation  too  closely  with  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  gifts  of  grace,  benediction,  etc.  The  position  advised 
does  not  mean  that  the  pulpit  is  shoved  to  one  side.  As  the 
weightiest  and  worthiest  part  of  the  room  of  the  congregation, 
the  pulpit  should  be  monumental  in  form.  According  to  most 
ancient  tradition  the  preacher  should  not  make  his  appearance 
quant  deus  ex  machina;  therefore  the  steps  leading  to  the  pulpit 
should  be  partially  visible.  The  wall  behind  it  and  the  sounding- 
board  {schalldeckel)  must  not  seem  to  be  provisional  or  transitory 
or  be  movable. 

24.  The  Lectern  for  the  Gospels  should  not  only  be  fixed 
and  firm  but  should  appear  so.  Under  the  desk  there  should  be 
space  to  have  ready  books,  notices,  etc.,  so  arranged  that  these 
and  the  taking  up  and  laying  down  of  them  should  not  be  seen 
by  the  congregation.  Therefore,  and  that  the  person  of  the  read- 
er may  be  covered,  it  should  not  be  like  a  music-stand  and  it 
should  be  free  at  the  back.  All  this  leads  to  such  a  position  and 
form  as  is  indicated  by  the  development  from  the  Gospel  ambon. 

25.  Galleries  often  will  reduce  the  cost  and  offer  the  advan- 
tages mentioned  in  Sec.  5,  but  of  course  only  when  the  number 
of  seats  they  furnish  stands  in  proper  relation  to  the  cost  of  their 
erection  and  arrangement,  which  will  not  be  the  case  if  there  be 
but  two  rows  of  seats,  nor  if  there  be  three;  and  when  their  form 
is  such  that  they  do  not  look  like  a  temporary  scaffold  but  are 
integral  monumental  members  of  the  building,  and  present  to  the 
congregation  a  character  of  oneness  and  homelikeness.  Treated 
in  such  a  way,  they  should  be  acknowledged  as  characteristic, 
organic  constituents  of  Evangelical    church-architecture.      The 


114  MEMOIRS. 

construction  of  several  galleries  one  above  the  other  detracts 
from  unity  and  dignity  and  therefore  should  be  avoided.  At 
the  utmost,  in  very  great  churches  two  such  stories  might  be 
introduced,  but  they  must  not  interfere  with  the  clear  survey 
and  total  impression  of  the  interior  and  degrade  the  character 
of  the  place  of  assembly  to  that  of  a  theatre  or  an  auditorium. 
Nor  may  they  extend  into  the  Altarspace,  to  a  line  with  the  Al- 
tar; and  in  new  buildings  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  cut  the 
windows.  The  introduction  of  galleries  into  small  churches  or 
an  irregular  arrangement  of  them  can  be  excused  only  by  necessi- 
ty. When  suflEiciently  established  rights  require  that  special  seats 
be  granted  to  any  in  the  galleries,  this  must  not  disturb  the  unity 
of  the  building,  nor  may  they  be  made  prominent  by  ornament. 
For  much  the  same  reason  boxes  in  the  Altarspace  belong  only 
to  those  whose  position  in  the  congregation  justifies  it,  as  patrons, 
officers  of  the  congregation,  representatives  of  the  Church  gov- 
ernment, the  pastor's  family,  etc.,  and  are  admissible  in  front  of 
the  line  of  the  Altar,  not  behind  it. 

26.  The  Organ-loft,  which  is  at  the  same  time  the  Choir-loft, 
has  in  general  the  same  character  as  the  galleries,  but  has  more 
to  support.  The  organ-case,  however,  should  not  be  shaped  as  a 
member  of  the  building  dependent  on  the  other  constructions,  but 
as  an  independent  instrument.  The  form  of  a  building  is  to  be 
avoided,  and  the  ethereal  character  of  music  is  to  be  suggested 
by  a  light  ornamental  style.  The  form  should  not  be  derived 
from  the  forms  of  constructions  in  stone,  nor  should  it  point  to 
arrangements  which  indicate  limitations  caused  by  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  building;  but  it  should  have  a  complete  space,  ar- 
ranged for  it  with  due  deliberation.  The  bellows-room  should 
be  bright  and  free  from  draughts,  be  readily  accessible  to  the 
player,  and  should  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  interior  of 
the  church.  Only  in  extreme  necessity  should  it  be  placed  over 
the  organ. 

27.  The  Font  should  not  be  placed  anywhere  like  a  piece  of 


I.UTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.      115 

furniture,  but  should  have  its  own  special,  chosen  and  prepared 
position.  The  position  in  the  entrance-vestibule,  while  apparent- 
ly correct  because  of  the  symbolism,  takes  from  its  dignity,  and 
sometimes  leads  to  its  profanation  as  a  mere  clothesrack,  makes 
it  difficult  to  properly  heat  the  room  and  to  provide  for  the  chil- 
dren to  be  baptized,  and  obstructs  the  passage;  and  the  position 
in  the  choir  just  at  the  ascent  to  the  Altar  is  also  objectionable, 
because  there  the  Font  is  in  the  way  of  those  that  come  and  go, 
and  interferes  with  the  view  of  the  Altar.  The  position  recom- 
mended by  Semper,  behind  the  Altar,  in  the  apse,  is  forbidden, 
like  any  position  either  in  the  congregational  room  or  the  Altar- 
space,  by  the  fact  that  the  person  brought  to  Baptism  is  not  yet  a 
member  of  the  congregation,  and  on  the  other  hand  by  the  fact 
that  the  place  of  administration  of  a  Sacrament  has  a  claim  to 
monumental  position  and  form,  and  ought  not  seem  to  be  shoved 
to  one  side. 

d)  In  the  artistic  elaboratiori  of  the  details  of  all  these  parts, 
the  style  choseyi  for  Ihe  biiildi^ig  itself  {of  course  with  the  exclusion  of 
everything  7iot  Christian')  is  to  be  carried  out  with  the  same  co?ise- 
quence  as  is  indicated  in  Sec.  ig,  with  reference  to  the  material  and 
ideal  purpose,  and  zvith  fill  use  of  all  the  means  zvhich  advanced 
technique  offers  to  secure  easier  mastery  and  churchly  character,  es- 
pecially zaithoui  conceabnent  and  hypocrisy  in  material  and  construc- 
tio7i^  and  without  pedaiitic  copying,  therefore  with  a7i  inner  compre- 
hension of  the  true  style  and  its  lazvs. 

28.  The  realms  from  which  such  aids  may  be  drawn  are, 
(in  accordance  wath  the  maxim,  "'All  things  are  yours;  prove  all 
and  hold  fast  that  ivhich  is  good) ,  especially  the  following:  plastic 
work  in  stone,  brass,  wood,  terracotta,  etc.,  (not  plaster  of  Paris 
and  lime),  decorative  and  figured  painting  on  wall,  tablets  and 
glass,  molten  work  and  work  in  metals,  tectonic  and  ceramics, 
etc.,  in  all  their  modern  perfection,  and  the  now  so  advanced 
technique  in  lighting  and  heating.  All  that  runs  into  virtuosity, 
the  employment  of  substitutes  and  nnmonumental  materials,  con- 


116-  MEMOIRS. 

cealment  and  deceit,  all  artificialities  and  tricks,  unworthy  of  art 
and  of  honest  construction,  must  be  forbidden. 

29.  If  for  a  new  building  a  style  is  chosen,  or  if  a  church 
which  is  to  be  restored  is  of  a  style,  in  whose  most  flourishing; 
period  some  of  the  technical  means  now  at  the  disposal  either 
were  not  known  or  were  yet  undeveloped,,  their  use  is  not  there- 
fore forbidden;  but  the  shaping  of  the  parts  should  be  in  the  spir- 
it of  the  chosen  style,  therefore  in  analogy  with  the  technical 
means  that  belonged  to  the  style,  in  the  way  that  masters  of  that 
period  would  have  developed  them  if  they  had  possessed  them. 
This  of  course  requires  a  deep  understanding  of  the  inner  sub- 
stance of  the  style. 

e)  Partly  for  the  sake  of  better  preservation,  longer  use,  great- 
er cleanliness,  etc.,  partly  in  direct  service  of  the  Liturgy,  means- 
■must  be  found  for  proper  protection  and  for  enduring  ajid  periodical- 
ly changing  orname?itatio?i  in  other  arts  than  architecture,  in  the 
textile  arts  for  instance,  and  this  must  accord  with  the  general  prin- 
ciples already  laid  doivn. 

30.  Here  belong  the  vestments  for  the  Altar,  Pulpit,  Lec- 
tern, etc. 

A .  Altarcloths.  These  were  considered  indispensable  in  old 
Christian  times  and  must  be  recognized  as  such  by  both  Luther- 
ans and  Reformed,  and  are  a  protection  against  the  dampness  of 
the  stone.  This  protection  may  be  partially  secured  by  covering 
the  stone  Altar-top  with  wood,  but  better  by  laying  on  it  a  chris- 
viale,  that  is,  a  linen  cloth  stiffened  by  a  wax-bath,  of  the  size  of 
the  Altar,  over  which  should  be  laid  a  cloth  of  unbleached  or  stiff 
bleached  linen  of  the  same  size,  which  often  is  omitted  although 
it  contributes  very  much  to  the  preservation  of  the  other  vest- 
ments. In  the  oldest,  and  therefore  pre-Catholic  times,  a  third 
covering  was  regarded  as  liturgically  necessary,  namely,  the  actu- 
al Altarcloth  of  pure  white  lin^n.  This  should  extend  only  a 
little  beyond  the  edge  of  the  Altar  and  needs  no  embroidery  be- 
sides crosses  of  red  or  white   yarn  in  the  corners  and  perhaps  a 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.      117 

narrow  border  of  the  same  sort  at  their  junction;  but  it  may  be 
provided  with  a  solid  linen  fringe.  Under  every  vessel  there  may 
be  a  little  linen  cloth,  a  Corporate,  and  upon  each  a  Palla.  The 
custom  of  covering  all  the  vessels  upon  carrying  them  to  the  Al- 
tar and  until  the  proper  beginning  of  the  sacramental  action  with 
a  Veil  iyeluin)  is  still  followed  in  most  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
Churches.  At  the  beginning  of  the  celebration  proper  this  is 
taken  awa^^  folded  up  and  laid  with  the  candles,  in  order  to  be 
put  over  the  vessels  by  the  minister  at  the  close  of  the  celebra- 
tion, and  this  may  be  convenient  on  account  of  the  size  of  the 
vessels.  It  would  be  well  to  have  uniformity  of  usage  in  this 
matter.  Besides,  the  Altar  should  be  provided  with  small  cloths, 
Piirificatories,  with  which  to  wipe  the  cup,  especially  the  rim  of  it 
at  every  filling,  and  also  the  Vorhalteiue€ker,  still  in  use  in  many 
regions,  which  are  of  a  breadth  of  30  to  40  cm,  and  as  long  as  the 
armrests  on  each  side  of  the  Altar,  and  are  held  there  by  two 
boys. 

B.  Not  ritiially  indispensabk  but  yet  catted  for  by  ttie  Lit- 
urgy is  the  decorative  ctotliing  of  tlie  Attar.  This  may  have 
been  added  to  the  linen  very  early  and  used  without  special 
rules.  It  is  only  natural  that  special  feasts  should  be  distin- 
guished thus  above  the  ordinary  Sundays.  Then  the  Altar  and 
its  belongings  were  covered  for  fast  days  and  memorials,  and 
decked  in  white  for  festivals  of  joy  (such  as  Christmas,  Epipha- 
ny, Easter,  Ascension  Day).  With  the  multiplication  of  feasts 
of  Martyrs  and  Saints,  the  need  grew  of  marking  the  gradually 
ordered  seasons  of  the  Church  Year,  and  so  at  a  comparatively 
late  period  the  designation  of  particular  colours  to  particular 
seasons  arose.  Since  many  Saints'  Days  fell  into  disuse  at  the 
Reformation,  and  the  Church  Year  (beginning  at  Christmas  and 
ending  with  the  preparation  of  Advent)  became  more  prominent, 
the  Evangelical  Church  can  adopt  this  significant  custom  of  the 
liturgical  colours,  though  it  grew  up  in  Catholic  times,  and 
could  hardly  put  anything  better  into  its  place.     According  to 


118  ^  MEMOIRS. 

a  few  gradually  recognized  alterations  the  order  is  the  following: 

White:  Though  many  deny  it  to  be  a  colour,  yet  the  posi- 
tive pole  of  the  scale  of  colours,  the  colour  of  spotlessness,  of  the 
candidates  for  Baptism,  etc.,  by  Luther  called  the  colour  of  the 
angels  and  of  all  saints,  for  Christmas  and  its  cycle  until  Epipha- 
ny, in  Saxony  for  the  Annunciation  also,  Easter,  and  the  First 
Sunday  after  Easter  as  the  White  Sunday  of  the  newly  baptized, 
(here  and  there  only)  until  Ascension,  Trinity,  and  St.  John 
Baptist. 

Red,  the  majestic  colour  of  dominion,  of  Joy,  of  light-giving 
doctrine,  of  the  fire  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  blood  and  of  martyr- 
dom, for  Whitsunday,  its  octave,  and  the  feasts  of  the  Reforma- 
tion and  church  dedication  which  are  a  result  of  Whitsunday,  and 
where  white  is  wanting  to  take  its  place. 

Greeji,  the  everyday  colour  of  the  earth,  the  restful  and  re- 
freshing colour  of  hope,  of  peace  and  of  victory,  for  the  everyday 
times  of  the  church,  i.  e.,  for  Epiphany  and  Trinity-tide. 

Violet,  (not  purple  nor  lilac  nor  blue)  the  solemn  earnest 
colour  of  modesty,  humility,  concentration,  penitent  concentra- 
tion in  one's  self,  for  the  closed  times.  Advent,  Lent,  Passion. 

Black  finally,  the  negative  pole  of  the  scale,  the  colour  of 
sadness  and  humiliation,  for  Good  Friday,  days  of  penitence, 
feasts  of  the  dead,  and  also  where  necessary  in  the  place  of 
Violet. 

On  the  other  hand  the  following  are  excluded: 

Blue,  although  the  colour  of  Heaven,  of  truth  and  faithful- 
ness, which  often  deserves  and  finds  its  place  in  ecclesiastical  art, 
does  not  appear  nor  should  it  appear  as  the  representative  of  a 
festival  or  a  particular  season,  and  only  in  dark  shade  in  a  pea- 
cock blue  may  it  be  used  in  place  of  violet. 

Yellow,  which  in  Catholic  Art  sometimes  occurs  as  a  substi- 
tute for  gold,  denoting  the  sun  and  the  goodness  of  God,  is  how- 
ever, rather  the  colour  of  envy,  avarice  and  faithlessness.  The 
mantle  of  Joseph  is  properly  bright  brown;   of  Peter,  orange. 


LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES    OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.       119 

Yellow  is  assigned  to  Judas.  To  use  rose  colour  or  orange  in- 
stead of  red;  instead  of  dark  green,  Maygreen,  applegreen,  olive 
or  bronze  green;  instead  of  violet,  lilac;  in  general  instead  of  full 
pure  colours,  dull  colours,  so-called  fashionable  colours,  is  to  be 
positivel)'  advised  against,  as  also  to  let  ornaments,  etc.,  of  other 
shades  of  the  same  hue  be  added  to  the  foundation  colours  in 
such  measure  as  to  take  from  the  foundation  colour  or  make  it 
uncertain. 

Silver  or  White  is  to  be  sparingly  used  in  black,  neutral 
gray  only  in  little,  spaces;  and  in  greater  spaces  as  the  colours  of 
the  mortification  of  the  flesh  it  is  not  advisable. 

The  vestment  must  not  conceal  an  essential  part  of  the  form 
or  decoration  of  that  which  it  covers,  e.  g.,  in  the  case  of  the 
Altar  its  form  as  a  hearth  or  a  table,  of  the  pulpit  its  rail,  the 
cupform  of  the  Font;  and  must  never  take  the  form  of  a  coat  or 
fall  in  long  folds. 

On  the  Altar  it  ought  to  cover  the  table  and  fall  over  the 
edge  about  a  handbreadth.  Where  the  Altarcloth  is  used  only 
at  the  Holy  Communion  the  form  is  a  matter  of  course.  But  in 
the  majority  of  Lutheran  Churches  the  Altarcloth  is  always  in 
use,  and  it  would  be  unnecessary  and  too  costly  to  put  the  litur- 
gical colours  under  it  all  over  the  Altar. 

An  Aiitependium  may  be  used  where  the  Altar  itself  is 
not  artistically  finished.  Extending  over  the  whole  front  of 
the  Altar,  it  presents  a  fine  opportunity  for  artistic  treatment. 
If  the  Altar  is  artistically  treated,  then  the  Antependiu^n  should 
be  only  half  its  width.  The  Altarcloth  proper  should  be  laid 
over  it.  Vestments  for  Pulpit  and  Lectern  belong  to  the  desk 
only.  The  front  needs  no  covering  changing  with  the  sea- 
sons. 

31.  On  the  Altar  only  fresh  flowers  should  be  used,  not 
artificial  nor  dried.  The  vases  should  be  of  monumental  ma- 
terial, of  metal  or  firm  ceramic  material,  not  of  glass  or  the  like, 
of  correct  style,  form  and  colour,  of  dignified  churchly  character, 


120  MEMOIRS. 

and  should  not  always  be  on  the  Altar;  and  still  less  should  they 
be  of  one  piece  with  it. 

32.  Nails,  etc.,  should  not  be  driven  for  purposes  of  deco- 
ration. Provision  should  be  made  for  this  in  building.  The 
same  can  be  said  of  wardrobes,  hatracks  and  the  like. 

Edward   T.   Horn. 

Reading,   Pa.  ' 


THE   BIDDING  PRAYER,   EITANY,  AND  SUFFRAGES. 


The  historical  continuity  of  the  Church  of  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion with  the  Evangelical  Christianity  of  the  ages  has  long  been 
one  of  her  boasts.  Her  right  to  this  distinction  was  obtained 
through  the  conservative  principle  which  governed  the  Lutheran 
Reformers,  i.  e.,  Things  which  are  not  forbidden  by  God's  Word 
and  which  serve  as  aids  to  devotion  and  life  shall  not  be  rejected.* 
The  proof  of  the  justice  of  our  claim  to  an  unbroken  stream  of 
Christianity  is  seen  not  alone  in  the  doctrines  of  our  Church  but 
as  w^ell  in  her  life  as  expressed  in  practice,  worship  and  environ- 
ment. 

How  the  Order  of  Common  Service  now  recommended  to  our 
Churches  in  America  and  used  so  largely  by  them  supports  the 
contentions  of  the  preceding  statements  has  been  discussed  in 
some  of  the  papers  which  form  part  of  the  Association's  Mem- 
oirs. We  purpose  to  take  up  another  phase  of  the  subject  in  the 
following  discussion,  viz.,  "The  Responsive  Church  Prayers." 
Of  these  our  Eiturgy  possesses  great  ancient  treasures  in  the 
Litany,  the  General  Suffrages,  the  Morning  and  Eveniiig  Suf- 
frages, and  the  Bidding  Prayer.^ 

Here  again  the  Lutheran  Church  demonstrates  her  ecumen- 
ical Character.  The  Litany  in  its  specific  form  is  an  early  prod- 
uct of  the  Western  Church;  her  Canonical  Hours  furnish  the 
material  for  the  Suffrages;  while  the  Eastern  Church,  from  a  still 
earlier  and  primitive  age,  supplies  the  Diaconal  Prayer. 


•  Aug.  Con/.  Art.  VII  and  XV. 

t   Church  Boo/c,  pp.    132-149;    Book  of  Worship,   (G.  S.)  pp.  165-206;   Book 
of  Worship,  (U.  S.  S.;  pp.  94-107.  (cxxi) 


122  MEMOIRS. 

The  question  arises  whether  our  pastors  know  sufficient  of 
the  history  and  sources  of  these  prayers,  or  have  studied  their  in- 
ner harmony,  beauty  and  power  closely  enough  to  have  a  desire 
or  an  ability  to  recommend  and  encourage  their  use  in  the  public 
Services  of  our  Churches.  To  know  and  use  these  Common 
Prayers  wherein  pastor  and  people  unite  antiphonally  in  supplica- 
tion before  the  Throne  of  Grace,  cannot  but  impress  upon  the 
people  the  reality  of  the  common  Christian  life,  and  infuse  the 
spirit  of  largehearted  Christian  consciousness  and  sympathy.  It 
emphasizes  also  the  evangelical  priesthood  of  all  believers  in  a 
way  that  a  long,  unbroken,  personally  extemporized  string  of 
petitions  on  the  part  of  the  pastor  can  never  do.  It  helps  to  keep 
uppermost  in  the  minds  of  the  members  the  fact  that  tJicy  are 
praying;  and  gives  a  personal  touch  and  sense  of  participation 
otherwise  unobtainable.  As  our  people  take  part  in  the  other 
divisions  of  the  Service  by  their  responses,  so  also  in  these 
prayers. 

We  take  them  up  in  what  is,  roughly  speaking,  their  chron- 
ological order. 

I.       THE    BIDDING,    OR    DIACONAI,    PRAYER. 

The  immediate  source  of  the  Bidding  Prayer  in  our  own  Lit- 
urgy is  the  Schwabisch-Hall  KO  (1526).  From  Horn's  Litur- 
gies,'^ we  infer  that  a  large  number  of  similar  formularies  of  an 
admonitory  character  exist  in  Lutheran  Liturgies.  We  were, 
however,  unable  to  procure  a  copy  of  Hofling's  Urkundenbuch  for 
a  comparative  study  of  these  forms.  Lohef  has  the  heading, 
"The  Bidding  or  Diaconal  Prayers  of  the  Lutheran  Church." 
He  also  calls  it  a  "Union  of  Exhortation  and  Praj'er."  After 
treating  of  the  ancient  prayers  of  this  character,  he  continues, 
"A  beautiful,  quickening  and  not  altogether  dissimilar  form  .has 
found  its  way  into  many  Lutheran  Liturgies."     He  proceeds  to 


*  p.  77,  q.  87-88. 

t   Liturgy,  transl.  by  Longaker. 


I 

THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.  123 

give  two  forms:  one  especially  adapted  for  use  on  Good  Friday 
(a  forna  "used  for  many  years  in  Neuendettelsau"  )  and  the  other 
"for  the  Lord's  Day."  The  former  parallels  our  own  Bidding 
Prayer  up  to  the  fifth  Collect,  the  Collect  "for  all  in  authori- 
ty" prt ceding  that  "for  our  catechumens."  Lohe's  form  then 
contains  an  Exhortation  to  pray  for  schismatics,*  the  Collect  be- 
ing the  one  numbered  nineteen  in  our  collection. f  The  next 
Exhortation  deals  with  the  Jews*  wath  the  use  of  Collect  twen- 
ty-three;t  and  the  following  admonition  mentions  the  heathen,* 
using  Collect  twenty-fourf  wdth  some  slight  variations.  The 
rubric  in  our  book  calls  attention  to  these  Collects  but  gives  no 
bidding  form  for  the  several  estates  of  men  mentioned.  Through- 
out the  prayer  the  bidding  sections  are  delegated  to  the  deacon, 
then  the  minister  says,  "Eet  us  pray;"  the  deacon,  "Let  us  hum- 
bly kneel;"  and  then  the  minister  offers  the  prayer,  the  people 
responding  "Amen."  The  direction,  however,  is  that  no  exhor- 
tation to  kneel  be  given  before  the  Collect  for  the  Jews.|  Wheth- 
er the  people  stood  during  the  reading  of  each  exhortation  and 
knelt  for  each  Collect  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  Perhaps 
the  "Let  us  humbly  kneel"  was  more  a  spiritual  than  a  physical 
direction.  The  final  exhortation  is  given  by  the  minister  as  fol- 
lows: "Finally  let  us  pray  for  all  those  things  for  which  our 
Lord  would  have  us  ask,  saying:  'Our  Father,'  etc."  In  the 
second  form:  "For  the  Lord's  Day"  both  exhortation  and  Col- 
lect are  taken  by  the  minister.  There  is  also  an  introductory 
exhortation.  The  order  is  as  follows:  (a)  For  the  whole  Church; 
(b)  for  governments;  (c)  for  deliverance  from  error,  etc.;  (d)  for 
peace;  (e)  for  enemies;  (f)  for  all  in  perils  of  child-birth;  (g)  for 
the  fruits  of  the  earth;  (h)  the  Lord's  Prayer. 

From  this  we  can  see  that  the  form  now  printed  in  our  Litur- 
gy is  a  combination  of    these   two,  one  Collect  being  omitted. 


*  Liturgy,  transl.  by  Longaker. 

t  Ch.  Bk.  p.  114,  p.  115  and  p.  116. 

X  This  Collect  is  said  standing. 


124  MEMOIRS. 

But  our  contention  has  been  that  our  Church  had  preserved  in  its 
Bidding  Prayer  an  ancient,  eastern  form  of  prayer  and  this  must 
be  substantiated. 

A  study  of  the  ancient  Liturgies  shows  us  that  the  begin- 
nings of  this  form  of  prayer  are  found  in  the  earhest  orders  of 
pubHc  worship.  It  was  the  custom  in  the  Early  Church  that  the 
deacons  should  be  "monitors  and  directors  to  the  people  in  the 
exercise  of  their  public  devotions  in  the  Church."*  To  accom- 
plish this  the}^  had  certain  set  phrases  which  they  used  to  an- 
nounce the  different  parts  of  the  Service,  to  notify  the  various 
orders  of  worshippers  when  to  take  their  part  in  the  Service,  and 
to  call  upon  each  order  to  pray,  directing  the  burden  of  their 
prayers.  This  custom  it  has  seemed  to  me,  although  I  have  no 
authority  to  quote,  must  have  been  necessitated  by  the  lack  of 
printed  forms  by  means  of  which  the  people  could  follow  the 
Service.  Successive  deliveries  of  the  call  to  prayer  were  ad- 
dressed to  a)  the  catechumens,  b)  the  energumens,  c)  the  bap- 
tized, d)  the  penitents,  and  e)  the  faithful,  and  were  styled  Sid 
Trpoo-^ove'o-eos  (bidding  prayers). 

After  each  class  had  been  thus  exhorted  to  prayer  and  guided 
in  devotion,  it  was  dismissed.  The  order  for  the  catechumens 
will  serve  as  an  example:! 

Deacon.  "Pray  ye  catechumens."  "Let  all  the  faithful 
pray  for  them  saying,  'Lord  have  mercy  upon  them.'  "  The 
deacon  then  directs  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  in  a  series  of  thir- 
teen or  fourteen  suggested  petitions.  To  each  of  these  the  peo- 
ple, and  particularly  the  children  respond  as  above.  The  deacon 
then  bids  the  catechumens  arise  and  bids  them  to  offer  several 
petitions  for  themselves.  To  these  also  the  response  is  "Lord 
have  mercy  upon  them."  Then  the  deacon  bids  them  bow  for 
the  bishop's  benediction  which  is  a  prayer  summing  up  briefly, 
though  not  specifically,  the  petitions  concerning  which  the  above 


*   Bingham,  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church. 
t  Apos.  Const.     Bk.  VIII. 


THE   BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         125 

mentioned  exhortations  had  been  given.  After  this  the  deacon 
says,  "Catechumens  depart  in  peace."  The  same  order  is  fol- 
lowed in  shorter  or  longer  degree  in  the  case  of  each  class. 

When  all  but  "the  faithful"  had  been  dismissed  the  Missa 
Fideliiim  began  with  a  long  Bidding  Prayer  based  upon  the  anal- 
ogy of  the  Apostolical  injunction,  I  Tim.  i:  i,  2.*  The  rubrics 
of  these  early  Liturgies  are  somewhat  confusing  but  it  can  be 
safely  argued  that  in  this  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Faithful,  each 
petition  was  responded  to  by  a  Kyrie,  or  by  the  response,  "Save 
them,  O  God,  and  lift  them  up  by  Thy  mercy."  The  Liturgy  of 
St.  Chrysostom  which  is  practically  that  used  by  the  orthodox 
Greek  Church  to-day  has  similar  prayers,  although  they  are 
somewhat  shorter.  We  find  similar  forms,  some  longer .  some 
shorter,  "after  the  Divine  oblation,"  "after  the  participation," 
and  in  the  morning  and  evening  Offices,  in  all  the  ancient  Eastern 
Liturgies.  A  decree  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (4th  Cent.)  di- 
rects in  the  igth  Canon  that  after  the  dismissal  of  the  catechu- 
mens and  penitents,  "the  three  prayers  of  the  faithful  be  said  as 
follows:  the  first  in  silence;  but  the  second  and  third  by  the  meth- 
od of  prosphonesis."t  Thus  w^e  see  that  the  "bidding"  form  was 
the  common  type  of  public  prayer  in  the  Eastern  Church,  and 
that  it  has  so  remained  even  to  this  dav. 

To  what  extent  this  particular  class  of  prayer  passed  over 
into  the  Western  Church  is  somewhat  hard  to  determine.  That 
the  form  was  known  and  used  by  the  Western  Churches  is  proven 
by  the  few  examples  to  be  found  in  ancient  Western  Liturgies^ 
and  by  the  still  extant  perfect  specimen  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Of- 
fice for  Good  Friday  afternoon.  This  it  will  be  seen  is  the  source 
of  our  own  form,  and  it  may  also  be  noted  is  the  most  nearly 
evangelical  of  all  the  Romish  forms.     May  not  our  short  "Let 


•  Apos.  Const.     Bk.  VIII. 

t  Mansi,   Sad.  Concl.     Vol.   3. 

%  Bingham,  Ant.  Christ.  C/i.  quotes  two:  one  from  Code.x  Fiihia  and  the  oth- 
er from  the  .l/iihrosiiin  I.itiir^'.  Frkeman,  Principles  of  Divine  Service  refers  to 
a  collection  of  Bidding  Prayers  from  1349  downwards,  by  Parker. 


126  MEMOIRS. 

US  pra}^"  before  the  Collect  de  tevtpore  in  the  Common  Service,  in 
the  Communion  Office  and  before  the  Collects  in  the  Matin  and 
Vesper  Orders  be  a  condensed  survival  of  this  ancient  practice? 

The  Lutheran  Church  seems  to  have  been  the  only  Protes- 
tant communion  to  retain  the  old  Bidding  Prayer  form  in  approx- 
imate purity  in  her  Liturgies.  However,  traces  of  it  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Episcopalian  Liturgy.  Freeman  calls  attention  to 
the  "Prayer  for  the  Church  Militant"  which  occurs  in  the  Com- 
munion Oflfice  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  after  the  alms 
have  been  offered  and  before  the  exhortation.  He  identifies  it 
both  with  the  prayer  "after  the  oblations"  in  the  ancient  Litur- 
gies, and  also  with  the  Bidding  Praj^er  "for  the  faithful"  which 
as  we  have  seen,  prefaced  the  Missa  Fideliiim.'^  He  also  asserts 
its  relationship  to  the  Good  Friday  prayer  of  the  Romish  Liturgy. 
He  finds  a  reason  for  the  use  of  this  "supplication  for  unity"  in 
the  Eucharistic  Office,  in  its  analogy  to  the  great  high-priestly 
prayer  of  Christf  on  the  "night  of  institution."  The  form  used 
in  the  Episcopalian  Office  has  a  single  "bid:"  "Let  us  pray  for 
the  whole  state  of  Christ's  Church  Militant."  Then  having  re- 
cited the  Apostle's  injunction  (I  Tim.  2:  i)  the  prayer  suppli- 
cates: a)  for  the  reception  of  the  oblations;  b)  for  the  unity  of 
the  Church  Universal;  c)  for  the  preservation  of  the  Church's 
members;  d)  for  Christian  rulers;  e)  for  the  local  congregation; 
f)  for  the  sick  and  distressed;  g)  a  commendation  of  the  "faith- 
ful departed."  Blunt;}:  gives  another  Bidding  Prayer  enjoined 
by  the  55th  Canon  of  the  Church  of  England.  It  is  the  only  ap- 
proved form  to  be  used  in  the  Communion  Service  after  the  Creed 
and  preceding  the  sermon  §     He  explains  that  this  is  a  modern- 


*  Freeman,  Principles  of  Divine  Worship,  Vol.  II.  Smith  and  Cheetham, 
however,  Diet,  Chr.  Ant.,  seem  to  deny  the  identity,  taking  the  stand  that  the 
Bidding  Prayers  of  the  Episcopal  Church  took  their  rise  in  a  distinctively  mediaeval 
practice. 

t  St.  John  17:  1-26. 

%  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

§  Canon  55,  "Before  all  sermons,  lectures  and  homilies  the  preachers  and  min- 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         327 

ized  form  of  the  ancient  "Bidding  of  the  Bedes."^'  The  subjects 
of  this  prayer  are:  a)  Christ's  Holy  CathoHc  Church;  b)  King 
James;  c)  Queen  Anne,  etc.;  d)  Ministers  of  God's  Holy  Word; 
e)  Councils  and  Magistrates  of  the  realm;  f)  commons  of  the 
realm;  g)  the  departed.  This  is  a  pure  bidding  form,  each  sub- 
ject being  introduced  by  "ye  shall  also  pray;"  and  a  petition  is 
suggested  in  each  case.  Local  Episcopalian  clergymen  have  as- 
sured me  that  nothing  similar  to  this  prayer  or  practice  is  known 
or  used  in  their  American  Churches. 

In  the  Reformed  Churches  where  practically  all  liturgy  was 
rejected,  and  where  the  difference  between  the  subjective-Chris- 
tian prayer  and  the  common  prayer  of  Christ's  unified  Body  was 
lost  sight  of,  we  naturally  find  no  trace  of  this  ancient  and  primal 
form  of  the  "Church  Prayer." 

It  seems  unfortunate  that  while  rubrics  are  attached  to  the 
other  responsive  general  prayers,  the  Bidding  Prayer  was  left 
without  any,  to  direct  where,  when  and  how  it  may  be  used. 
Lohe  in  his  Agende  has  the  rubric,  "For  Sundays  when  there  is 
no  Communion  and  especially  for  the  Afternoon  Service  on  Good 
Frida)'.''t  This  recognizes  both  the  characteristic  ancient  uses 
of  this  form  of  prayer:  ist,  as  the  general  prayer,  according  to 
the  usage  of  the  Eastern  Church;  2nd,  as  the  special  embodiment 
of  the  "unity"  idea  in  Christ's  last  intercessory  prayer,  and  hence 
most  suitable  for  use  at  the  Good  Friday  memorial  Service,  ac- 
cording to  the  long-established  custom  of  the  Western  Church.;!; 
When  we  consider,  however,  that  it  is  but  a  modernized  form  of 
the  prayer  always  used  by  the  Early  Church  in  the  Missa  Fidelimn 
what  objection  could  there  be  to  its  use  in  the  full  Communion 
Office?      And   why  should  our  people  remain   ignorant  of  this 

isters  shall  move  the  people  to  join  with  them  in  prayer  in  this  form,  or  to  this  effect, 
as  briefly  as  conveniently  they  may;  "Ye  shall  pray  for,  etc." 

*  For  a  discussion  of  this  subject  cf.  Hooker,  Did.  Chr.  Ant. 

t  U.  S.  S.  alone  has  the  rubric,  "By  ancient  usage  this  prayer  was  specially  ap- 
pointed for  Good  Friday." 

X  MuRATORi,  Lit.  Rom.  and  Sala,  Notes  to  Bona. 


128  MEMOIRS. 

treasure?  Says  Lohe,  "The  sweet  and  refreshing  character  of 
this  form  of  prayer  can  be  learned  only  by  use."  Variety  can  be 
obtained  in  the  way  suggested  by  Lohe's  two  forms:  omitting  the 
prayers  for  schismatics,  Jews,  and  heathen  on  ordinary  occasions, 
and  using  them  on  Good  Friday  or  other  Special  Days.  This  is 
provided  for  by  the  one  rubric* 

As  to  how  it  may  be  used,  Lohe,  who  has  been  our  guide  in 
the  study  of  this  prayer,  has  the  following  to  say:  "The  minister 
announces  the  things  for  which  prayer  is  to  be  offered,  reads  the 
Collect  in  order,  and  the  people  conclude  each  with  Amen,  and 
the  whole  with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  If  a  deacon  would  read  the  re- 
curving  exhortations^  the  minister  offer  the  prayers,  and  the  congre- 
gation  conclude  them  with  Amen  we  would  have  indeed  a  restora- 
tion of  the  ancient  form  of  Bidding  Prayer  ^ 

L^pon  the  vexed  question  of  kneeling  for  this  prayer  Lohe 
throws  no  light  except  as  has  been  noted  already.  The  alternate 
kneeling  and  rising  would  prove  not  only  irksome  but  even  would 
verge  upon  the  ridiculous  since  some  of  the  Collects  and  Exhorta- 
tions are  very  brief.  We  have  suggested  the  probability  of  the 
figurative  sense  of  the  original  "Let  us  kneel."  The  writer  has 
been  in  the  habit  of  using  this  prayer  successively  with  the  Lita- 
ny and  General  Suffrages  in  the  Chief  Service  during  the  Lenten 
Season.  We  have  the  people  to  kneel  and  one  of  the  deacons^ 
standing  in  the  Chancelf  reads  the  Exhortations,  while  the  pastor 
kneeling  at  the  Altar  reads  the  Collect,  the  people  responding 
Amen;  and  all  unite  in  the  Lord's  Prayer. 

We  will  not  examine  into  the  parallelism  between  the  origi- 
nal form,  the  Romish,  the  Episcopalian,  and  our  own  but  will 
leave  that  to  our  pastors  and  people.  But  we  do  express  the 
hope  that,  despite  the  manifest  imperfections,  this  dissertation 
may  be  of  service  to  our  Church  toward  the  renewed  and  extend- 


*  "Here  may  be  offered,  etc."  Ch.  Bk.  p.  148. 

t  Smith  and  Cheetham,   Did.    Christ.  Ant.,   "The  deacon  announced  the 
prayers  from  the  Ambe.^^ 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.  129 

ed  use  of  this  beautiful  and  powerful  form  of  common  interces- 
sion. 

II.      THE    LITANY. 

If  the  Bidding  Prayer  is  a  survival  of  the  earliest  form  of  the 
Church  prayer  known  to  liturgiologists,  and  is  distinctly  a  prod- 
uct of  the  Eastern  Church,  the  Litany  is  also  a  purified  survival 
of  a  prayer  form,  which,  if  not  quite  so  ancient  as  the  Bidding 
Prayer,  nevertheless  is  equally  as  closely  allied  with  the  life  of  the 
Western  Church  as  the  former  is  with  the  Eastern. 

It  seems  permissible  to  claim  that  while  the  term  litany  is 
manifestly  of  Greek  extraction  (Atraveta  from  AtTavevw  or  from  Airj; 
through  A«To-o/xai)  yet  the  specific  form  of  prayer  to  which  present 
usage  attaches  the  word  is  specifically  a  product  of  the  Western 
Church.  The  use  of  the  word  litany  in  the  epistles,  homilies  and 
decrees  of  the  Church  Fathers  is  such  that  much  confusion  re- 
sults from  anything  but  a  thorough  study  of  the  various  passages. 
Palmer*  and  Bluntf  both  refer  to  this  fact  and  seek  to  specify 
and  classify  the  uses.  Drews;|:  also  has  a  clear  and  careful  classi- 
fication. Bingham§  does  not  seem  so  clear  on  this  point.  The 
treatment  by  all  the  authorities  consulted  points  undoubtedly  to 
the  fact  that  the  word  has  come  to  have  a  specific  meaning  which 
precludes  its  identification  with  many  of  the  former  uses. 

Drews];  establishes  the  fact  that  in  the  Eastern  Church  the 
word  had  a  general  usage  analogous  to  its  classic  signification,  i. 
e.,  any  supplicatory  prayer.  When  processionals  began  to  be 
performed  by  the  Church  they  came  through  force  of  circum- 
stances to  contain  prayers  and  then  the  word  assumed  a  double 
meaning:  a)  the  prayer  itself,  as  used  in  the  processional;  b)  the 
procession.     He  quotes  largely  from  patristic  sources  in  support 


*  Origines  Liturgica. 

t  Annotated  Boot:  of  Common  Prayer. 

X  Article  Litanei  in  Hauck-Herzog  Real- Encyclopedie. 

§  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church. 


130  MEMOIRS. 

of  these  conclusions.*  The  processions  in  the  Eastern  Church 
evidently  were  not  organized  originally  from  the  same  causes 
which  led  to  their  institution  in  the  Western.  Neither  could  they 
have  taken  their  rise  earlier  than  the  Fourth  Century  after  perse- 
cutions had  ceased.  During  this  Century  the  Arian  heresy 
troubled  the  Church  and  by  imperial  decree  Arians  were  restrained 
from  holding  their  services  within  the  city.  They  seized  upon 
this  restriction  as  an  opportunity  to  propagate  their  teachings. 
Organizing  their  followers  into  processions  they  marched  through 
the  city  to  the  gates,  singing  hymns  and  anthems  which  set  forth 
their  peculiar  heresies.  Chrysostom  was  fearful  of  the  proselyt- 
ing effect  this  might  have  upon  Christians;  and  so  by  the  aid  of 
the  Empress  Eudoxia  who  supplied  silver  crosses  to  be  carried  in 
procession,  he  organized  counter-demonstrations  of  great  magnif- 
icence. It  would  seem  that  the  violent  earthquake  of  the  year 
404  changed  the  character  of  these  processions;  they  became  more 
supplicatory  and  penitential  in  aspect,  the  decree  going  forth  that 
costly  clothes,  and  equipages  were  manifestly  out  of  place  and 
therefore,  forbidden.  There  appears  to  be  no  reference  or  frag- 
ment in  any  of  the  extant  writings — in  as  far  as  we  have  been 
able  to  consult  authorities — to  give  any  idea  of  the  exact  nature 
of  the  organization  of  these  Eastern  processionals. 

Drews  cites  four  uses  of  the  word  in  the  Western  Church: 
ist,  a  term  applied  to  the  Kyrie  Elehon,  Christe  Eleison,  etc.; 
2nd,  as  a  designation  of  the  Bidding  Prayer ;t  3rd,  as  a  title  of 
the  processions;  4th,  in  the  present  sense,  applied  to  "the  roga- 
tion prayers  beginning  with  the  Kyrie.'"  He  says  that  the  ap- 
plication of  the  term  to  the  mere  repetition  of  the  Kyrie,  as  done 
by  the  Ordo  Romanus,  by  Strabo  and  others,  has  no  parallel  in 


*  Lambing,  The  Sacramenlals  of  the  Catholic  Church,  argues  that  "the  term 
applies  rather  to  each  petition  than  to  the  form  of  prayer  as  a  whole,"  since  "the 
word  is  always  in  the  plural  in  the  liturgical  language  of  the  Church." 

t  "Litania  bedeutet  das  im  Gottesdienst  gebetete  prosphonetische  Kirchenge- 
bet,  die  griechische  Ekteine,  die  litania  diaconalis." 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.  lol 

the  East.  This  is  an  aid  in  tracing  the  independent  development 
of  the  Litany  in  the  West. 

Can  we  not  deduce  the  probable  development  of  the  form  of 
the  Litany  in  these  different  uses?  UudoUbtedly  the  word  found 
its  wa}'  into  the  West  from  the  East  and  naturally  would  attach 
itself  first  of  all  to  the  form  of  prayer  which  it  originally  de- 
scribed— the  Bidding  Prayer.  Now  one  of  the  features  of  this 
prayer  was  the  recurring  response,  Kyrie  Elcison,  so  that  gradu- 
ally and  naturally  the  term  designating  the  whole  would  come  to 
be  applied  to  a  part,  the  Kyrie.  When  processions  took  their 
rise  in  the  West  they  were  the  outcome  of  times  of  distress  and 
terror  and  consequently  partook  of  an  intensely  penitential  and 
supplicatory  character.  For  emphasizing  this  particular  feature 
of  their  performance  nothing  could  be  better  fitted  than  of  re- 
curring Kyries;  and  thus  gradually  they  took  a  prominent  place 
among  the  Psalms  and  hymns  chanted  during  such  processions. 
These  prayers  or  ejaculations  would  naturally  take  the  name 
'  'litanf '  and  in  course  of  time  the  order  would  be  reversed  and 
once  more  the  whole  would  be  designated  by  the  term  for  a  part. 
But  by  this  time  the  entire  character  and  arrangement  of  the 
prayer  had  undergone  a  change  so  that  the  word  took  a  new 
meaning  entirely  unapplicable  to  the  original. 

Whether  the  present  form  of  the  Litany  is  an  amplification 
of  the  Kyrie  or  whether  the  Kyrie  in  the  Service  is  a  condensed 
survival  of  the  ancient  Chvirch  prayer  is  a  mooted  question,  one 
upon  which  we  are  not  qualified  to  venture  a  decisive  opinion. 
For  it  is  a  fact  that  originally*  the  Kyrie  was  repeated  three, 
nine,  twelve  or  an  unlimited  number  of  timesf  and  later  the 
farced  (or  amplified)  Kyries  became  prevalent,  followed  closely  by 
the  ''Kyrie  hymns";};  for  the  different  seasons.  It  should  be 
noted  also  that  the  developed  form  of  the  Litany  gradually  found 


*   Ordo  Ronianus,  etc. 

t  '^Ad  arbitrium  ceUbranti.'''' 

%  Kirchenbuch:  Hymns  407-413.    Robinson,  "Music  in  the  Western  Church." 


132  MEMOIRS. 

its  place  in  the  Mass  (taking  the  place  of  the  Gloria)  and  re- 
mained there  until  the  Ninth  Century.*  It  still  occupies  the 
same  position  in  the  Milan  Missal  on  Quadragesima. 

Just  where  and  when  and  how  the  Litany  form  of  pra}'er  took 
its  rise,  and  grew  into  its  present  condition  not  even  Roman 
Catholic  scholars  can  agree.  Lohef  acknowledges  the  relation- 
ship between  the  Bidding  Prayer  of  the  East  and  the  Litany  of 
the  West  but  dismisses  the  vexed  question  of  their  interdepend- 
ence by  saying,  "There  is,  however,  some  difficulty  to  show  ex- 
actly the  development  of  the  latter  {^Litany)  from  the  former  {^Bid- 
ding Prayer.)  Drews  divorces  them  almost  entirely  and  seeks  to 
prove  an  independent  source  in  the  West — an  ancient  heathen 
prayer  formula. 

Another  question  shrouded  in  disputed  uncertainty  is  the 
primary  date,  place  and  author  of  the  processionals  which  later 
produced  the  specific  Litany  formula.  Bishop  Mamertus  of  Vi- 
enne  in  the  year  467-8  instituted  a  solemn  three-day  season  of 
fasting,  procession,  and  prayer,  prior  to  Ascension  Day  of  that 
year.  This  was  done  in  an  endeavor  to  gain  relief  from  a  series 
of  particularly  destructive  and  demoralizing  earthquakes.  But 
the  testimony  of  Sidonius^;  goes  to  show  that  a  like  proceeding  on 
similar  occasions  had  obtained  throughout  Gaul  during  the  Fifth 
Century,  although  with  great  irregularities  and  lack  of  devotion. 
Sidonius'  letters  and  the  writings  of  Avitus  show  us  that  "the 
ofiice  performed  in  these  rogations  instituted  by  Mamertus  appears 
chiefl}'  to  have  consisted  in  psalmody  and  prayers"  together  with 
"long  lessons  of  Scripture"  but  "the  services  during  procession 
itself  consisted  of  psalmody."  Evidently  the  prayers  and  lessons 
were  said  in  the  Church.  It  is  not  until  the  close  of  the  Sixth 
Century,  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  that  we  find  direct 
mention  of  a  similar  custom  in   Rome  upon   the  25th  of  April 


*  MURATORi,  Lit.  Rom. 

t  Agende. 

X  '■'Ep.  ad Mamertuin,''''  quoted  by  Blunt,  Bingham,  and  Drews. 


THE    BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         133 

(Feast  of  St.  Mark).  Gregory  undoubtedly  took  the  idea  from 
the  common  practice  of  his  time.  The  particular  occasion  in 
Rome  was  a  threatened  pestilence  and  to  avert  it  he  appointed  a 
*' tetania  septiformis ,"  i.  e.,  processions  of  seven  different  classes 
of  people  from  as  many  different  starting  points.  The  order  of 
the  Office  seems  to  have  differed  somewhat  from  that  observed  in 
Gaul. 

We  know  that  when  Gregory  revised  the  Roman  Sacrament- 
ary  he  introduced  the  Kyrie.  He  refers  to  the  Roman  use  as 
unique.*  The  fact  that  he  introduced  the  Kyrie  into  the  Ser- 
vices  seems  to  Burbidgef  an  argument  that  he  was  encouraging 
the  use  of  Litanies  in  the  Service.  That  the  repetition  of  the 
Kyrie  early  found  a  place  in  the  Offices  of  the  processions  is  evi- 
dent from  an  extract  from  the  waitings  of  Gregory  of  Tours.  In 
describing  a  L,itany  in  Rome  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  he 
says,  "A  choir  of  singers  came  to  the  church,  crying  through  the 
streets  of  the  city  Kyrie  Eteison.'''  That  Gaul  adopted  this  feat- 
ure (repetition  of  Kyries)  from  Rome  and  did  not  originate  it  can 
be  seen  from  a  decree  of  the  Council  of  Vaison  (529),  which  com- 
mends "the  agreeable  and  salutary  custom"  prevalent  in  Rome 
and  Italy,  of  using  "a  frequent  repetition  of  the  Kyrie  Eleison 
with  great  earnestness  and  contrition;"  and  directs  its  introduc- 
tion at  Matins  and  Vespers  as  well  as  at  Mass.  The  Ordo  Ro- 
fnamis" s-peaks  as  if  the  repetition  of  Kyries  formed  the  greater 
part  of  the  {processional)  service. "J  It  says  "Let  no  one  then 
presume  to  ride  but  let  all  walk  with  bare  feet.  Let  no  women 
lead  the  choirs  but  let  all  together  sing  Kyrie  Eleison  and  with 
contrition  of  heart  implore  the  mercy  of  God  for  the  pardon  of 


*  "We  have  not  been  accustomed,  neither  do  we  now  say  the  Kyrie  as  the 
Greeks  do.  For  among  the  Greeks  all  say  it  together,  but  with  us  it  is  said  by  the 
clergy  and  then  answer  is  made  by  the  people,  and  Ckrhte  Eleison  is  said  by  us  the 
same  number  of  times,  which  is  not  said  at  all  by  the  Greeks."  Epistle  to  John, 
Bishop  of  Smyrna. 

t  Liturgies  and  Offices  of  the  Church. 

X  Palmer,  Orig.  Lit. 


134  MEMOIRS, 

their  sins,  for  peace,  for  deliverance  from  plague,  for  preserving" 
the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  for  other  necessities."  Here  we  can 
see  a  rough  outline  of  the  present  component  parts  of  the  Litany, 
During  the  centuries  following  Litanies  multiplied  in  great 
variety  and  number;  and  their  form  and  use  did  not  always  retain 
an  evangelical  character.  However  the  character  of  the  praj^er 
took  a  great  hold  upon  the  esteem  of  the  people  and  so  gradually 
from  the  original  use  outside  the  liturgical  Offices  they  found 
their  way  in  greater  or  less  degree  into  almost  every  Service, 
The  times,  crowded  as  they  were  with  droughts,  famines,  pesti- 
lences, invasions,  and  with  confused  and  insecure  political  institu- 
tions, tended  to  emphasize  and  multiply  the  necessities  for  these 
"fastings  and  prayers."  The  echo  of  those  "days  which  tried 
men's  souls"  is  still  heard  in  some  of  the  Supplications,  Versicles 
and  Collects  of  our  Liturgy.  The  impress  of  those  evil  times  is 
still  more  apparent  in  the  older  forms,  had  we  time  to  examine 
them.  Hooker  says,*  "Rogations  or  Litanies  were  then  the  very 
strength,  stay  and  comfort  of  God's  Church."  "And  so,"  says 
Blunt, t  "it  became  natural  to  adopt  a  form  of  prayer  which  took 
so  firm  a  hold  on  men's  affections,  on  various  occasions  where 
processions  were  not  used.  At  ordinations  or  at  consecrations,  at 
the  conferring  of  monastic  habits,  at  coronation  of  Emperors,  at 
dedication  of  churches,  etc.,  it  became  common  for  the  school  or 
choir,  the  subdeacon  or  the  deacon,  to  begin  the  Litany  starting 
with  Kyrie  Eleiso?i  or  Ckriste,  audi  nos.  A  Litany  never  came 
amiss:  it  was  particularly  welcome  as  an  element  of  offices  for  the 
sick  and  dying:];  its  terseness,  energy,  pathos  seemed  to  gather  up 
all  that  was  meant  by  beiyig  instayit  hi  prayer. ' '  The  Litany  be- 
gan to  take  a  place  as  a  "Church  Prayer."  The  Councils  time 
after  time  decreed  Rogation  observances  for  three  days  prior  to 
Ascension  Day.     The  Gallican  custom  spread  year  by  year  from 


*  Diet.  Chr.  Ant. 

t  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

X  Cf.  our  own  Ch.  Bk.,  "Min.  Acts,"  pp.  383  and  404. 


THE   BIDDING  PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         1S5 

•country  to  country  but  was  not  established  in  Rome  until  8i6  by 
Leo  III.  Spain,  adhering  to  the  ancient  idea  that  no  fasts  should 
•occur  during  the  Easter  cycle,  appointed  its  Rogation  Days  in 
Lent,  Whitsunweek,  and  Autumn.  We  have  the  survival  of 
these  combined  seasons  in  the  "Ember  Days"  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Anglican  Churches  appointed  for  the  Advent,  Lent, 
Easter  (Ascension  Week),  and  Trinity  Seasons. 

Gradual!}'  the  invocation  of  saints  found  its  way  into  the 
Litanies  and  became  the  principal  part  of  them.  This  is  another 
peculiarity  differentiating  the  Western  Litany  from  the  Eastern 
counterpart.  These  invocations  began  to  be  used  about  the 
Eighth  Century  as  is  proven  not  alone  by  the  silence  in  respect 
to  this  class  of  invocations  in  the  writings  of  Gregory  of  Tours, 
Avitus,  Sidonius,  and  Gregory  the  Great,  but  as  well  by  the  act- 
ual text  of  many  forms  of  earlier  Litanies,  still  extant.  One  such 
is  found  in  the  Breviary  of  a  Bavarian  monastery,  another  in  the 
form  still  used  in  the  Milan  Missal  on  Quadragesima,  and  several 
shorter  ones  in  the  Mozarabic  Breviary  (6th  and  7th  Cent).  De- 
spite these  evidences  Roman  Catholic  writers  claim  for  their  pres- 
ent "Litany  of  the  Saints"  a  great  antiquity  antedating  even  the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great;  although  conservatives  attribute  it  to 
him.  Lambing*  says,  "It  is  not  strange,  however,  that  this  Lit- 
any should  be  attributed  to  St.  Gregory,  inasmuch  as  he  had  a 
great  devotion  to  the  saints,  and  had  their  Litany  chanted  with 
special  solemnity  in  the  processions  which  he  caused  to  be  made 
through  the  streets  of  Rome  on  the  occasion  of  the  plague  that 
raged  there  during  his  pontificate."  To  what  ludicrous  extent 
these  invocations  were  multiplied  •  appears  from  the  notice  in 
Blunt' s  '' Aniwtakd  Book  of  Commo7i  Prayer''  of  an  old  Tours 
form  for  the  visitation  of  the  sick  wherein  the  list  of  saints  is 
more  than  four  columns  in  length.  Others  mention  local  Litanies 
with  as  high  as  two  and  three  hundred  saints'  names,  all  to  be 
responded  to  in  dreary  monotony  by  '  'ora  pro  ?iobis. ' '     When  we 

*   '•'■The  Sacranicnlah  of  the  Catholic  Church.'" 


1S6  MEMOIRS, 

learn  further  that  in  time  they  came  to  have  "lefama  sepfana/^ 
"gzdna,"  or  "/er?ia,"  in  which  seven,  five  or  three  subdeacons,. 
as  the  case  might  be,  each  repeated  every  suppHcation  and  re- 
sponse in  order,  multiplying  the  original  manifoldly,  we  gain 
another  view  of  the  religious  extravagances  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

Gradually,  despite  their  multiplicity,  and  diversity  of  pur- 
pose, a  uniform  outline  began  to  assert  itself  so  that  Blunt, — whO' 
in  his  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer  must  examine  no  less- 
than  thirty  separate  specimens — says,  "The  general  divisions  of 
Mediaeval  Litanies  were:  i.  Kyrie  and  "Christ,  hear  us,"  etc. 
2.  Entreaties  to  each  of  the  Divine  Persons  and  to  the  whole 
Trinity.  3.  Invocation  of  Saints.  4.  Deprecations.  5.  Obse- 
crations. 6.  Petitions.  7.  Agnus  Dei,  Kyrie,  Lord's  Prayer. 
8.  Collects.  This  will  be  seen  to  correspond  in  part  with  the  ar- 
rangement of  our  own  which  is  a  purified  form  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  "Litany  of  the  Saints." 

By  the  Fifteenth  Century  this  "Great  Litany"  had  become 
fixed  in  its  form.  It  was  approved  in  1601  according  to  Drews.* 
It  is  now  known  as  above,  having  sixty-three  invocations  of  saints. 
It  is  the  especial  "liturgical  Litany"  and  is  used  at  the  bestowal 
of  holy  orders,  at  the  blessing  of  the  font  on  Holy  Saturday  and 
the  Eve  of  Pentecost  (in  a  shortened  form),  on  April  25th,  and 
on  the  Rogation  Days.  On  these  occasions  it  is  always  used  in 
Latin.  "It  is  known  in  liturgical  language  as  the  Greater,  and 
Lesser  Litany.  The  former  is  chanted  in  the  solemn  processions 
on  the  feast  of  St.  Mark,  and  the  latter  on  the  Rogation  Days."t 

The  former  obligation  to  recite  this  Litany  on  all  Fridays 
during  Lent  was  removed  by  Pius  V;  but  aside  from  the  above 
public  recitals  those  who  are  bound  to  the  recitation  of  the  Divine 
Ofiice  are  also  bound  to  recite  the  Litany  of  the  Saints  on  St. 
Mark's  Day  and  on  the  three  Rogation  Days.  There  is  no  in- 
dulgence attached  to  the  recitation  of  this  Litany,     The  "Litany 


*    Hauck-Herzog,  Real-Encyclopedie. 
t  Lambing. 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    UTANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.  137 

of  the  Blessed  Virgin"  or  of  "Our  Lady  of  Loretto"  was  ap- 
proved in  1587.*  Lambing  claims  for  this  an  antiquity  greater 
than  the  "Litany  of  the  Saints."  He  quotes  Quarti's  opinion 
that  it  was  "composed  by  the  Apostles  after  the  Assumption  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  into  Heaven."  Drews  says,  "However,  it 
first  appears  at  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth  Century;  the  oldest  im- 
print hitherto  known  is  heard  of  in  1576."  ■  The  recitation  of 
this  Litany  once  a  day  gains  an  indulgence  of  two  hundred  days 
by  the  grant  of  Sixtus  V  (1585)  and  Benedict  XIII  (1784).  For 
every  recital,  by  the  clemency  of  Pius  VII  (1800),  the  faithful 
gain  three  hundred  days  indulgence;  while  for  a  daily  recital  on 
the  five  feasts  of  obligation  (Immaculate  Conception,  Nativit}^ 
Annunciation,  Purification,  and  Assumption),  a  plenary  indul- 
gence, "on  condition  of  confession,  communion,  visiting  a  church, 
and  praying  according  to  the  intention  of  the  Holy  Father,  "f 
The  third  approved  Litany:  that  of  "The  Holy  Name  of  Jesus" 
was  approved  partially  in  1862  and  fully  in  1886.  It  is  not  so 
old  as  the  other  two.+  There  is  an  indulgence  of  300  days  to  be 
gained  through  its  recital  once  a  day  "by  all  this  faithful  of  the 
Christian  world."  Other  Litanies  such  as  that  of  the  "Sacred 
Heart,"  or  the  "Blessed  Sacrament,"  or  "For  the  Faithful  De- 
parted" are  not  universally  approved  but  their  use  occurs  in  some 
dioceses  by  clemency  of  the  Bishop. 

In  the  Protestant  Church,  the  Lutheran,  Anglican,  and  Mo- 
ravian divisions  have  retained  the  use  of  the  Litany  in  purified 
forms.  We  will  glance  briefl}-  at  the  differences  in  form  and  us- 
age before  closing  our  discussion. 

A.  In  the  Anglican  Church.  It  seems  to  be  the  endeavor  of 
the  Anglican  writers  to  prove  an  almost  independent  development 
for  the  English  Litanj^  as  now  used  by  the  Church  of  England 
and  the  Protestant  Episcopal   Church  in   the   LTnited   States  of 

♦  Drews. 

t  Lambing. 

:!:  "Of  Jesuilical  Origin."     Horn,  Lilur^'ics. 


138  MEMOIRS. 

America.  The  British  Church  undoubtedly  was  one  of  the  first 
to  adopt  the  custom  instituted  by  Mamertus,  for  when  St.  Augus- 
tine went  to  the  island  on  his  mission  from  Rome  in  596  A.  D., 
he  entered  Canterburj^  chanting  an  anthem  which  was  part  of  the 
Rogation  Tuesday  Service  in  the  Lyons  Office.  Copies  of  the 
earl}'  Litanies  used  in  English  Churches  are  numerous.  The 
most  noted  are  the  so-called  "Anglo-Saxon  Litany,"  and  those 
in  the  Sarum,  York  and  Hereford  rites;  these  are  in  Latin.  En- 
glish Litanies  dating  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury are  noted  by  Maskell;*  but  they  did  not  affect  the  final  form 
in  the  Prayer  Book  to  au}^  extent.  In  its  present  form  the  Lit- 
any is  practically  the  English  Litany  translated  and  arranged  by 
Cramner  in  1544,  with  slight  revisions,  mainly  in  rubrics,  intro- 
duced in  the  several  editions  of  the  Prayer  Book  (154S,  1552, 
1559,  1662). 

The  issuance  of  a  Litany  in  an  approved  English  form  was 
the  greatest  step  toward  liturgical  reform  which  Henry  VI H 
could  be  prevailed  upon  to  take.  Bishop  Cranmer,  according  to 
a  letter  upon  this  subject  addressed  to  the  King,  says  he  "was 
constrained  to  use  more  than  the  liberty  of  a  translator;"  he  "al- 
tered divers  words,"  "added  parts,"  took  away  parts,  dropped 
others,  and  in  some  cases  added  whole  divisions.  He  most  likely 
had  before  him  the  old  English  Litany  of  the  "Prymers,"  the 
Sarum  Breviary  and  that  of  York,  the  Reformed  Breviary  of  Car- 
dinal Ouignonez,  the  Reformed  Liturgy  of  Hermann,  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  and  ver}^  likel}'  Luther's  Latin  or  German  Liturg}-  of 
1529.  Upon  Cranmer's  own  statement,  quoted  above  in  part,  we 
see  that  all  these  contributed  to  the  form  which  he  compiled  and 
doubtless  the  two  German  arrangements  (both  practicall)-  Lu- 
ther's) did  so  more  largely  than  the  rest  since  they  were  the  most 
evangelical  in  tone.  Yet  Blunt  saj^s,  "But  these  foreign  Reform- 
ers had  scarcely  any  influence  beyond  a  few  clauses  in  the  Litany, 
and  it  is  somewhat  doubtful  whether  in  the  case  of  the  Litany 

*  Monunienta  Ritualia. 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.  139 

our  English  form  was  not  in  reality  the  original  of  that  in  Her- 
man's book."*  Jacobs  in  his  ''Lutheran  Movement  in  England''' 
has  shown  by  a  parallelling  of  Luther's  Latin  Litany  (1529)  and 
the  English  of  Marshall's  Primer  (1535),  and  by  a  careful  com- 
parative study  of  the  component  parts  and  separate  expressions, 
how  largely  the  German  Reformer's  liturgical  conservatism  in- 
fluenced the  reformation  Litany  and  Liturgy  in  England.  Aside 
from  Blunt  the  other  Anglican  authorities  which  we  have  exam- 
ined seem  to  know  nothing  of  the  Lutheran  Litany.  The  Roman 
form  appears  to  have  exerted  but  little  influence  upon  the  English 
Church. 

Although  the  old  Latin  Litanies  began  with  the  Kyiie  and 
were  followed  in  that  respect  by  the  Litanies  of  the  Primers, 
Cramner  rejected  it  and  opens  with  the  expanded  form,  "O  God, 
the  Father,  etc.,"  which  follows  the  Kyrie  in  the  old  forms  and 
in  those  at  present  used  in  the  Roman  and  Lutheran  Churches. 
The  transposition  of  the  intercessions  for  temporal  rulers  to  a 
place  preceding  that  for  the  spiritual  shows  the  influence  of  Hen- 
ry Vni's  pretentions  as  head  of  the  Church.  Even  in  Amer- 
ica where  the  claim  is  of  course  invalid  the  inversion  stands  un- 
changed. The  invocation  of  saints  was  rejected  most  naturally 
as  being  one  of  the  "abuses"  which  the  Reformation  was  to  do 
away.  Palmerf  gives  four  arguments  in  justification  of  this  act: 
"First,  because  the  Litanies  of  all  Churches  were  devoid  of  them 
for  seven  centuries;  secondly,  because  they  were  unnecessarj^; 
thirdly,  because  they  were  imprudent;  and,  fourthly,  because 
they  originated  and  promoted  the  danger  of  heresy  and  blasphe- 
my." 

Processionals  were  very  popular  in  England  but  the  abuses 
connected  with  them  became  so  notorious  that  they  were  forbid- 
den by  the  injunctions  of  Edward  VI  (1547),  which  ordered  that 
"the  priests  with  other  of  the  choir"  were  to  kneel  in  the  midst 


*  Annotaled  Book  of  Coinmo)i  Fraycr. 
t   Origines  Liturgiccc, 


140  MEMOIRS. 

of  the  church  immediately  before  High  Mass  "to  sing  or  say  the 
Litany."  In  the  Prayer  Book  of  1549  the  Litany,  printed  after 
the  Communion,  was  ordered  to  be  said  or  sung  on  Wednesdays 
and  Fridays.  In  the  edition  of  1552  it  was  printed  after  the  of- 
fice of  Evening  Praj^er,  "to  be  used  on  Sioidays,  Wednesdays, 
Fridays  and  at  other  times."  The  present  Anghcan  Book  of 
Common  Praj^er  has  the  rubric,  "to  be  sung  or  said  after  Morn- 
ing Prayer  upon  Sundays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  and  at  other 
times  when  it  shall  be  commanded  by  the  Ordinary.*  The  rubric 
in  the  American  Prayer  Book  reads,  "To  be  used  after  Morning 
Service  on  Sundays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays.  There  are  a  few 
slight  changes  in  the  text  of  the  American  Book.  There  is  no 
provision  for  the  use  of  the  Litany  as  a  Church  Prayer  in  the 
Chief  Service.  In  fact  the  Anglican  arrangement  of  the  liturgic- 
al offices  is  such  as  to  preclude  the  use  of  a  "general  prayer"  in 
the  sense  known  to  the  Ancient  Church  and  to  us.  The  Litany 
is  alwa5's  used  as  a  special  or  extra  Service. f 

There  is  no  rubric  in  direct  connection  with  the  Litany  for 
the  place  from  which  it  is  to  be  used,  but  in  the  Anglican  "Or- 
der of  Commination"  the  rubric  before  the  Fifty-first  Psalm  says, 
"Then  shall  thej'  all  kneel  upon  their  knees,  and  the  priests  and 
clerks  kneeling  (in  the  place  where  thej'  are  accustomed  to  say 
the  Litan}-)  shall  say  this  Psalm."  This  seems  to  recognize  a 
particular  place  for  the  use  of  the  Litany,  distinct  from  the  sta- 
tion for  the  performance  of  the  ordinary  offices.  The  early  offices 
prescribe  a  choir  of  seven  boj^s  to  chant  the  Litany  in  "the  midst 
of  the  Church' '  and  this  custom  appears  to  have  prevailed  until 
the  present.  At  other  times  the  priest  or  deacon  leads  the  Litany 
kneeling  in  the  nave  upon  a  prayer  desk,  known  as  a  faldstool. 
This  practice  is  based  upon  Joel  2:  17.     The  Litany  is  generally 

*  In  accord  with  the  use  observed  in  the  mediaeval  Churches,  the  Anglican  Or- 
ders retain  the  Litany  in  the  Offices  for  the  ordering  of  deacons,  of  priests,  and  con- 
secration of  bishops,  immediately  after  the  candidates  have  been  presented. 

t  Freeman,  however,  ^'■Principles  of  Divine  Service."  seems  to  appreciate  this 
character  of  the  L,itany.     Cf.  pp.  321-329  and  441. 


THE    BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         141 

Sting  in  the  English  Church,  especially  in  the  Cathedrals.  The 
American  Prayer  Book  has  no  rubric  on  place  and  the  invariable 
custom  is  to  say  the  Litany. 

There  is  a  great  wealth  of  musical  settings  to  the  Litany  in 
the  Anglican  Church  but  thej'  nearly  all  retain  Plain  Song  char- 
acteristics. The  settings  are  provided  only  for  the  "former  part 
of  the  Litany,"  i.  e.,  as  far  as  the  Kyrie.  The  second  section 
beginning  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  known  to  Anglican  usage  as 
"The  Suffrages."  The  popularity  of  the  Litanies,  and  their 
early  passage  into  the  vernacular — even  before  the  Liturgy  itself 
was  reformed — and  the  disposition  to  sing  them  on  all  occasions 
accounts  for  the  preservation  of  the  Litany  chant  "in  a  more  en- 
tire and  unmutilated  state  in  our  cathedrals  than  any  other  part 
of  Plain  Song."*  Jebb  says  in  the  introduction  to  his  edition  of 
various  settings,!  "For  three  hundred  j^ears,  i.  e.,  ever  since  the 
Reformation  (at  least),  it  has  been  the  established  and  uninter- 
rupted custom  of  our  Church,  at  least  in  her  principal  choirs,  to 
sing  all  the  Preces,  Responses,  and  the  former  part  of  the  Litany 
to  harmonies,  accompanied  by  the  organ,  on  the  great  Festivals  and 
on  solemn  occasions."  He  gives  the  notation  of  Tallis,  in  five 
different  harmonies,  together  with  one  notation  each  by  Bird, 
Day,  King,  Wanliss,  and  Loosemore  (penitential).  Archer  and 
Reedlj:  refer  to  the  antiquity  of  the  "traditional  Litany  melody  of 
the  Anglican  Church." 

This  is  of  necessity  a  brief  and  imperfect  study  of  the  Angli- 
can usage  of  the  Litany  but  it  will  sufiice,  let  it  be  hoped,  for 
comparison. 

B.  In  the  Moravian  Church.  The  history  of  the  Litany  in 
the  Church  of  the  Unitas  Fratrnm,  known  to  us  as  the  Moravian, 
is  interesting.  The  history  of  this  body  of  evangelical  Christians 
begins  in  reality  before  the  Reformation,  belonging  to  the  results 


*    RiMBALLT. 

t   Choral  Res/>on^es  and  fJlany  of  the  United  Churches  of  Engl,  and  Ir. 

i   Preface  to  The  Choral  Service  Book. 


142  MEMOIRS, 

of  the  work  of  Huss.  The  principles  of  reformation  upon  whicb 
this  community  was  founded  were  purely  evangelical  and  were 
characterized  by  extreme  Biblical  simplicity.  Hence  they  were 
led  to  discard  Church  forms  and  their  cultus  for  a  long  time  was 
extremely  plain.  The  use  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  a  guide  in 
everything,  the  prominence  given  to  congregational  singing,  and 
the  use  of  the  vernacular  in  all  services  prevented  the  establish- 
ment of  a  lyiturgy  for  the  first  hundred  years.  They  could  not 
help,  however,  but  be  influenced  by  the  Reformation  of  the  Six- 
teenth Century,  nor  are  they  averse  to  acknowledging  their  in- 
debtedness to  the  Reformers  for  certain  things.  The  confession 
of  the  "Ancient  Church  of  the  Brethren"  was  revised  many  times 
and  two  editions*  had  an  introduction  by  Luther.  The  "Re- 
newed Church' '  has  no  officially  recognized  document  as  its  Con- 
fession of  Truth  but  from  the  "Results  of  the  General  Synod  of 
1899"  we  learn  that  it  adheres  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Apostles^ 
and  that  it  recognizes  "that  in  the  twenty-one  doctrinal  articles 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  as  being  the  first  and  most  general 
confession  of  the  Evangelical  (Protestant)  Church,  the  chief  doc- 
trines of  the  Christian  faith  are  clearly  and  simply  set  forth.  "^ 
Although  they  were  the  first  body  of  evangelical  Christians  to 
publish  a  hymn-book  in  the  vernacular  for  congregational  sing- 
ing,! it  was  not  until  about  1566  that  a  Liturgy  began  to  develop. 
In  a  large  hymnal  published  in  that  year  Luther's  German  Lit- 
any of  1529  was  incorporated.  This  Litany,  practically  unal- 
tered, appeared  again  in  the  first  hymnal  of  the  "Renewed 
Church"  in  1735.  From  that  time  may  be  dated  the  independ- 
ent development  of  their  Litany  until  in  its  accepted  form  to-day 
it  partakes  more  of  the  character  of  an  Office  of  Worship  than  that 
of  a  mere  prayer.  The  first  Moravian  Litany  was  compiled  in 
1742.     It  reached  its  completed  and  fixed  form  in  1790,+  although 


*  German,  1533;    Latin,  1538. 

t   1501. 

+  Die  grosse  Kirchenlitanie. 


THE    BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         143 

fhe  hymnal  of  the  German  branch  published  in  1869  incorporated 
■an  abridged  form*  which  is  now  used  generally  through  Ger- 
many. The  need  for  an  abridgment  was  necessitated  by  the 
gradual  combination  of  the  Litany  with  the  "Predigt  Gottes- 
dienst."  Formerly  it  had  been  a  separate  Service  held  at  nine 
•o'clock. 

When  the  English  branch  of  the  Church  was  founded  in  1742 
the  Herrnhut  L,itany  was  translated  for  its  use.  This  translation 
has  undergone  equally  as  many  emendations  as  the  German. 
vSome  of  the  changes  and  editions  embodied  were  suggested  by 
the  Anglican  Bishop  of  London.  A  comparison  of  the  forms  of 
the  two  Churches  should  serve  to  show  what  these  were.  The 
English  form  has  "a  kind  of  Introit  before  the  Kyrie^  The 
Moravian  Church  in  America  adopted  the  English  form  but  in 
1870  revised  it  in  comparison  with  the  original.  The  American 
Church  introduced  the  introductorj^  form  of  confession  and  abso- 
lution and  inserted  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  the  Gloria  Patri  before 
the  invocations.  The  independent  features  of  the  Moravian  Lit- 
any are  a)  the  forms  just  mentioned,  b)  the  multiplication  of  the 
deprecations,  obsecrations,  and  intercessions,  c)  the  use  of  the 
petitions  of  the  Lord' s  Prayer  as  the  response  to  the  first  of  the 
invocations,!  d)  the  introduction  of  a  praise  Versicle  between 
two  groups  of  intercession,  e)  the  absence  of  any  concluding  Ver- 
sicles  and  Collects,  and  f )  the  introduction  of  hymn  singing  be- 
tween the  different  parts.  After  the  Absolution  and  before  the 
Creed  the  last  four  verses  of  a  metrical  Te  Deian  are  sung;  be- 
tween the  invocations  and  the  deprecations  the  last  three  verses 
of  the  second  stanza  of  "All  glory  to  God  on  high;"  after  the  ob- 
secrations, the  first  stanza  of  a  Litany  hymn  to  the  Saviour;  be- 


*  Die  kleine  Kirchenlitanie. 

t   Lord  God,  our  Father,  which  art  in  Heaven,     Ilalloived  be  Thy  Name,  etc., 
Amen. 

Lord  God,  Son,  Thou  Saviour  of  ihe  world,      Be  gracious  unlo  its. 
Lord  God,  Holy  Ghost,     Al>ii/e  ivitli  us  forever. 


144  MEMOIRS, 

fore  the  Agmcs,  a  stanza  by  Gregor,  "I,ord  for  Thy  coming  uS' 
prepare."* 

The  analysis  or  explanation  of  the  Litany  as  given  in  the 
Moravian  Manual  will  show  us  how  the  elements  of  the  opening^ 
part  of  our  Chief  Service  are  embodied  in  this  Litany. 

"The  Kyrie  Eleison^  an  invocation  and  an  invitation  to  confession  are 
followed  by  a  confession  of  sins,  all  kneeling.  The  Absolution  leads  to  the 
Creed,  a  Hymn  intervening.  Then  follows  the  Gloria  Patri  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  joined  with  brief  intercessions  to  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit.  Af- 
ter another  verse  is  sung  general  intercessions  are  made  with  reference  ta 
Providential  surroundings  and  spiritual  needs;  prayers  for  the  Church  uni- 
versal, the  denomination  itself  and  its  congregations,  and  all  classes  .therein 
follow  another  Hymn.  Intercessions  on  behalf  of  temporal  requirements 
and  the  discharge  of  social  duties,  prayers  for  missions  among  the  heathen, 
the  Hebrews  and  Islam,  petitions  in  behalf  of  the  constituted  authorities  of 
the  land  and  for  its  peace  and  prosperity,  for  travelers,  the  persecuted,  the 
sick,  the  aged  and  the  dying — for  all  men  and  for  the  coming  of  Christ's 
Kingdom,  finally,  after  another  Hymn,  lead  to  responsive  intercessions,, 
wherein  faith  in  the  atonement  and  a  benediction  of  peace  is  besought  with 
this  as  its  sure  foundation." 

This  Litany  is  prescribed  as  the  opening  order  for  the  rite  of 
"Consecration  of  a  Bishop."  That  it  was  the  basis  upon  which 
all  their  forms  of  Service  were  built  is  a  conclusion  deduced  from 
the  presence  of  parts  of  it  in  almost  every  form  given  in  their 
Liturgy.  The  phrase  "We  poor  sinners  pray,  hear  us  gracious 
Lord  and  God,"  common  to  all  other  Litanies,  is  not  found  in 
the  body  of  their  "Church  Litany"  but  it  occurs  in  the  "Easter 
Morning  Litany"  and  in  the  "Office  for  the  Burial  of  the  Dead." 
It  is  not  in  the  form  of  Versicle  and  Response  but  is  used  entire, 
as  a  Response.  The  invocations  are  used  in  an  "Office  of  Wor- 
ship for  Sunday  Evening,"  in  one  for  the  Epiphanj'^  Season,  and 
also  in  that  for  Trinity  Sunday.  The  Kyrie  is  used  in  nearly  all 
the  Offices,  while  parts  of  the  obsecrations  and  the  Agnus  occur 
in  many  of  them.     The  "Easter  Litany"  referred  to  is  in  reality 


*  Cf.  Liturgy  and  Hymns  of  the  American  Province  of  the    Unitas  Fratritm, 
Bethlehem,  1903.     Morv.  Publ.  House. 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.  145 

a  form  of  Service  for  Easter  Morning  since  it  contains  scarcely 
any  of  the  Litany  elements.  It  is  composed  of  the  Easter  greet- 
ing, paraphrases  of  the  several  articles  of  the  Creed-'^  to  each  of 
which  the  congregation  responds,  successively,  This  I  verily  be- 
lieve ^  This  I  most  certainly  believe,  This  I  assuredly  believe.  The 
Lord's  Prayer  and  Scripture  passages  are  also  used,  all  the  parts 
being  interspersed  with  stanzas  from  Easter  hymns.  This  Ser- 
vice was  compiled  about  the  same  time  as  the  Church  Litany. 

The  Office  for  the  Season  of  Lent  is  an  American  compilation 
based  upon  the  second  Litany  of  the  German  Churchf  used  there 
both  in  Advent  and  Lent.  It  opens  with  one  section  of  the  Ag- 
nus, uses  passages  from  the  Epistles  and  Prophets  referring  to 
Christ  and  His  mediatorial  work,  stanzas  of  hymns,  a  group  of 
eight  deprecations,  one  of  seven  obsecrations  and  another  of  four, 
and  two  obsecrations  with  separate  responses. 

The  last  edition  of  the  Moravian  ''Offices  of  Worship  and 
HymnsX  gives  "chants  for  the  Litany." 

There  are  intonations  for  the  "Minister  and  Choir,"  and  re- 
sponse chants  for  "All."  These,  however,  cover  only  the  open- 
ing Kyrie,  the  Gloria  after  the  Creed,  the  invocations  (only  for 
the  Doxology  of  the  Lord's  Prayer),  the  praise  Versicle  and  Re- 
sponse, the  AgJius,  and  the  final  Kyrie.  Evidently  the  remain- 
ing portions  of  the  Litany  are  said.  It  may  be  remarked  that  in 
all  the  chants  for  the  Services,  musical  provision  for  the  minis- 
ter's part  is  always  made.  There  is  no  indication  of  the  identity 
of  the  composer  of  the  Chants  but  there  is  a  uniformity  of  pro- 
gression, tempo  and  harmonization  which  would  point  to  a  com- 
mon composer  for  all  the  office  music. 

C.  In  the  Luthera?i  Church.  The  Litany  as  the  Lutheran 
Church  has  it  to-day  is  practically  of  Luther's  composition.  Lit- 
anies in  their  various  mediaeval  forms  and  uses  were  equally  as 


♦  Based  upon  Luther's  exposition. 

t  Litanei  iwm  I.eben.   Leiden  uiui  SUrben  'Jesti. 

X  Bethlehem,  1902,  Morv.  Publ.  House. 


146  MEMOIRS. 

popular  in  Germany  as  in  other  countries,  judging  from  the  ra- 
pidity and  universality  with  which  Luther's  forms,  both  Latin 
and  German,  were  adopted.  Jacobs*  refers  to  a  curious  Lita^iy 
for  the  Germans  used  on  Ash  Wednesday,  "adapted  at  Witten- 
burg  into  a  prayer  for  Luther's  cause."  The  responses  were, 
"Have  mercy  on  the  Germans,"  "Help  the  Germans,"  "Protect 
the  Germans,"  etc.  Even  the  Psalm  began,  "Make  haste,  O 
God,  to  help  the  Germans."  In  the  early  days  of  the  Reforma- 
tion processions  remained  in  vogue  and  the  old  Litanies  were  still 
in  use,  but  by  1525  they  had  been  rejected.  Early  in  1529!  Lu- 
ther published  a  purified  form  and  introduced  the  use  of  it  in  the 
Church  at  Wittenburg.  It  was  received  with  great  delight  and 
Luther  himself  considered  it  "a  precious  spoil"  and  according  to 
Gerber  spoke  of  it  as  second  only  to  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Drews^ 
says  that  the  spread  of  Luther's  Litany  was  accomplished  ist,  by 
a  special  edition  of  the  text  issued  in  i529§;  2nd,  by  its  being  ap- 
pended to  the  third  edition  of  the  Small  Catechism;  and  3rd,  by 
its  incorporation  into  the  hymnbooks.  Edition  after  edition  of 
the  various  "Gesangbiicher,"  so  popular  throughout  Germany, 
were  printed.  Some  have  only  the  Latin  text  which  was  used 
mostly  in  the  schools,  others,  the  German  text,  and  many  have 
both  forms.  Its  introduction  into  the  KOO,  followed  quickly, 
which  is  not  surprising.  South  and  Southwest  Germany  took 
the  lead  in  this.  Brenz  and  Bucer  by  sermon  and  letter  recom- 
mended its  adoption.  It  was  found  in  all  the  important  KOO  of 
every  section  of  the  Fatherland  by  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury. 

When  we  examine  the  form  in  which  Luther  gave  to  the 
Church  this  great  prayer  in  its  purification,  we  find  that  he  in- 
corporated many  changes  from  the  Roman  form,  and  made  many 


*  Luth.  Mov,  in  Engl. 

t  March  13. 

%   Hauck-Herzog,  Real-Encyclopedie. 

§  Wittenburg,  "Er  kostete  7  Pfge." 


THE    BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         147 

additions.  Naturally  the  invocation  of  saints  dropped  out.  The 
invocation,  ''Holy  Trinity,  one  God''  was  dropped  and  a  few 
changes  made  in  the  responses.  A  significant  deprecation,  "From 
all  error"  was  adopted;  "From  Thj'  wrath"  disappeared.  Fur- 
ther changes  in  the  deprecations  reduced  their  number  from  elev- 
en to  ten.  Another  characteristic  omission  is  that  of  the  obsecra- 
tion, "By  the  mystery  of  Thy  Holy  Sacrament."  The  order  of 
the  obsecrations  underwent  some  change.  "Temptations,"  "Ag- 
ony and  Bloody  Sweat"  were  added.  The  petitions  for  help  in 
tribulation,  prosperity  and  the  hour  of  death  were  new.  Three 
intercessions  ("That  Thou  spare  us,"  "pardon  us,"  and  "vouch- 
safe to  grant  us  true  penance")  no  longer  were  used.  The  rest 
of  the  intercessions  underwent  great  changes  because  they  were 
infused  largely  with  errors  (for  the  Pope,  the  dead,  etc.)  Many 
intercessions  were  added,  increasing  the  number  to  twenty-one. 
The  responses  to  the  Agnus  were  altered  and  an  Amen  added  to 
the  Kyrie.  The  Lord's  Prayer  was  said  aloud  by  all  the  people 
instead  of  having  the  final  petition  as  a  response.  The  Roman 
Litany  used  a  part  of  the  Sixty-ninth  Psalm.  This  Luther 
dropped.  Instead  of  the  eleven  Versicles  and  Responses  he  pro- 
vided two,  and  in  place  of  the  ten  Collects,  selected  five  from 
other  sources.  There  seems  to  be  some  disagreement  as  to  the 
number  of  Collects  and  Versicles.  Drews  credits  him  with  five 
Versicles  and  three  Collects.  Having  had  access  alone  to  the 
Latin  copy,  we  are  unable  to  say  whether  the  German  differed  in 
this  respect.  One  of  the  two  Versicles  given*  in  the  Latin  is  not 
found  in  our  English  version,  neither  in  the  German  of  the 
Kirchenbuch.  The  five  Collects  now  in  the  English  are  in  the 
Latin;  but  the  "Collect  for  Peace"  which  is  the  only  Collect  now 
surviving  from  the  Roman  original  is  not  included. 

As  we  had  no  access  to  the  archives  we  are  unable  to  account 
for  the  difference  between  the  Latin  of  Luther  and  our  present 


♦  Peccavimus,    Doinine,   cum   Putrihus    nostris:     Injuste   egimus    iniquitatem 
fecimus. 


148  MEMOIRS. 

form.  The  petition  for  travelers  was  inserted  by  the  Joint  Com- 
mittee on  Liturgy.*  There  seems  to  be  a  considerable  change  in 
the  petitions  relating  to  civil  affairs  for  which  we  cannot  account. 
The  "O  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  We  beseech  Thee  to  hear 
Its"  does  not  appear  in  the  Latin  text.  We  have  found  nothing 
on  the  sources  of  the  Versicles  to  Collects  two,  four  and  five. 

When  the  arrangement  into  groups  followed  by  a  single  re- 
sponse arose  is  not  known  to  us.  It  cannot  be  the  result  of  the 
translation  into  the  English,  and  the  consequent  influence  of  the 
Anglican  Litany,  since  Lohe  knows  the  practice  and  condemns  it. 
"The  arrangement  of  the  petitions  into  groups,  which  never 
found  much  favor  ought  not  to  be  countenanced  at  all.  The 
power  of  this  prayer,  internal  as  well  as  external,  lies  in  the  re- 
frains which  follow  the  intonations  of  each  part  as  stroke  upon 
stroke;  for  it  is  sung  or  said  either  by  minister  and  congregation 
or  by  choir  and  congregation. "f  %  This  grouping  of  the  parts 
may  have  been  the  natural  result  of  the  orderly  arrangement  which 
Luther  gave  to  the  petitions  in  their  several  classes,  and  as  well 
of  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  people  to  shorten  its  rendition 
during  the  time  when  it  graduall}'  passed  into  almost  total  disuse, 
in  the  Kighteenth  Century. 

An  analysis  of  this  prayer  will  show  us  great  harmony,  beau- 
ty, comprehensiveness  and  strength.  No  better  appreciation  of 
the  prayer  can  be  given  than  that  of  Lohe.!}; 

"The  Litany  in  its  Lutheran  form  is  like  the  magnificent  cathedrals  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  which  become  the  more  dear  and  precious  to  the  heart  the 
more  the  beauty  of  symmetrical  form  and  plan  is  recognized.  With  humble 
confession  of  sin,  and  knowing  no  way  of  deliverance  except  by  grace  and 
mercy,  it  lifts  the  soul  in  this  way,  all  the  more  powerfully  to  the  reverent 
worship  of  the  Triune  God.  Its  Kyrie  and  its  Eleison  point — the  one  to  the 
loftiest  heights,  the  other  to  the  lowest  depths.     Between  these  heights  and 


*  Cf.  Standard  MS  of  Common  Service. 

t  Our  rubrics  give  the  choice  of  methods,  placing  the  ancient  first,  however. 

+  Agende,  translated  by  Longaker. 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         149 

depths  mediates  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Who,  as  the  prayer  advances  appears 
more  clearly  and  refreshingly  with  His  merit  and  satisfaction.  The  Litany 
begins  with  an  act  of  humble  worship,  continues  with  confession  of  Christ 
•and  concludes  in  the  sweet  Agnus.  The  deeper  the  heart  sinks  itself  into 
this  prayer,  the  stronger  its  cry,  and  the  more  will  its  worship  become  the 
song  of  Moses  and  the  Lamb — the  song  of  the  New  Covenant.  What  a  be- 
ginning, continuation  and  ending  are  here,  how  thoroughly  evangelical; 
how  absolutely  in  accord  with  the  doctrines  of  our  Church.  Between  the 
three  high  towers  of  beginning,  continuation  and  end  are  two  courses  of 
well-arranged  petitions. — First  in  order  are  the  deprccationes  iinUi,  supplica- 
tions for  deliverance  from  evil;  then  follow  the  apprecaiiones  boni,  petitions 
for  all  manner  of  good,  which  gradually  pass  over  into  interpellatioms  or 
intercessions;  and  finally  a  thankful  prostration  of  the  heart  at  the  feet  of 
Jesus,  the  Lamb  of  God.  Here  then,  are  prayers,  supplications,  interces- 
sions and  thanksgivings  unto  Him  Whose  will  it  is  to  be  a  Saviour  of  all 
men,  especially  of  them  that  believe.  Everything  for  which  we  ought  to 
pray  is  included  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  petitions. 

In  the  use  of  such  a  form  there  is  no  room  for  weak  sentimentality  or 
idle  talk;  nevertheless  it  allows  before  all  other  forms  the  pressing  of  specific 
petitions,  for  its  spirit  is  as  elastic  as  its  form  is  rigid.  Here  is  room  for  ev- 
ery sigh  of  the  heart  and  the  clear  classification  of  the  petitions  will  itself 
show  the  earnest  worshipper  where  to  introduce  special  petitions,  supplica- 
tions or  intercessions.  Likewise  it  is  easy  to  determine  where  to  say:  Good 
Lord,  deliver  i/s,  or  IFe  beseech  Thee  io  hear  us,  good  Lord. 

To  the  indifferent  the  Litany  is  indeed  a  lengthy  and  formal  affair. 
Sung  or  said  by  Christless  souls  it  is  certainly  only  a  shell,  a  lifeless  form. 
But  when  used  by  the  earnest  Christian,  it  contains  power,  spirit  and  life. 
No  one  who  has  never  used  it  should  pass  judgment  on  it,  for  if  there  is  a 
spirit  to  pray,  praj^er  is  certainly  possible  by  means  of  the  Litany.  But 
where  there  is  no  spirit  of  prayer  there  can  also  be  no  prayer,  no  matter 
whether  the  words  are  after  a  form  as  rigid  as  that  of  the  Litany  or  as  form- 
less as  the  words  of  those  who  reject  all  forms  of  worship. 

The  use  to  which  this  prayer  was  ptit  in  the  Reformation 
Church  shows  certain  innovations.  Of  course  its  use  on  the  an- 
cient dies  statioimm,  Wednesday  and  Friday,  was  continued. 
Luther  appointed  it  for  Matins  on  Wednesdays  and  for  Vespers 
on  Fridays.  Not  many  followed  this  order.  Many  KOO  leave 
a  choice  between  the  two  days;  some  ordain  its  use  on  both  days 


150  MEMOIRS. 

and  others  only  on  Friday.*  A  number  have  no  set  days  baft 
leave  the  choice  of  days  to  the  best  convenience  of  the  people. 
Very  soon  the  Litany  became  appointed  for  Vespers  on  Sundays 
and  Feastdays,  and  even  on  Sundays  after  the  sermon — if  there 
were  no  communicants. f  Lossius  fixed  the  singing  of  the  Litany 
at  the  place  of  the  Church  Prayer,  Mechlenburg  has  the  unique 
provision  for  its  use  either  "before  or  during  the  Communion,"" 
possibly  in  the  latter  case  as  a  private  devotion.  Some  orders 
give  it  a  place  after  the  Epistle.  It  was  especially  appointed  for 
use  on  Reminiscere,  the  12th  Sunday  after  Trinity,  in  the  four 
Ember-weeks,  when  sermons  upon  the  catechism  were  preached, 
and  at  ordinationsj  by  various  orders.  The  Pfalz-Neuburg, 
(1543)  directs  its  use  on  St.  Mark's  Day  and  on  the  Rogation 
Days  with  processions  "from  one  church  to  another."  Some  of 
the  Southern  Orders  have  set  days  of  humiliation  on  which  the 
Litany  is  to  be  said  after  (nach)  the  sermon,  and  confession, 
Lohe  differs  from  this  somewhat;  "In  many  of  the  KOO  the  Ser- 
vice of  Public  Confession  and  Absolution  is  preceded  by  the 
Litany." 

Our  own  rubrics  permit  of  its  use  at  "Matins  on  Sundays 
when  there  is  no  Communion  and  at  Vespers  on  Sundays, 
Wednesdays,  and  Fridays  and  on  Days  of  Humiliation  and 
Prayer.  §  According  to  our  rubric  for  the  General  Prayer  the 
character  of  the  Litany  as  a  Church  Prayer  is  recognized  and  its 
use  permitted.  Why  no  reference  to  that  use  is  made  in  the  ru- 
bric on  page  132  is  not  clear.  We  have  two  other  Litanies  in  our 
Church  Book:  in  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick,  and  in  the  Commenda- 


*  Naumberg,  1538,  "Alle  Freitag  nachmittag  urn  zwoelf  hora  singet  man  das 
Tenebrae  und  haeh  die  Litanei  daranf." 

t  Koenigsberg,  and  Saxon  Visitation  Articles. 

X  Braunschweiger,  1543,  HiLDESHEiMER,  1 544,  and  Mechi.enburgek, 
1532  appoint  its  use  at  ordination. 

§  U.  S.  S.  and  G.  S. :  at  morning  Service  when  there  is  no  Communion. 
Kirchenbuch :  Wenn  beim  Morgengottes  dienst  am  Sonntag  das  Heilige  Abendmahl 
nicht  gejiert  wird,  ist  est  passend,  statt  des  Allgemeinen  Kirchengebet  zxihalten. 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         151 

tio7i  of  the  Dying. "^  The  latter  is  almost  an  exact  translation  of 
the  brief  Litany  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Ordo  Commeiidationes 
Anim^,  the  saints's  names  being  omitted.  The  former  opens 
with  the  invocations;  has  seven  deprecations  with  the  response, 
Defend  {Aim),  Good  Lord;  four  obsecrations  and  seventeen  inter- 
cessions, closing  with  the  Agjitis.  The  character  of  the  interces- 
sions is  worthy  of  study.  The  source  of  this  Litany  is  not  known 
to  us.  In  the  way  of  devotional  Litanies  there  is  Lohe's  ''Litany 
io  the  Holy  GhosV  in  his  Agende  and  in  Dr.  Seiss'  Golden  Altar, 
there  are  the  Lilany  to  the  Saviour  and  the  Litany  to  the  Holy 
Ghost,  presumably  from  his  own  pen. 

On  the  manner  of  reading  the  Litany  there  is  not  much  to 
offer  historically.  In  the  original  customs,  according  to  the  prac- 
tice noted  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  the  children  were  used  in 
the  praying  of  the  Litany.  The  school-boys,  or  some  of  the  cat- 
echumensf  "kneeling  before  the  great  altar"  sang  the  Litany, 
the  congregation  rendering  the  responses.  Another  plan  was  to 
have  the  choir  sing  the  intonations  and  the  congregation  the  re- 
sponses; or  where  there  were  two  choirs  the  second  led  the  con- 
gregational responses.  In  the. absence  of  such  choirs  the  pastor 
intoned  the  Litany  standing  or  kneeling  before  the  Altar.  For  a 
long  time  the  Litany  was  sung  at  all  its  renditions  but  with  1598 
the  Strasburg  KO  began  the  practice  of  saying  it.  Very  soon  the 
custom  arose  to  have  the  pastor  say  the  entire  prayer  himself 
without  any  response  at  all.  This  marked  the  beginning  of  the. 
decline  of  its  popularity,  which  was  only  arrested  by  Schoberlein 
and  Kliefoth.  Naturally  when  the  people  no  longer  took  part 
they  lost  interest,  and  then  knowledge  of  the  prayer  disappeared 
until  finally  they  failed  longer  to  seek  the  blessing  to  be  gained 
by  its  fervent  and  intelligent  use.  Once  more  we  refer  to  Lohe. 
"The  very  essence,  the  majesty  and  power  of  the  Litany  are  to 


•   Ch.  Bk.,   pp.  383-4  and  p.  405. 

t   Luther's  directions  were   for   frcim  two   to  five  "Knaben  mil  guten,  reinen 
Stimmlein  oder  der  Liturg  im  altar." 


152  MEMOIRS. 

be  found  in  the  recurring  responses  of  the  congregation.  No  one 
with  an}^  liturgical  instinct,  therefore,  will  say  that  the  minister 
alone  ought  to  read  it.  To  sing  it  or  say  it  antiphonally  is  the 
proper  way  to  use  it.  If  sung,  it  is  usually,  though  not  always,, 
without  organ  accompaniment.*  .  .  .  On  Sundays  it  is  more  ap- 
propriate to  sing  it  on  account  of  the  festival  character  of  the 
day;  Wednesday  and  Friday  it  should  be  said." 

Luther's  arrangement  of  the  Choral  music  for  the  Intonations 
and  Responses  was  such  that  when  the  first  choir  sang  "'Kyrie,'^ 
the  second  responded  '' Eleison;"'  when  the  first  sang  ''Christi," 
the  others,  '' Erhoere  lois.'^  He  used  the  Plain  Song  melody, 
and  this,  according  to  Archer  and  Reed,t  has  remained  almost 
the  universal  use  in  Germany  since  the  Reformation  period. 
Other  melodies,  which  appeared  in  great  abundance  according  to 
Kuemmerle,  had  but  a  brief  local  vogue.  Spangenburg's  arrange- 
ment of  the  choral  melody  for  the  Responses  was  given  to  the 
American  Church  in  Mrs.  Harriet  Krauth  Spaeth's  Church  Book 
with  Mtisic.  The  full  Intonations  and  Responses  in  pure  Plain 
Song  for  the  entire  Litany  are  to  be  found  in  the  Choral  Service 
Book  hy  Archer  and  Reed.  There  is  an  independent  setting  in 
Dr.  Seiss'  Church  Song  but  the  name  of  the  composer  is  not  giv- 
en. It  does  not  possess  the  simple  majesty  nor  breathe  the  inner 
spirit  of  the  prayer  as  does  the  impressive  and  appealing  melody 
of  the  Plain  Song  chant. 

D.  Litany  Hymns.  The  full  development  of  the  subject  of 
the  metrical  Litanies  or  Litany  Hymns  is  prevented  by  lack  of 
time  and  space.  It  is  a  most  interesting  study.  Julian^  says 
that  the  metrical  Litany  is  of  comparative  modern  date.  The 
references  in  the  authorities  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  other 
sections  of  this  paper  would  lead  one  to  question  that  statement. 
There  were  metrical  Litanies  in  the  different  countries — especial- 


*  Cf.  Jebb  on  Anglican  custom  as  quoted  above, 
t  Preface  to  The  Choral  Service  Book. 
%  Diet.  Hymnology. 


THE   BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         153 

ly  in  England — before  the  Reformation,  and  they  were  sometimes 
alternated  with  the  other  forms  during  the  more  elaborate  cele- 
brations of  the  Rogations.  Soon  after  the  appearance  of  Luther's 
Litany  it  was  published  in  "liederform"  in  North  Germany. 
Johann  Feder  is  looked  upon  as  its  author  but  not  with  any  cer- 
tainty. Nicolaus  Pueltz  in  Hesse  published  some  "Litaneilieder" 
which  gradually  took  the  place  of  the  regular  version  during  the 
decline.  The  Kyrie  Liedcr  in  the  KirchenbucJi^  are  most  inter- 
esting as  being  the  metrical  versions  of  the  "farced  KyriesJ" 
The  Kirche7ibuch  contains  quite  a  number  of  Litany  Hymns. 
We  cannot  quote  them  exactly.  Our  own  Church  Book  contains 
eight  hymns  of  this  character. f  Our  Sunday  School  Book  has 
five.  I  The  Episcopal  Hyviual  contains  about  nineteen  hymns 
with  a  Kyrie  refrain  to  each  stanza.  Seven  of  these  are  especial- 
ly designated  "Litany  Hymns."  They  are  entitled:  "Litany  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,"  Litany  of  the  Church,"  "Litany  for  the  Chil- 
dren," two,  "Litany  of  the  Incarnate  Life,'.'  Litany  of  Peni- 
tence," "Litany  of  the  Words  on  the  Cross."  The  English  Lit- 
any Hymns  all  date  from  the  Nineteenth  Century  and  in  that  far 
Julian's  claim  is  supported.  There  are  a  number  of  beautiful 
hymns  of  this  type  in  the  Moravian  Hymtial. 

III.       THE   SUFFRAGES. 

Our  Common  Liturgy  includes  among  the  "General  Prayers," 
the  Geyieral  Suffrages  and  as  well  the  Morning  and  Evening  Suf- 
frages. The  forms  as  we  have  them  come  from  the  Roman 
Breviary  which  contains  the  Services  of  the  Canonical  Hours. 
Originally  these  consisted  of  but  the  Matins  and  Vespers  instead 
of  the  eight  "hours"  which  developed  afterwards.  The  Matins 
and  Vespers  of  the  Eastern  Church  always  had  prayers  of  the 
bidding  variety  at  the  close  of  the  Service.     In  contents  these 


*  Nos.  407-413. 

t  Nos.  25,  172,  232,  263,  43Q,  490,  603,  649. 

X  Nos.  112,  164,  181,  218,  219. 


154  MEMOIRS. 

were  almost  identical  with  those  in  the  Missa  but  after  the  dis- 
missal of  all  but  "the  faithful,"  there  was  a  special  prayer  and 
blessing.*  The  history  of  the  development  of  the  Canonical 
Hour  Offices  in  the  West  is  a  complicated  but  interesting  subject. 
As  in  all  Liturgies  the  tendency  of  the  development  was  toward 
extremes.  Many  revisions  and  condensations  occurred  and  reoc- 
curred  ere  the  Roman  Breviary  reached  its  present  form.  The 
Reformation  Church  felt  the  need  of  the  educational  and  devo- 
tional aid  of  the  auxiliary  servicesf  but  she  wanted  them  for  the 
people  and  not  for  monks  and  nuns.  So  she  returned  to  the  sim- 
ple and  more  practical  observance  of  but  two  hours  of  daily 
prayer:  Matins  and  Vespers.  In  this  also  the  Reformation  re- 
turned to  primitive  usages,  and  added  one  more  link  to  the  chain 
uniting  her  with  all  the  Early  Church. 

The  mere  outline  of  these  two  Services:  Psalmody,  Lessons, 
Hymns,  Prayer,  made  but  "little  provision  by  supplications  and 
intercession  except  when  the  Litany  was  used."]:  Hence  the 
preces  of  certain  hours  of  the  Breviary  were  transferred  for  the 
devotional  enrichment  of  our  Offices.  The  more  elaborate  preces 
used  at  Lands  (2nd  "hour")  and  Vespers  (7th  "hour")  supplied 
the  General  Suffrages,  with  but  few  changes. §  The  shorter 
preces  at  prime  (3rd  "hour")  furnished  the  Mor?ii7ig  Suffrages. 
Here  the  introductory  supplications,  "O  Christ,  Thou  Son  of  the 
living  God,  have  mercy  upon  us,  etc.,"  are  omitted  as  is  also 
"Confession  and  Absolution"  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  set 
of  Versicles  and  Responses.  In  the  Sunday  preces  at  this  hour, 
following  the  part  with  which  our  Suffrages  close,  there  is  a  com- 
memoration of   the  dead,  another  set  of  Kyrie,  Lord's   Prayer, 


*  Apos.  Const.      Bk.  VIII. 
t  NehengoUesdienst. 

X    LOEHE. 

§  Change  in  the  Versicle  and  Response,  "Lord  save  the  King,  etc."  and  re- 
jecting of  the  Versicle  and  Response,  "Let  us  pray  for  the  faithful  departed,  etc." 
We  were  unable  to  locate  the  last  two  of  our  Versicles  and  Responses,  "give  peace, 
etc.,"  in  the  Roman  Breviary. 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER-,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         155 

Versicles,  and  Collect.  The  ferial  office  oi  Prime  contains  anoth- 
er set  of  precis  leading  up  to  the  Confession  and  Absolution. 
Lohe  gives  both  these  forms  in  his  Agende.  The  Evening  Suf- 
frages are  the  preces  at  Compline  (8th  "hour")  without  any 
changes.  The  closing  Collects  in  both  our  forms  are  from  other 
sources  than  the  Breviary.  The  direct  Lutheran  source  from 
which  the.se  prayers  were  transferred  to  our  Liturgy  was  the  ap- 
pendix to  Luther's  Catechism. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  Roman  Offices  from  earliest  times 
both  the  Pater  Nosier  and  Credo  are  said  in  secreto  as  far  as  the 
sixth  and  seventh  petitions  in  the  prayer,  and  the  two  final  claus- 
es in  the  Third  Article.  These  parts  are  used  as  Versicle  and 
Response.  In  the  General  Suffrages  the  original  use  in  the 
prayer  was  followed  except  that  it  is  not  said  silently.  The  ad- 
herence to  ancient  usage  is  seen  in  the  omission  of  the  doxology 
of  the  prayer.  By  resolution  of  the  Joint  Committee  the  doxolo- 
g}'  was  allowed;  but  none  of  the  three  Bodies  inserted  it.  In  the 
shorter  Suffrages  the  prayer  and  Creed  are  said  by  all.  Lohe 
preserves  the  ancient  use. 

The  Anglican  and  American  Episcopal  Offices  of  Morning, 
and  Evening  Prayer  have  a  mutilated  remnant  of  the  Suffrages 
in  the  preces  there  included  as  in  invariable  part  of  the  Office. 
The  American  Order  is  the  shorter,  containing  no  Kyrie  and  hav- 
ing less  Versicles  and  Responses.  In  both  Orders  the  Creed  pre- 
cedes the  beginning  of  the  preces.  While  the  English  preces 
consists  of  six  Versicles  and  Responses,  and  six  Collects  in  each 
Office,  the  American  has  only  two  Versicles  and  Responses  in  the 
morning />r<?<"^5,  no  Lord's  Prayer,  and  seven  Collects;  and  in  the 
evening,  six  Versicles  and  Responses,  and  seven  Collects.  The. 
Collects  vary  for  the  two  Offices.  There  is  no  Benedicamiis  in 
either  form.  Freeman,  Blunt  and  others  endeavor  to  show  a  par- 
allelism between  the  consecutive  sets  of  \'ersicles  and  Responses 
and  the  Collects  which  follow. 

The  rubrics  of  our  own  books  are  worth}-  of  consideration. 


156  MEMOIRS. 

The  General  Suffrages  have  the  rubric,  ^'May  be  iised  at  Matiiis 
or  Vespers  in  the  sc(-we  manner  as  the  Litany.'"  The  question 
arises  whether  it  would  be  proper  to  use  this  praj^er  in  place  of 
the  General  Prayer  as  is  done  with  the  Bidding  Prayer  and  lyit- 
any.  The  rubric  in  the  Chief  Service  says,  ''or  a  selection  from 
the  Collects  and  Prayers,  or  any  other  sicitable prayer^  (See  pp.  132— 
154)."*  This  would  seem  to  include  the  use  of  the  General 
Suffrage  at  least.  The  other  form,  it  can  be  seen  readily,  does 
not  contain  sufficient  of  the  elements  of  the  General  Prayer.  The 
special  rubrics  for  the  shorter  forms  contain  a  fruitful  suggestion: 
''At  the  Morning  Prayers  of  the  household'''  and  ''At  the  Eve7iing 
Prayers  of  the  household  ' '  The  original  Matins  and  Vespers  were 
held  in  private  houses — especially  after  the  persecutions  ceased, — 
and  in  the  history  of  our  own  Church  these  Oflfices  have  been 
used  principally  in  the  schools,  until  the  adoption  of  the  Vesper 
Order  for  the  Sunday  Evening  Service  by  the  American  Church. 
Might  not  our  pastors  find  in  these  prepared  forms  an  aid  to  their 
efforts  to  re-establish  the  salutary  but  waning  custom  of  family- 
worship? 

The  Suffrages  may  be  sung  or  said;  and  the  Lutheran  music- 
al authorities  quoted  in  connection  with  the  Litany  will  be  found 
to  have  provided  also  for  the  Suffrages.  The  observation  of  Lohe 
as  to  singing  the  Litany  on  Sundays  and  saying  it  during  the 
week  is  equally  applicable  to  the  Suffrages. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  nearly  all  the  Versicles  and  Responses 
are  taken  from  the  Psalms.  How  they  came  to  be  selected  and 
how  they  gradually  took  form  we  are  unable  to  explain  but  they 
seem  to  be  a  remnant  of  the  more  abundant  Psalmody  of  the  early- 
arrangements  of  the  Offices. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  is  interesting.  It  comes  from 
the  Latin  sjffragor,  "to  support  with  one's  vote  or  interest;" 
hence  a  suffrage  is  "a  vote  in  support  of  some  measure."  Thus 
it  comes  to  mean  asse?it.     In  the  liturgical  sense  of  the  word  we 

*  The  G.  S.  and  U.  S.  S.  have  the  rubric  but  do  not  specify  fhe  pages. 


THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.  157 

give  a  suffrage  whenever  we  assent  by  the  Atnen  to  the  Collects, 
Prayers,  Confessions  and  Hymns  of  our  Services.  In  this  par- 
ticular form  of  prayer  we  give  assent  to  the  statement  of  each 
Versicle  by  the  Response.  It  is  not  hard  to  understand  why 
these  should  be  called  "General  Prayers"  nor  to  realize  how 
their  use  tends  to  emphasize  not  only  the  universal  priesthood  of 
all  believers  but  also  their  essential  unity  in  thought  and  aim  and 
life. 

We  can  now  appreciate  slightly  the  helpful  treasure  which 
our  Church  offers  her  people  in  these  three  forms  of  responsive 
prayer.  A  little  study,  a  little  interest,  a  little  thought,  a  little 
explanation,  a  little  use  will  soon  reward  us  as  pastors  and  peo- 
ple with  large  and  numerous  blessings.  Dare  any  one  charge  the 
Lutheran  Church  with  rigid  formalism  and  deadening  similarity 
of  Service  when  these  variables  in  prayer  joined  wnth  the  other 
variables  of  our  Orders  offer  us  the  opportunity  of  an  almost 
countless  variety  in  our  Sunday  and  Weekday  Services? 


Charles  Krauth  Fegley. 


Allegheny,   Pa. 


1 


THE   USE   OF   STAINED   GLASS  IN   ECCLESIASTICAL 
ARCHITECTURE. 


Windows  are  the  eyes  of  a  building.  As  the  e3'es  determine  the 
character  of  a  face  for  beauty  or  ugliness,  so  the  windows  are 
dominating  factors  in  the  impression  which  the  structure  makes 
upon  the  intelligent  onlooker.  There  is  nothing  more  aggressive 
in  the  inanimate  world  than  light  and  light  modified  by  passing 
through  glass.  On  entering  the  House  of  God,  the  light  by 
which  it  is  pervaded,  by  its  impression  upon  our  senses,  speaks 
to  us  the  first  word,  whether  we  are  conscious  of  it  or  not. 
While  we  are  within  the  sacred  walls,  its  influence  is  continually 
-with  us;  and,  on  leaving  the  gates  of  beaut}^  it  sends  after  us  the 
last  message  we  carry  awaj-.  It  is  well  worth  the  while,  then,  of 
those  who  are  interested  in  the  beautifying  of  the  sanctuary  and 
in  the  embellishment  of  its  Services,  to  give  earnest  heed  and 
sincere  attention  to  the  use  of  glass  in  ecclesiastical  architecture. 
This  subject  may  be  viewed  from  a  number  of  standpoints. 
The  study  of  its  history  is  intensely  interesting  and  profitable. 
Many  valuable  books  have  been  devoted  to  this  branch  of  the 
subject.  An  exhaustive  study  of  glass  in  the  decoration  of 
churches  would  naturally  open  with  a  treatment  of  the  history 
of  the  subject.  After  this  there  would  logically  follow  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  technical  processes  involved  in  the  making  of  the 
glass  and  its  composition  into  the  decorated  window.  It  is  not 
the  design  of  this  paper  to  enter  upon  a  consideration  of  either 
the  historical  or  the  technical  phase  of  the  subject,  but  sim- 
ply to  define  the  more  important  principles  which  must  be  ob- 

(clix) 


160  MEMOIRS. 

served  in  the  use  of  decorative  glass  in  ecclesiastical  architecture. 
The  first  principle  is  a  structural  one.  The  substance  of 
vi^hich  the  window  is  composed,  like  every  other  material  sub- 
stance, is  subject  to  the  pull  of  gravity,  and  must  be  securely 
supported.  Consequently,  in  all  good  work  the  sheets  of  glass 
are  adequately  supported  on  bars  which  cross  the  window  and 
render  it  firm  and  solid,  and  secure  the  glass  in  place.  This  is  a 
structural  necessity  of  which  no  true  artist  is  ashamed.  To  try 
to  hide  or  minimize  these  bars  is  foolish  and  unworthy  of  the 
truthfulness  and  honesty  of  all  pure  art.  The  sheets  of  glass  sus- 
pended on  these  bars  are  mosaics  of  stained  glass.  These  must 
be  held  together  by  means  of  what  are  technically  called  "leads." 
These,  too,  are  a  structural  necessity  and  must  be  duly  honored 
b}^  the  artist.  Properly  to  lead  a  window  takes  time  and  study, 
and  is  expensive.  Such  windows  are  not  picked  up  at  the  bar- 
gain-counter; and,  as  a  consequence,  the  makers  of  decorated 
windows  in  modern  times  have  manifested  a  tendency  to  diminish 
the  width  and  the  weight  of  the  leads  and  to  do  away  entirely 
with  the  cross-bars  by  the  use  of  steel  frames  as  a  substitute. 
As  a  result  of  such  wretched  work,  unworthy  of  the  name  art, 
we  are  told  on  good  authority  that  "one-half  of  the  churches  of 
New  York  City  are  double  glazed  with  outside  sash  of  plain  glass 
to  protect  the  poor  leaded  work  of  the  windows  proper  from  leak- 
ing or  being  blown  to  fragments  by  the  winds."  To  show  that 
this  is  entirely  unnecessary  it  is  but  necessary  to  continue  to 
quote  from  the  same  author: — "We  have  the  living  evidence  that 
well- constructed  leaded  glass  will  last  seven  hundred  years  and 
more,  and  that  under  the  most  trying  conditions  of  war  and  neg- 
lect: as  witness  the  Eleventh  Century  windows.  But  they  are 
all  made  with  large,  expensive  leads  and  are  properly  barred;  in 
many  cases  bars  having  been  added  from  time  to  time;  which 
fact  accounts  not  a  little  for  much  of  the  richness  of  tone  of  the 
old  glass,  the  contrast  of  their  blacks  giving  much  of  the  jeweled 
brilliance  of  the  glass  showing  'between  them."      We  are  told 


USE  OF  STAINED  GLASS  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.     161 

furthermore: — "The  old  makers  well  understood  the  worth  and 
added  beauty  which  were  derived  from  their  sustaining  bars. 
They  often  made  them  heavier  than  structural  necessity  demand- 
ed, or  ran  them  in  large  geometric  patterns  over  the  openings; 
the  spaces  between  being  filled  with  leaded  glass  and  the  black 
value  of  the  iron  being  frankly  used  in  the  play  of  values. ' '  All 
first-class  makers  of  decorative  glass,  of  which  there  are  but  few, 
are  beginning  to  realize  the  necessity  of  observing  this  principle 
of  structural  honesty  in  their  work,  and  they  make  as  deep  a 
study  of  the  leads  as  they  do  of  the  glass  itself.  To  quote  from 
another: — "It  is  not  an  expedient,  an  unfortunate  necessity,  to 
be  reduced  to  the  smallest  size  and  quality;  it  is  of  equal  honor, 
of  equal  importance,  with  the  glass.  To  the  glowing  colors  of 
the  quarries  it  gives  the  strength  and  vigor  they  would  otherwise 
lack.  The  treating  of  the  leads  as  a  misfortune  to  be  minimized 
and  concealed  is  one  of  the  worst  offences  of  the  modern  makers 
of  picture-windows,  and  vitiates  their  work  permanently."  The 
lead-line,  as  already  stated,  is  a  structural  necessity,  and  dare  not 
be  ignored.  Art  always  rewards  him  who  honors  her  by  yielding 
obedience  to  her  principles.  Thus  we  see  that  by  honoring  the 
structural  necessity  of  the  lead-line  and  the  bars,  our  best  mod- 
ern makers  of  decorated  windows  have  found  that  these  have  a 
distinct  decorative  value.  -As  the  rest  and  the  discord  have  their 
value  in  music,  so  the  black  line  of  the  iron  and  the  wood  em- 
phasize the  gem-like  colors  of  the  window  and  by  contrast  height- 
en its  glory  of  light.  Just  as  we  are  told  that  the  pearl-oyster 
on  finding  it  impossible  to  dislodge  the  grain  of  sand  which  has 
found  entrance  into  its  shell,  covers  it  with  beauty  and  transforms 
it  into  a  pearl  for  the  bosom  of  a  princess,  so  the  bars  and  leads 
in  a  decorated  window,  ugly  in  themselves  but  absolutely  neces- 
sary, when  properly  employed,  become  elements  of  strength  and 
beauty.  This  is  the  foundation  principle  which  must  be  observed 
in  the  production  of  the  decorated  window.  Just  as  he  in  Script- 
ure is  designated  the  foolish   man  who  attempted  to  build  his 


162  MEMOIRS. 

house  on  the  sands,  so  he  is  worthy  of  contempt  that  would  fly- 
in  the  face  of  the  laws  of  gravity  by  endeavoring  to  give  the  im- 
pression that  he  is  suspending  the  substance  of  a  decorated  win- 
dow on  air. 

The  second  principle  is  determined  by  the  medium  employed 
in  the  making  of  the  decorated  window.  This  is  what  is  tech- 
nically called  "pot-metal"  or  "painted"  glass.  In  making  paint- 
ed glass  the  color  is  put  upon  the  glass  and  burned  into  it.  In 
"pot-metal"  the  color  is  mixed  in  with  the  "batch"  in  the  "pot." 
In  "pot-metal"  the  color  is  /«  the  glass,  in  painted  glass  it  is  ofi 
it.  Paint  on  glass  more  or  less  interferes  with  its  transparency 
and  does  not  yield  itself  so  readily  to  the  production  of  genuinely 
artistic  effects.  Fortunately  the  best  American  makers  of  deco- 
rated windows  use  no  paint  in  their  work  except  light  touches  on 
hands  and  faces.  Even  this  is  no  longer  necessary  since  the  glass 
in  the  hands  and  faces  can  now  be  joined  by  means  of  fusing, 
without  the  use  of  the  leads.  The  American  glass-makers  have 
their  faults,  but  the  use  of  painted  glass  is  not  one  of  them.  Mr. 
Ralph  Adams  Cram  in  his  excellent  work  on  Church  Building 
says: — "If  sensationalism  in  the  use  of  modelled  and  opalescent 
glass  is  the  killing  vice  of  American  work,  painted  glass  is  very 
surely  an  equally  deadly  sin  in  English  work.  Both  violate  every 
law  of  good  glass-making,  both  are  widely  popular,  and  both  are 
quite  unendurable." 

Translucent  glass,  then,  which  holds  its  color  in  suspension 
is  our  medium  with  which  we  have  to  work.  Every  substance 
legitimately  employed  in  the  service  of  art  has  its  excellencies 
and  its  limitations.  In  the  use  of  his  materials  the  artist  aims  to 
produce  the  best  results  which  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  the 
medium  in  which  he  is  working.  When  in  the  use  of  a  substance 
he  strains  after  effects  which  can  better  be  reached  by  the  em- 
ployment of  another,  or  endeavors  by  servile  imitation  to  simulate 
such  effects,  he  may  make  an  impression  of  smartness  and  may 
excite  the  wonder  of  the  gaping  crowd,  but  he  really  wastes  his 


USE  OF  STAINED  GLASS  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.      163 

labor,  is  guilty  of  attempted  deception,  and  fails  to  make  a  con- 
tribution to  genuine  art.  A  very  creditable  bust  of  Abraham 
Lincoln,  a  copy  of  the  Venus  de  Milo,  or  an  exact  miniature  re- 
production of  the  Capitol  at  Washington  may  be  wrought  out  in 
butter.  A  castle  of  architectural  beauty  may  be  fashioned  in 
blocks  of  ice,  but  ev^er}-  one  knows  that  such  performances  are 
not  art.  They  excite  in  the  onlooker,  who  has  a  sense  of  the 
eternal  fitness  of  things,  pity  and  contempt  in  view  of  the  waste 
of  good  material  and  the  prostitution  of  skilled  labor  in  the  pro- 
duction of  such  freaks. 

The  characteristic  qualities  of  glass  with  which  we  have  to 
deal  in  the  decorated  window,  are  richness,  purity,  subtlety  of 
color  and  translucence.  "Colored  glass  is  the  ideal  of  material- 
ized color."  By  means  of  it  we  can  secure  a  glassy  glory  and  a 
jewelled  brilliance  which  can  be  secured  through  no  other  medi- 
ums. Properly  to  use  these  qualities  and  not  to  abuse  them  in 
the  attempt  to  do  what  they  were  never  intended  to  accomplish, 
must  be  the  aim  of  the  honest  worker  in  decorated  glass.  A 
creditable  imitation  of  the  Apollo  Belvidere  might  possibly  be 
perpetrated  in  stained  glass  and  doubtless  manj''  newspapers  and 
the  unthinking  multitude  would  give  such  a  performance  unstint- 
ed praise,  but  it  would  never  pass  for  genuine  art.  It  would  be 
on  a  par  with  the  making  of  the  Capitol  in  butter.  The  proper 
material  for  a  statue  is  marble  or  bronze  and  never  glass. 

Some  of  our  good  people  in  the  innocent  simplicity  of  their 
hearts  seem  to  think  it  the  proper  thing  to  turn  their  churches 
into  the  suggestion  of  picture  galleries  by  making  the  windows 
do  duty  as  canvas  upon  which  to  depict  Luther  and  other  Refor- 
mation worthies.  We  have  seen  very  creditable  likenesses  in  this 
line,  but  they  always  suggest  the  butter-maker's  skill  and  the 
smartness  of  ice-architecture  referred  to  above.  Canvas  and  oth- 
er opaque  surfaces  and  not  glass  are  the  proper  materials  upon 
which  to  represent  realistic  scenes  and  likenesses.  If  you  employ 
glass  to  do  the  work  of  canvas,  you  lose  its  effect  as  glass.     The 


164  •  MEMOIRS. 

dark  colors  required  in  the  representation  of  clothing  make  your 
window  too  dark  for  its  proper  uses  as  a  window.  If,  in  your 
attempts  at  making  a  realistic  likeness  in  glass,  you  have  some 
regard  for  the  peculiar  qualities  of  glass,  you  give  your  picture 
an  unreal  and  unearthly  glory  which  dare  be  associated  with  no- 
mere  man.  In  our  admiration  of  the  Great  Reformer  we  accord 
him  the  place  next  to  the  Apostle  Paul  as -the  greatest  man  after 
our  adorable  Saviour.  Nevertheless,  whenever  we  see  a  picture 
of  the  rugged  Reformer  in  glass,  a  number  of  conflicting  emotions 
are  aroused.  We  are  indignant  if  the  qualities  which  properly 
belong  to  glass  have  been  given  their  true  expression,  since  then 
he  shines  with  a  permanent  glory  that  is  blasphemous  in  its  sug- 
gestion. We  read  of  Only  One  Whose  face  on  only  one  occasion 
"did  shine  as  the  sun,  and  His  raiment  was  bright  as  the  light." 
We  are  filled  with  pity  and  contempt  if  more  emphasis  has  been 
laid  in  the  perpetration  of  this  attempt  at  portraiture  upon  the  re- 
alistic production  of  a  speaking  likeness,  since  a  good  window  has- 
been  spoiled  at  the  expense  of  several  hundred  hard-earned  dol- 
lars, where  five  or  ten  dollars  invested  in  a  picture  of  the  Great 
Reformer  on  canvas  would  have  given  far  better  satisfaction.  A 
picture-window  is  properly  speaking  neither  a  picture  nor  a  win- 
dow. By  virtue  of  the  limitations  existing  in  glass  it  cannot  be 
both  at  the  same  time.  Let  it  be  understood  that  it  is  not  the 
pictorial  character  to  which  objection  is  made,  but  the  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  secure  results  in  glass  which  can  be  adequately  ac- 
complished only  by  the  painter  on  canvas  or  some  other  opaque 
surface.  Let  us  honestly  employ  glass  in  the  production  of  re- 
sults for  which  its  character  and  qualities  manifestly  adapt  it. 
Yet  the  sorry  work  of  abusing  this  decorative  feature  in  our 
churches  is  steadily  going  on,  and  there  are  reputable  firms  to  be 
found  in  all  our  large  cities  that  will  undertake  to  represent  in 
glass  anything  under  the  sun.  We  quote  again  from  the  work 
cited  above: — "Certain  manufacturers — a  great  majority  in  fact — 
have  taken  to  copy  in  glass  the  works  of  the  old  masters;  and  the 


TUSE  OF  STAINED  GLASS  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.     165 

dull  wonder  that  these  triumphs  of  trickery  and  bad  art  have  cre- 
-ated  has  given  them  a  singular  vogue.  The  whole  idea  is  so 
wrong-hea-ded,  so  perverse,  so  without  a  possibility  of  justifica- 
tion, that  it  is  a  waste  of  time  to  condemn  it  in  detail 

It  is  bad,  thoroughly  and  hopelessly  bad,  and  that  is  all  one  can 
sa}'.  .  .  ,  To  show  the  false  position  the  art  of  glass-staining  oc- 
cupies nowadays  let  me  speak  of  an  incredible  occurrence  I  know 
•of.  Certain  people  who  were  proposing  to  give  a  memorial  win- 
dow, and  who  had  a  liking  for  the  painter  Millet,  asked  a  certain 
firm  of  glass- painters  to  make  a  window  representing  "The  Sow- 
€r,"  and,  instead  of  refusing  the  commission,  it  was  accepted 
with  alacrity.  Now  no  one  subject  could  be  chosen  which  was 
less  adaptable  in  stained  glass  than  this  particular  picture;  and 
yet  the  work  was  cheerfully  undertaken,  without  the  least  regard 
to  the  absurdity  of  the  idea.  Not  only  this,  but,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  donors,  the  glass-maker  copied  the  well-known  pict- 
ure; and  because  the  man  in  whose  memory  the  window  was  to 
be  erected  wore  a  beard,  they  showed  this  beard  in  Millet's  pict- 
ure. Could  anj'thing  be  more  preposterous  and  disheartening? 
Yet  this  is  an  example  of  what  is  asked  for  and  gotten  at  this 
time;  and  it  shows  how  totally  false  is  the  attitude  of  the  public 
and  the  makers  of  glass  toward  this  most  noble  and  exalted  form 
of  religious  art." 

Let  us,  then,  in  closing  this  section  emphasize  stronglj-  this 
important  principle  drawn  from  the  material  employed  in  the 
making  of  the  decorated  window,  that  stained  glass  must  not  be 
unnatural!}-  forced  to  represent  that  for  which  it  is  not  adapted. 
Just  as  some  men  have  a  Divine  call  to  preach  and  others  are 
clearly  marked  out  as  .scientists,  painters  and  sculptors,  and  are 
of  but  little  use  in  the  world  unless  they  exercise  themselves  in 
these  callings;  in  like  manner  glass  has  certain  qualities  and 
adaptabilities  which  manifestly  fit  it  for  positive  effects.  Study 
these  carefully  and  use  them  to  secure  legitimate  results  and  the 
reward  will  be  a  thing  of  beauty  and  a  joy  forever;  abuse  them 


166  MEMOIRS. 

by  endeavoring  to  make  them  render  a  service  for  which  they 
were  never  adapted,  and  the  result  will  be  disappointment  and 
chagrin. 

The  true  function  of  a  stained  glass  window  is  emphatically 
not  pictorial  representation,  as  shown  above,  but  decoration. 
This  principle  remains  true  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  "to  every 
person  who  will  regard  a  window  as  the  decoration  of  a  wall- 
space,  superb  above  all  other  forms  of  mural  decoration  by  reason 
of  its  translucence,  there  is  an  indefinite  number  who  view  it  on- 
ly as  a  picture."  Art  principles  are  not  fixed  by  the  counting  of 
noses  in  estimating  majorities.  This  decorative  character  of  the 
stained  glass  window  we  must  strongly  emphasize  in  a  considera- 
tion like  this,  especially  so  on  account  of  the  perversity  and  the 
persistence  with  which  the  majority  regards  a  stained  glass  win- 
dow as  simply  a  picture  in  glass.  To  accord  the  window  its 
proper  artistic  treatment,  we  must  understand  its  true  function. 
The  decorated  window  is  simply  and  purely  the  decoration  of  a 
wall-space  made  translucent  by  means  of  colored  glass.  It  is 
simply  a  mural  decoration.  The  first  object  in  the  insertion  of 
windows  is  to  keep  out  the  weather;  the  second  is  to  admit  light. 
They  continue  the  wall -surface,  and  are  consequently  simply  a 
part  of  the  wall  made  translucent.  The  art  of  the  decorator  ap- 
plied to  this  part  of  the  wall-space  gives  us  the  decorated  win- 
dow. 

Since  the  function  of  the  stained  glass  window  is  simply  dec- 
orative, it  must  extend  the  flat  surface  of  the  wall  without  any 
attempt  at  perspective  or  modelling.  Any  device  or  art  by  which 
the  impression  of  perspective  is  given  is  to  be  condemned  in  a 
window.  To  endeavor  to  produce  the  impression  that  it  is  a  hole 
in  the  wall,  which  it  is  not,  is  deception,  and  cannot  be  tolerated 
by  the  true  artist.  Yet  who  has  not  seen  windows  which  give 
representations  of  landscapes  with  mountains  and  clouds  in  the 
back-ground,  and  with  lambs  skipping  on  green  meadows  inter- 
vening between  the  foreground  and  the  mountains  in   the  rear? 


USE  OF  STAINED  GLASS  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.     167 

This  is  not  decoration,  but  an  attempt  at  realistic  representation 
to  which  glass  does  not  artistically  yield  itself  and  which  must 
be  studiously  avoided  b}^  the  artist  when  working  in  this  medium. 

Since  glass  may  be  used  legitimately  onlj'  for  decorative  pur- 
poses, the  designs  and  the  figures  on  decorated  windows  must  be 
conventional  and  not  naturalistic.  "Now  the  law  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal decoration  is  that  everything  should  be  both  decorative  and 
symbolic.  Every  angel  and  archangel,  every  saint,  be  he  martyr 
or  confessor,  every  prophet,  every  king,  has  his  proper  symbol- 
ical vestment  and  his  special  attributes.  Our  Lord  Himself, 
when  He  is  portrayed  in  glory  is  clothed  in  the  splendor  of  both 
the  royal  and  the  priestly  vestments  that  show  forth  His  twofold 
glory  of  Priest  and  King.  The  impulse  that  leads  to  rebellion 
against  these  vestments,  these  attributes,  because  of  some  fancied 
association  is  not  one  that  needs  to  be  considered;  for  even  the 
Christian  style  of  architecture — nay,  even  all  art  itself — falls  un- 
der the  same  condemnation." 

The  window-spaces  are  necessarily  broken  up  by  the  mullions 
and  the  tracery.  The  decorative  scheme  must  not  be  extended 
over  and  beyond  these  natural  barriers.  These  are  essential  lim- 
itations beyond  which  a  representation  dare  not  pass.  Who  has 
not  already  seen  a  window,  divided  by  a  sash-bar  in  the  middle, 
yet  wholly  covered  by  the  figure  of  an  angel,  or  saint,  or  other 
worthy? 

This  principle  of  limiting  the  figure  or  design  to  the  open 
spaces  determined  by  the  mullions  and  the  tracery,  however,  is 
not  violated  by  the  representation  in  a  double  or  triple  window 
of  a  scene  which  demands  the  introduction  of  several  prominent 
figures,  if  the  different  ones  are  confined  to  their  proper  limiting 
spaces.  The  whole  may  be  appropriately  unified  by  a  homoge- 
neous treatment  of  the  canopy-work  in  such  a  way  as  to  bind  the 
whole  window  into  unity. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  stained 
glass  are  especially  aggressive,  the  principle  of  subordination  and 


168  MEMOIRS. 

restraint  is  often  neglected  in  using  this  form  of  decoration.  It 
dare  not  assert  itself  in  such  a  way  as  to  distract  the  attention 
from  everything  else.  It  must  naturally  hold  its  place  without 
insolence  or  insistence.  It  is  simply  a  means  to  an  end,  a  small 
part  of  a  great  whole.  The  otherwise  charming  effect  of  a  beau- 
tiful church  may  be  spoiled  by  the  wrong  treatment  of  its  win- 
dows. This  subordinate  part  of  the  architecture  may  insolently 
thrust  itself  forward  in  such  a  way  as  to  take  the  chief  place  in 
our  consciousness  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  a  strong  voice 
with  a  peculiar  timbre  in  an  untrained  choir.  There  is  an  archi- 
tectural harmony  in  every  properly  constructed  church.  When 
this  harmony  is  impaired  by  a  wrong  treatment  of  the  windows, 
a  fundamental  principle  has  been  violated. 

In  conclusion  let  us  remember  that  we  are  dealing  with  art 
when  we  contemplate  the  principles  which  govern  the  use  of 
stained  glass.  Art  ought  to  make  the  impression  of  beauty,  and 
the  contemplation  of  art-forms  should  give  us  pleasurable  impres- 
sions. Much  that  wrongly  passes  for  art  has  been  imposed  upon 
the  Church.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  day  is  not  far  distant 
when  the  true  principles  of  art  in  decoration  may  be  understood 
by  the  many,  so  that  there  may  be  an  end  of  the  reign  of  what  is 
cheap,  tawdry  and  positively  ugly;  and  that  our  sanctuaries,  with 
the  growth  of  our  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  and  the  true  in 
art,  may  grow  into  a  closer  correspondence  with  the  heavenly 
beauties  of  the  spiritual  blessings  which  are  mediated  in  them 
through  the  Means  of  Grace. 


Elmer  F.  Krauss. 


'    Chicago,  III. 


SACRED     MONOGRAMS— THE     CHRISMA     AND 
THE     HOLY     NAME. 

The     Chrisma. 


^ 


From  the  glyptic  art  we  learn,  according  to  Chabouillet,*  that 
the  earliest  forms  under  which  the  Christians  allowed  themselves 
to  represent  the  Saviour  were  purely  emblematical — the  Good 
Shepherd,  the  Dove,  and  the  Fish.  In  the  Second  Century 
Clement  of  Alexandria  gives  Christians  some  advicef:  "Let  the 
engraving  upon  your  ring  be  a  dove,  a  fish,  or  a  ship  running  be- 
fore the  wind  ;  or  a  ship's  anchor,  which  Seleucus  had  cut  upon  his 
signet.  If  the  device  represents  a  man  fishing,  the  wearer  will  be 
put  in  mind  of  the  Apostles,  and  of  the  little  children  drawn  up 
out  of  the  water.  For  we  must  not  engrave  upon  it  idols,  which 
we  are  forbidden  even  to  look  upon  ;  nor  a  sword  or  bow,  for  we 
are  followers  of  peace;  nor  a  drinking  cup,  for  we  are  sober  men." 
The  earliest  manifestations  of  Christian  painting  X  frequently 
exhibit  pagan  models  in  the  attempt  to  typify  the  Saviour.  Thus 
he  is  represented  as  the  Orpheus§  of  the  new  faith,  charming  and 
taming  ferocious  animals  by  the  sound  of  his  lute.  When  Chris- 
tian art  first  dared  to  court  the  light  of  day  under  Constantine, 


♦  Antique  Gems  and  Hings,  by  C.  W.   King. 
t  Padagogtis,  iii,    ii. 

%  Note  in  History  of  Miniamre  Art,  by  J.   L.  Propest. 
§  A  Greek  mythical  poet,  who  with  his  lyre  enchanted  everything  that  had  life. 
Even  in  Hades  the  charm  of  his  music  caused  the  torments  to  cease. 

(clxix) 


170  MEMOIRS. 

it  felt  an  instinctive  repugnance  to  draw  its  inspiration  from  clas- 
sical works,  produced  under  the  influence  of  what  in  a  Christian 
sense  was  a  debased  and  immoral  creed.  In  the  place  of  "form" 
w^as  established  a  school  of  "idea"  and  "symbol",  and  allegory 
became  the  dominant  feature  of  the  early  Byzantines.  But  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  692  A.  D.  commanded  symbolism  to 
cease,*  and  ordained  that  the  central  object  of  the  Christian  faith 
should  be  depicted  as  in  the  flesh,  free  from  the  veil  hitherto  em- 
ployed. Unfortunately  the  interference  of  the  Church  produced 
an  inflexible  code  of  rules  which  for  centuries  prescribed  the  exact 
forms,  attributes,  etc.,  to  be  observed  in  the  rendering  of  the 
human  form.  Art  became  a  poor  form  of  tradition,  continued 
wdthout  enthusiasm  or  progress.     So  thinks  Propest. 

The  two  sacred  monograms  universally  employed  in  Christian 
art  are  the  '^  and  the  |HS.  the  former  standing  for  the 
name  Christ  and  the  latter  for  the  name  Jesus.  The  former  is  a 
combination  of  the  Greek  X(  English,  CH)  and  p  (English,  R), 
the  first  two  letters  in  the  Greek  name  XPICTOC  (CHRIST). 
The  latter  is  a  Latinized  variation  of  the  first  three  letters  of  the 
Greek  name  IHCOYC  (JESUS).  Each  of  these  monograms 
has  a  history,  and  if  all  were  told,  a  long  story  it  would  be. 

GREEK    FORMS. 

The  Chi  Rho,  also  called  the  Chrisma,  is  perhaps  the  most 
ancient  symbolical  representation  of  Christ.  In  popular  usage  it 
long  antedates  the  |HS  which  was  seldom  seen  before  the  Ninth 
Century,  but  from  the  Twelfth  Century  on  replaced  the  XP  al- 
together. Just  why  the  monogram  of  the  name  Christ  should 
come  into  vogue  before  that  developed  ixoxxv  Jesus  is  not  easily  ex- 
plained. It  may  have  been  because  the  Divine  name  of  the 
Saviour  was  early  emphasized  ;  He  was  known  distinctively  as 
"The  Christ."     Or  it  may  have  been  due   to  the  influence   of 


*  For  example.  Canon  80  expressly  forbids  representing  our  Lord  under  the  fig- 
ure of  a  lamb. 


SACSED  MONOGRAMS— THE  CRISMA  AND*  THE  HOLY  NAME-  171 

Constantine.  If  so,  whence  did  Constantine  derive  it?  He  cer- 
tainly did  not  invent  it.  Or  Christians  may  have  adopted  it  from 
another  source  and  adapted  it  to  their  own  needs,  and  this  per- 
haps because  it  resembled  the  cross. 

The  origin  of  the  Chrisma  is  commonh'  ascribed  to  the  em- 
peror Constantine,  the  story  running  thus  :  In  the  year  312  Con- 
stantine marched  toward  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  in 
battle  his  rival  Maxentius.  On  the  way  he  saw  in  the  sky  a  lum- 
inous cross  surrounded  by  the  inscription  TOUTO  NIK  A''" 
"  BY  THIS  CONQUER."  On  the  eve  of  the  battle,  according 
to  Lactantius,  j  preceptor  to  the  emperor's  son  Crispus,  'he  was 
directed  in  a  dream  to  inscribe  on  his  soldiers'  shields  the  letter  X. 
with  a  perpendicular  line  drawn  through  it,  and  turned  round  at 
the  top  >^  being  the  cipher  of  Christ.  Having  this  sign  his 
troops  draw  the  sword.'  The  next  day  after  entering  Rome,  he 
summons  the  artists  and  commands  them  to  make  the  L,abarum, 
which  Eusebius  describes  thus  :  X  "It  was  a  long  spear,  covered 
with  gold,  and  having  a  transverse  bar  like  a  cross.  At  the  top 
of  the  spear  was  a  wreath  of  gold  and  gems.  In  this  the}-  de- 
signed the  sig-n  of  the  savmg  name,  that  is  to  say  the  first  two  let- 
ters of  the  name  of  Christ,  the  p  crossing  in  the  midst.  These 
letters  the  emperor  was  accustomed  to  wear  on  his  helmet  ,  .  . 
The  Emperor  always  used  this  saving  sign  as  a  standard  against 
his  enemies,  and  caused  ensigns  to  be  made  after  the  same  pattern 
for  all  his  armies." 

While  this  story  may  explain  how  the  Chi  Rho  came  to  be 
commonly  used  as  a  Christian  s3-mbol,   yet  it  hardly  points  out 


♦  The  popular  Latin  version  adopted  by  the  Knights  Templar  is  IN  HOC 
SIGNO  VINCES.  But  a  medal  of  Constantius  II  (353-361)  shows  this  prince  as 
holding  a  standard  on  which  is  inscribed  with  the  Chrisma,  HOC  SIGNO  VICTOR 
ERLS.  It  seems  probable  that  the  Latin  is  the  original  version,  Constantine  being 
a  Dalmatian.  Eusebius,  who  reports  the  vision  in  his  Life  of  Consiantitie^  wrote  in 
Greek 

t  De  Mart.  Per  sec.     ch.   44. 

X  I-ife   of  Conslaiilitic,    lib.    I,    c.    31. 


172  *      MEMOIRS. 

the  origin  of  such  use.  The  sign  is  found  long  before  the  time 
of  Constantine.  King  says  ^^  that  -P  like  >k^  was  not  invented 
by  the  Christians.  In  fact  coins  of  the  Ptolemies  are  known  to 
bear  the  monogram  ^.  Also  those  of  Herod  the  Great,  struck 
forty  years  B.  C.  have  this  -^.  Similarly  the  monogram  formed 
of  I  and  X  is  figured  on  the  denarius  of  h.  Lentulus,  flamen  or 
priest  of  Mars,  with  the  portrait  of  Julius  Caesar,  in  which  it  rep- 
resents the  star  of  Venus,  Jiduim  Sidiis  y^.  Another  of  the 
same  kind  is  figured  on  some  medals  of  the  kings  of  the  Bosphorus, 
for  instance  on  those  of  Sauromates  Rescuporis  etc.,  although  the 
star  is  commonly  figured  like  the  Sigla  (monogram  on  a  seal)  -V- 
which  among  the  Romans  served  to  indicate  the  denarius.  The 
letter  X  traversed  by  a  vertical  bar  terminated  at  the  upper  end 
by  a  circle  )|(  or  by  a  small  dot  y^  may  be  compared  with  the 
sigla  >|C,  which  denotes,  it  is  supposed,  the  commander  of  a 
thousand  men — XIAIAPK02  ;  and  which,  crossed  by  a  horizontal 
bar   -^,  makes  its  appearance  on  some  coins  of  the  Ptolemies. 

But  from  the  unvarying  arrangement  of  the  lines  in  the 
monogram  on  the  medals  of  the  period  of  Constantine,  the  bar 
crossing  the  X  being  vertical,  we  may  reasonably  conclude  that 
the  lines  are  so  disposed  intentionally ,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of 
representing  stars  which  are  also  to  be  seen  on  coins  of  the  same 
epoch.  And  yet  as  soon  as  we  admit  that  these  signs  are  tokens 
of  Christianity,  it  follows  that  we  must  equally  recognize  as 
crosses  and  monograms  of  Christ  the  same  symbols  when  they  ac- 
company the  figures  of  Mars  Conservator  and  Sol  Invictus.  This 
would  imply  that  Constantine  permitted  himself  to  be  styled  the 
Sun  and  Light  of  the  world,  somewhat  like  the  Chinese  emperor. 
Another  writer  suggests  that  "^^  in  the  earlier  coins  may  have 
stood  for  XPH2T02,  good,  genuine.  A  medallion  of  Trajan 
Decius  (249-251)  struck  at  Metonia  in  Lydia  has  an  inscription 
in  which  occurs  the  word  "APXONTES  in  which  the  PX  form 
a  monogram  exactly  like  the  Chrisma. 

*  Early    Christian    Numismatics,    by  C.   W.   King. 


SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  1  (  O 

That  the  Chrisma  was  used  as  a  Christian  symbol  before  the 
time  of  Constantine,  may  be  regarded  as  certain  if  Bishop  Kip's 
work  *  is  to  be  believed.  He  cites  among  other  inscriptions  in 
those  subterranean  tombs  the  two  following  which  record  their 
own  date:  "In  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Adrian,  Marius  a  young 
militar}-  officer,  who  had  lived  long  enough  when  with  his  blood 
he  gave  up  his  life  for  CHO  (pro  CHRISTO)."  Beside  this 
inscription,  rudely  drawn  is  ><;;.  Hadrian  reigned  117  to  138 
A.  D.  That  this  monogram  in  the  catacombs  stands  for  Christ 
is  assured  by  this  inscription:  "Vidori7ia  m pace  et  in  >^.  " 
Another  in  Latin  runs  thus:  "Lannus  the  martyr  of  XPI 
rests  here.  He  suffered  under  Diocletian."  That  is  between 
303  and  305  A.  D.  On  a  gem  dating,  as  is  supposed,  f  about  the 
year  300  A.  D.  on  either  side  of  a  young  man  bearing  a  sheep  on 
his  shoulders,  illustrating  the  Good  Shepherd,  is  inscribed  ^"X'- 
And  yet  some  writers  hold  that  the  earliest  examples  to  be  found 
in  the  catacombs  date  no  farther  back  than  331  %.  Martigny  § 
claims  the  earliest  (323  A.  D.)  under  a  pavement  in  the  Basilica 
of  St.  Lawrence  in  agro  Verano.  For  the  love  of  the  curious 
we  mention  that  Justin  Martyr  ( 1 10-165)  quotes  ||  Plato  as  saying 
in  the  Timseus  that  God  placed  his  Son  in  the  univ^erse  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  X  (Chiasma).  But  Justin  refers  in  this  passage 
to  the  cross. 

It  is  barely  possible  that  the  earliest  representation  of  the 
name  of  Christ  is  found  in  the  abbreviations  and  contractions 
used  in  writing  that  name.  By  abbreviation  is  meant  the  short- 
ening of  a  word  by  dropping  one  or  more  letters  from  the  end;  by 
contraction,  the  shortening  of  a  word  by  omitting  some  of  the 


*    The  Catacombs  of  Rome  as  [llitsltdting  Ihc  Church  of  the  First  Three  Centu- 
ries, by  the  Right  Rev.  Wm.  Ingkaham  Kip. 

+   Symbolism  in  Christian  Art,  by  F.  Edvvard  Hulme  F.  S.  A. 
+  Northcote's  Epitaphs  of  the  Catacombs. 
§  Diet,  des  Ant.  Chret. 
II  Apology,  ch,    LX. 


174  MEMOIRS. 

letters  within  the  word.  Thus  Pcnna.  is  an  abbreviation  and  Pa.  a 
contraction  of  the  word  Pennsylvania.  From  very  ancient  times 
down  to  the  common  use  of  the  art  of  printing,  and  even  long 
after,  it  was  the  universal  practice  to  abbreviate  and  contract 
words.  The  object  was,  no  doubt,  to  save  time  and  labor,  as  all 
writing  was  by  hand.  In  the  ancient  manuscripts  the  name  of 
Jesus  Christ  is  invariably  "abbreviated  or  contracted.  According 
to  Grenfell  and  Hunt*  this  usage  extends  far  back  into  the  Sec- 
ond Century.  In  what  is  probably  the  oldest  Christian  fragmentf 
yet  published — a  papyrus  of  late  Second  or  early  Third  Centur}- — 
are  found  the  contractions  0C  (0EOC,  GOD),  ThC,  and  XC. 
The  line  above  is  the  sign  of  contraction.  Also  part  of  a  leaf 
from  a  papyrus  book,  written  at  the  end  of  the  Fourth  or  begin- 
ning of  the  Fifth  Century  containing  a  passage  from  I  John  4  ch. 
shows  the  same  thing.  The  form  |  C  XC  is  found  in  all  Greek 
uncial  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  from  the  Fourth  Cen- 
tury down.  It  is  on  a  medal  found  at  Urfa,  Syria,  of  the  Fourth 
or  Fifth  Century;  on  the  Stone  of  Cana,  %  late  Sixth  Century  ; 
on  paintings  of  the  Ninth  Century  ;  on  a  coin  of  John  Zimisces 
of  the  Tenth  Century  ;  oh  a  painting  in  the  Convent  church,  Isle 
of  Salamis,  Eighteenth  Century  ;  on  the  silver  seal  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Mt.  Athos  ;  and  on  the  sacramental  bread  of  the 
Greek  Church  today.  It  is  of  course  to  be  expected  that  the 
Greek  church  would  retain  the  Greek  form  of  the  name  of  Christ. 


We  also  find  other  forms  of  contraction.  Thus  XPC  ii^  Codex 
Bezge  of  the  Fifth  Century  ;  in  the  Golden  Gospels  at  Stockholm, 
Seventh  or  Eighth  Century  ;  and  in  a  book  of  the  Gospels  in  the 
library  at  Munich,  Ninth  Century. 

LATIN   FORMS. 

So  much  for  the  Greeks.     How  did  the  Latins  contract  the 
sacred  name?     Here,  as  might  be  expected,  the  Greek  influence 


*  Publications  of  Egyptian  Exploration  Fund,    Gra:co-Ro?nan  Branch. 
t  Recently  discovered  by  Grenfell  and  Hunt  near  Oxyrhynchus  in  Egypt. 
X  HiLPRECHT,  Recent  Research  in  Bible  Lands. 


SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  175 

remains.     Indeed  the  Latins  frequently  wrote  the  purely  Greek 


form  XPC-  Thus  the  Sermons  of  St.  Augustine,  written  in 
Latin  uncials,  Sixth  Century  ;  in  a  Latin  Psalter  of  Eleventh 
Century  ;  and  in  the  manuscript  sermons  of  the  Fourteenth  or 
Fifteenth  Century,  in  my  possession.  More  frequently  however, 
did  the  Latins  render  XPC  into  XPS.  substituting  the  Latin 
S  for  the  Greek  Sigma.  This  is  well  seen  in  the  Codex  Bezae 
in  which  the  Greek  and  Latin  versions  stand  in  parallel  columns. 
The  latter  form  finds  examples  on  the  medal  of  Urfa,  Fifth  Cen- 
tury ;  in  an  "Evangeliar"  made  for  Charlemagne,  Ninth  Century; 
and  in  Missals  and  other  writings  of  Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth 
Centuries.  In  mediaeval  manuscripts  of  all  kinds  the  form 
I  pus  ^^  ^^^o  used  In  an  old  Reliquar}'  of  the  Tenth  Century 
is  seen  the  plain  form    X- 

There  are  instances  in  which  individuals  have  had  the  tem- 
erity to  use  the  sacred  contraction  in  writing  their  own  names. 
One  is  that  of  a  Dutchman.  He  produced  a  picture  and  wrote 
under  it  '' Magister  Petrus  X)^\  me  fecit  amio  1449."  That  is, 
"  Master  Peter  Christi  made  me  in  the  year  1449. 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  time  of  Constantine.  Through  the 
influence  of  that  Christian  emperor  the  use  of  the  Chrisma  be- 
came popular  throughout  the  Roman  empire.  The  common 
form  then  employed  was  >P  being  a  mere  combination  of  the 
X  and  p.  This  is  found  on  the  coins  of  Constantine's  succes- 
sors down  to  Honorius  (395-423)  and  on  those  of  most  of  the 
Eastern  emperors  to  Heraclius.  It  is  also  seen  on  a  Roman  pave- 
ment in  Britain  of  the  Fourth  Century,  on  monuments  in  France 
of  the  same  period,  on  sarcophagi,  mosaics,  lamps,  glass  vessels, 
coins,  in  fact  throughout  the  whole  range  of  sacred  art. 

The  form  _L  is  also  very  ancient,  being  found  in  the  Cata- 
combs and  on  coins  of  Constantine.  It  was  no  doubt  regarded  as 
more  suggestive  of  the  cross  and  became  very  common.  Accord- 
ing to  J.   R.  Allen,*  this  suggestiveness  explains  the  changes 

*    Christian  Symbolism  in    Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 


176  MEMOIRS. 

which  took  place  in  the  shape  of  the  Chrisma.  An  interesting 
correspondence  shows  how  widespread  was  the  use  of  this  style. 
In  the  British  Museum  is  a  manuscript  written  in  England  in  the 
Eighth  Century,  containing  passages  from  the  Gospels,  the 
Lord's  Prayer  and  others,  letter  of  Christ  to  Abgar  etc.  On  many 
of  the  pages  at  the  upper  left  corner  is  _E.  Recently  at  Oxy- 
rhynchus  in  Egypt  were  unearthed  some  old  Coptic  ostraca  (pot- 
tery and  stone  chips)  belong  to  Sixth  to  Eighth  Centuries.  On 
these  ostraca  are  in.scribed,  in  Greek  and  Coptic,  episcopal  edicts, 
letters  to  bishops.  Biblical  and  liturgical  passages,  letter  of  Christ 
to  Abgar,  etc.  With  few  exceptions  the  writing  begins  or  ends 
with  the  same  sacred  symbol  _l.  Even  secular  documents  were 
prefaced  with  the  Chrisma,  as  in  a  deed  of  Edgar,  961  A.  D.* 

Besides  those  depicted  above,  the  Chrisma  developed  a  great 
variety  of  forms  as  maj^^  be  seen  from  the  examples  given  below. 
Allen  f  thinks  that  all  the  variations  can  be  traced  to  two  causes: 
(i)  the  addition  of  a  horizontal  bar  to  the  original  form,  thus  -^ 
as  written  on  one  of  the  Coptic  ostraca,  (2)  the  gradual  altera- 
tion in  the  shape  of  the  loop  of  the  p  which  becomes  more  like 
an  R,  and  falls  away  altogether.  Thus  if  from  the  last  shape 
you  drop  X  the  result  will  be  _l.  The  cruciform  shapes,  con- 
sisting either  of  |  and  ^  combined,  or  of -h- and  ^,  result  from 
the  omission  of  the  loop  of  the  p.  Hence  according  to  Allen  the 
development  of  the  Chrisma  runs  thus  : 

X    P   ICTOC 


*     *      + 


(  Head  Irom  top  downward,  and  from 
leit  10  riyht.) 


*  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  in  this  connection,  that  copies  of  the  Bible  were 
made  in  Alexandria  for  sale  in  Western  Europe,  and  that  all  our  oldest  manuscripts 
show  their  origin  by  the  Egyptian  form  of  spelling  in  some  of  the  words.  History 
of  Egypt,  by  Ravpoport. 

t  Christian  Synibolis?n  in  Great  Britain  ami  Ireland  by  J.  ROMILLY  ALLEN 
F.  S.  A.,  Scotland. 


SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  177 

While  this  is  a  very  attractive  theory,  I  doubt  whether  he 
can  prove  it  from  historic  facts.  He  recognizes  that  two  or  three 
variations  often  occur  together  on  the  same  coin,  or  sarcophagus, 
but  says  this  only  shows  that  there  was  a  great  deal  of  caprice 
in  the  choice  of  forms,  and  that  no  special  one  was  adhered  to 
rigidly.  The  above  formula  also  supports  the  theory  that  the 
plain  cross  as  a  sign  was  evolved  from  the  Chrisma. 

The  addition  of  the  letters  Alpha  and  Omega  took  place  as 
early  as  A.  D.  347.*  Thus  f  a)Ki.  They  occur  on  coins  of 
Constantius  and  are  seen  in  the  Catacombs.  Notice  particularly 
that  the  Omega  is  drawn  in  the  ancient  uncial  style  (J()  I  have 
not  seen  one  instance  of  ( /,  as  modern  workers  in  ecclesiastical 
art  depict  it.  There  is  a  unique  example  of  the  ^2^  and  (1) 
the  [h  ^iid  XPS  all  occurring  together  on  a  tombstone  in 
'  Bresal '  now  preserv-ed  in  St.  Kevin's  Kitchen  at  Glendalough 
County  Wicklow,  Ireland. 

The  origin  of  the  circle,  in  which  the  Chrisma  is  often  written, 
is  either  ornamental  or  may  be  taken  from  the  wreath  or  crown 
of  glory  which  also  frequently  surrounds  it.  The  idea  of 
eternity  is  also  associated  with  the  circle,  as  is  seen  in  a  Latin  in- 
scription found  in  Scotland:  "This  circle  contains  the  name  of 
the  Supreme  King  whom  you  see  to  be  without  beginning  and 
without  end."  The  circle  of  the  monogram  survives  in  the  ring 
which  joins  the  arms  of  the  Celtic  crosses. 

In  another  interesting  s^udy  Mr.  Allen  tries  to  show  how  the 
Maltese  cross  was  developed  ,from  the  Chrisma.  He  finds  his 
examples  on  stones  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  There  are  four 
steps : 

D        0^ 


*  NORTHCOTK  gives  362  A.   D. 

+  Paul  Lacroix   Military  anJ  Religions  Life  of  the  Middle  Ages. 


llO  MEMOIRS. 

The  process  of  development  here  is  twofold,  (i)  The  extremi- 
ties gradually  widen.  (2)  The  loop  of  the  p  disappears.  The 
last  is  a  common  shape  of  the  ancient  Celtic  cross.  The  third  is 
on  the  face  of  a  stone  slab  near  Whitehorn,  Scotland,  and  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  oldest  monuments  of  Christianity  in  that 
section.  The  other  forms  are  well  known.  Concerning  that  pe- 
culiar loop  of  the  p,  Quaritch  *  has  this  to  say :  "  In  early  Roman 
writing  the  Greek  p  had  a  little  stroke  added  to  it  (  P  )  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  P  ^  jj  j  ."  Perhaps  a  study  of  Paleography 
might  throw  some  light  on  this  subject.  The  following  most 
interesting  form  occurs  with  a  Latin  inscription  on  a  grave  stone 
found  along  the  Rhine.  It  belongs  to  the  end  of  the  Sixth 
Century. 


Paleography,  by  BERNARD  QUARITCH. 


SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  179 


The  Holy  Name. 

IHS 

Who  has  not  sat  in  the  Sanctuary  and  allowed  his  attention 
to  wander  from  the  devotions  to  the  decorations  of  the  chancel? 
While  thus  engaged  has  not  his  curiosity  been  aroused  to  know 
the  meaning  of  those  mysterious  letters  |  HS  carved  on  the  face 
of  the  Altar  or  worked  on  its  antependiumf 

The  Monogram  of  the  Holy  Name — for  so  have  these  letters 
been  termed,  probabl3'  because  they  stand  for  a  name  Divinely 
given  (Luke  i:  31) — came  into  common  use  much  later  than  the 
Chrisma  (^)  although  it  probably  originated  at  the  same 
time.  Today  it  holds  the  chief  place  as  a  design  for  church  dec- 
oration. The  letters  IHS  have  been  variously  explained,  as. 
our  readers  must  know.  The  writer  has  seen  the  following  in- 
terpretations.    There  may  be  others. 

II    1bave  Sinned. 

H    Ibave  Suffered. 

Unspiration  {of  the)  Iboly  Spirit. 

Un  1boc  Signo — referring  to  the  sign  >^  in  Constantine's 
vision. 

1|n  Ibac  {cruce)   Salus — "In  this  (cross  is)  salvation." 

llesus  "Ibumanitatis  Consolator — "Jesus  of  men  the  Conso- 
ler,"  referring  to  the  Greek  |  HC- 

llesus  Ibominum  Salvator — "  Jesus  of  men  the  Saviour.  " 
This  Latin  inscription,  Halliwell  says,  *  is  foimd  in  some  Euro- 
pean churches.  It  is  the  interpretation  of  the  Jesuits  who  use  it, 
in  its  fully  developed  historical  form  |pJS,  as  their  badge  and 
motto.  On  the  election  of  the  first  general  of  their  order,  in  1541, 
which  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Ignatius,  the  latter  had  headed  his 
vote  with  IHS-  si^^  the  sign   ih5  was  engraved  on  his  .seal,   the 


*A  Feiv  Hints  to  A'ovicc's  in  Manmcripl  Liter  a  tare 


180  MEMOIRS. 

same  with  which  the  election  of  the  generals  since  Jacob  Laynez 
has  always  been  sealed.  * 

The  last  opinion,  f  to  which  the  writer  of  this  paper  inclines, 
is  that  these  letters  are  a  contraction  or  abbreviation  of  the  Greek 
name  IHCOYC  IESOUS<  Jesus — pronouncing  the  j  as  v  in 
j/et,  the  E  as  in  /ete,  the  S  ^s  in  soul. 

GREEK    FORMS. 

The  earliest  example  of  the  monogram  of  the  Holy  Name  is 
found  on  a  fragment  of  papyrus  recently  discovered  at  Oxyrhyn- 
cus  in  Egypt.  Messrs.  Grenfell  and  Hunt  X  who  discovered  these 
fragments  state  that  they  contain  some  theological  writing  em- 
bodying a  quotation  from  the  New  Testament,  Matthew,  and 
that  the  ordinary  contractions  such  as  ©C  for  0EOC  GOD,  XC 
forXPICTOC,  CHRIST,  and  IHC  for  IHCOYC,  JESUS,  occur 
in  the.se  writings.  These  fragments  they  date  not  later  than  250 
A.  D.  and  possibly  as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  the  Second  Cen- 
tury. Another  fragment,  which  they  place  late  in  the  Fourth 
Century  or  early  in  the  Fifth  Century,  contains  part  of  I  John  4: 
11-17.  Here  the  same  contractions  are  seen.  While  it  may 
seem  like  towering  presumption  to  differ  with  such  masters  in 
archaeology,  yet  upon  examining  the  fac-simile  of  the  Matthew 
fragments,  it  appears  that  only  three  dots  and  the  contraction 
sign  remain  of  what  they  restore  as  IHN.  the  contraction  of  the 
accusative  IHCOYN.  the  body  of  the  letters  being  erased. 
Now  comparing  the  style  of  writing  on  the  papyrus  with  the 
most  ancient  New  Testament  manuscripts,  we  find  that  both  are 


*  y.  A'.  Proeschel  in  McClintock  and  Strong.  Also  HanMuch  der  Kir- 
lichen  Kunst-Archaologie  des  Deutschen  Mittelalttrs  by  Heinrich  Otto. 

t  This  opinion  is  espoused  by  the  Cambridge  Camden  Society  in  a  work  which 
they  published  on  the  subject :  Argument  for  the  Greek  Origin  of  the  A/onogram 
IHS.  London  1841.  The  writer  of  this  paper  has  not  yet  been  able  to  consult 
the  work. 

X    The  Oxyrhyncus  Papyri  in  Publications  of  the    Egyptian   Exploration   Fund, 


SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  181. 

in  the  same  uncial  or  large  hand.*  We  also  note  that  aside  from 
the  Saviour's  name,  other  contractions,  such  as  ©C  0EOC  GOD, 
are  the  same  in  both.  From  this  we  may  reasonably  conclude 
that  the  contraction  for  the  word  JESUS,  if  restored  in  the  papy- 
rus, would  be  IN  and  not  |HN  as  Grenfell  and  Hunt  suggest, 
IN  being  the  accusative  of  |  C.  This  granted,  we  may  say  that 
from  the  remains  so  far  discovered  the  oldest  sign  which  stands  for 
the  name  Jesiis  is  the  contraction  |  C>  that  for  the  full  name  be- 
ing I  C  XC-  We  find  it  thus  written  uniformly  in  the  Logia  or 
Sayiyigs  of  Jesiis  (Third  Century)  also  discovered  at  Oxyrhyncus, 
in  the  Vatican  and  Sinaitic  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament 
(Fourth  Century),  in  the  Alexandrian  Codex  (Fifth  Century) 
and  in  other  Greek  uncial  writings,  as  late  if  not  later  than  the 
Tenth  Century.  In  the  same  manuscripts  the  genitive  case  of  the 
Sacred  Name  is  written  |  Y  XY  '  Y  being  a  form  of  U)-  But 
in  the  passage  Rev.  22:  20  the  Sinaitic  and  Alexandrian  manu- 
scripts differ,  the  latter  having  the  vocative  KE  I Y  (for 
KYRIE  IHCOY  (Lord  Jesus),  while  the  former  has  KE 
IHY-  In  the  three  most  ancient  codices  I  have  not  seen  the 
nominative  written  |  HC-  Th.^  form  |  C  is  also  found  in 
the  Sa'idic  version  of  the  so-called  Letter  of  Christ  to  Abgar  of 
the  Sixth  Century,  on  a  gem  presumably  of  the  Sixth  Century, 
on  a  Coptic  altar  of  the  Sixth  Century,  over  the  head  of  Christ  in 
a  fresco  of  the  Fifth  Century  (perhaps!),  in  an  uncial  Commen- 
tary on  Isaiah  of  the  Ninth  Century,  f  on  an  Evangelistary  or 
Book  of  Gospel  Lessons  of  the  Tenth  Century,  and  on  the  medal 


*  Ancient  manuscripts  were  written  in  what  are  known  as  majuscule  and  tiiin- 
uscttle  letters.  Majuscules  might  be  either  uncials  or  capitals.  In  Greek  manu- 
scripts pure  capital  letter  writing  was  never  employed  except  in  ornamental  titles. 
Uncial  letters  were  lar<;e  and  well  rounded.  Greek  manuscripts  in  the  uncial  hand 
were  written  from  the  Second  Century  B.  C.  to  the  Ninth  Century  A,  D.  Minus- 
cule writing  was  a  kind  of  reduced  alphabet,  combining  both  uncial  and  old  cursive 
forms.  It  originated  in  the  Seventh  Century  A.  D.  and  continued  in  use  up  to  the 
time  of  printing.  From  about  the  Ninth  Century  minuscles  were  gradually  substi- 
tuted for  the  old  uncial  writing. 

t  SlL\liSTKE  FaUography. 


,182  MEMOIRS. 

of  Urfa,  previously  mentioned.  This  medal  a  certain  missionary 
places  in  the  Fourth  or  Fifth  Century,  but  it  seems  to  be  almost 
identical  with  a  coin  which  numismatists  ascribe  to  John  Zimisces 
in  the  Tenth  Century.  The  coin  has  on  the  one  side,  in  addition 
to  l~c"XO  lbs  XPS  REX  REGNANTIVM;  and 
on  the  other  side,  ihSUS  XRISTUS  BASILEU  BA- 
SILE- 

The  tri-literal  Greek  form  in  majuscules  is  |HC-  It  is  prob- 
able that  in  ancient  times  it  was  regarded  as  a  contraction,  since 
the  last  letter  varied  with  the  case.  For  example  recall  the  pas- 
sage Rev.  22:  20  in  the  Codex  Siniaticus  where  !HY  is  written 
for  the  vocative.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  an  inscription  of 
pope  Gregory  III  (731-741  A.  D.)  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Paul, 
but  here  it  stands  for  the  gentiive.  The  nominative  |  HC  is 
inscribed  on  a  gem  found  in  the  Roman  catacombs,  doubtless 
very  ancient,  and  over  the  head  of  Christ  in  a  miniature  on  the 
Codex  Egberti  (Tenth  Century).  In  the  Harleian  Psalter,  in 
the  British  Museum,  is  this  inscription  (probably  close  of  Tenth 
Century)  on  a  picture  of  the  crucifixion  :  HIC  EST  NAZA- 
REN'  IHC  REX  lUDEOR.  Notice  the  absence  of  the 
contraction  line  over  the  letters.  This  is  frequent.  A  Coptic 
Gospel  of  Mark  (Eleventh  Century)  shows  the  same  letters.  In- 
scribed on  a  rock  at  the  grave  of  the  first  abbot  of  St.  Bavon,  in 
Ghent,  (middle  of  Seventh  Century)  are  the  letters  in  monogram- 
matic  form,  the  earliest  of  the  kind  which  I  have  seen  ;  thus  {-M. 
Romilly  reports  that  a  Wiirzburg  manuscript  has  IH2  XIIS  i.  e. 
in  Greek  capitals.  The  n  is  evidentl}^  intended  for  R,  the  early 
form  of  both  letters  being  nearly  alike. 

LATIN    FORMS. 

As  was  observed  above,  the  Greek  bi-literal  |  C  and  tri- 
literal  IHC  are  frequent  in  Latin  remains.  The  Eatin  form 
of  the  monogram  in  capital  letters  is  the  same  as  the  Greek,  ex- 


SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  183 

cept  the  last  letter,  the  C  giving  place  to  the  S-  This  varies  with 
the  case,  as  in  the  Greek.  Of  Latin  bi-literals  de  Fleury*  gives 
two  instances,  one  |S  on  the  bowl  of  a  chalice  of  probably  the 
Eighth  Centur)-,  and  the  other  |C|  on  the  clasp  of  a  lock,  in  a 
Marseilles  collection.  In  the  latter  either  perpendicular  of  the 
H  niay  be  expected  to  stand  for  the  |,  or  perhaps  the  Holy 
Name  began  with  an  H-  Proeschel  saysf  that  |H  is  the 
first  representation  of  the  name  of  Jesus  of  wdiich  we  have 
an}'  knowledge,  referring  to  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  (probably 
Second  Century)  which  has  this  passage :+  "Eearn  then  my 
children  that  Abraham  the  first  who  enjoined  circumcision, 
looking  forward  in  spirit  to  Jesus,  practiced  that  right,  having 
received  the  doctrine  of  the  three  letters.  For  [the  Scripture] 
saith,  "And  Abraham  circumcised  ten,  and  eight,  and  three 
hundred  men  of  his  household."  What  then  was  the  know- 
ledge  given  to  him  in  this?  The  ten  and  the  eight  are  thus 
denoted — Ten  by  |  (iota),  and  eight  by  H  (eta).  You  have 
[the  initials  of  the  name]  Jesus.  And  because  the  cross  was 
to  express  the  grace  by  the  letter  T,  he  says  also  "three 
hundred."  He  signifies  therefore  Jesus  by  two  letters,  and  the 
cross  by  one."  But  it  can  hardly  be  argued  from  this  passage 
that  I H  was  at  that  time  commonly  recognized  as  a  symbol  of 
the  Holy  Name.  It  rather  looks  as  though  the  writer  of  Barna- 
bas, after  some  effort,  concocted  an  allegory. 

For  the  popularization  of  the  Eatin  tri-literal  |HS  the  West 
was  indebted  to  Bernard  of  Sienna  who,  as  he  preached  from 
place  to  place,  was  wont  to  exhibit  a  tablet  on  which  the  mono- 
gram was  painted  in  golden  letters,  surrounded  by  a  halo  of 
golden  rays.     To  this  he  directed  his  hearers'  devotions.      He 


*  La  Mcsse  EUudes    Archeolopqties  stir  I.es  Monuments. 
t  MiClinlock  and  Strong s   Cyclopedia,  Vol,  VI,  p  507. 

*  Ante  Nicene  Fathers,   Vol.    I,  p  142. 


184  MEMOIRS. 

was  accused  of  innovation,  but  succeeded  at  length  in  satisfying 
pope  Martin. 

When  we  study  the  Latin  tri-literals  which  seem  to  be  most 
commonly  employed  by  modern  church  decorators,  we  are 
brought  face  to  face  with  some  very  difficult  problems.  Observ- 
ing that  the  Latin  turned  |  HC  i^^o  |  HS  or  \\)C,  it  is  not  dif- 
ficult to  explain  that  the  first  letter  |  is  the  same  in  both  Latin 
and  Greek,  and  that  the  Latin  S  is  substituted  for  the  Greek  C 
both  standing  for  the  same  sound.  But  how  about  the  middle 
letter?  Is  this  the  Latin  H  or  the  Greek  Bfa  retained?  Analo- 
gy would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  is  the  Greek  E/a.  That  is, 
when  we  see  that  in  an  Evangelistary  of  the  Ninth  Century, 
over  the  head  of  Christ  is  IHS  XPS.  we  may  reason  that  since 
the  first  two  letters  of  the  second  part  are  Greek,  the  first  two  of 
the  first  part  must  also  be  Greek.  But  how  with  this-lbC  ipS 
on  a  coin  of  Basil  I,  A.  D.  867?  Also  this  on  a  miniature  of 
Codex  Egberti,  over  Christ's  head,  rudely  written,  |  HS  XRC? 
Here  analogy  seems  to  fail. 

Reverting  now  from  the  contraction  to  the  Holy  Name  written 
in  full,  and  observing  how  variously  it  was  spelled,  we  find 
ourselves  involved  in  still  greater  perplexity. 

IHESUS — Title  of  Latin  manuscript  in  Gothic  minuscles, 
written  1462.  Also  on  a  cross.  Tenth  Centurj^ 
in  St.  Mauritius  at  Miinster. 

lESVS — On  reliquary  cross,  Twelfth  Century,  in  Museum 
of  Freising. 

IbCfU  Crifti — genitive  case,  in  colophon  of  Schcefer's  Bi- 
ble, 1462. 

tbCfUS   in  Book  of  Hours  of  queen  Anne  of  Britanny,  about 
_i490. 

iCfU    I  pi  in  a  prayer  in  the  same  book. 

iCfU    in  "Devote  Meditatione" ,  Venice,  1508. 

biC6U0  on  cross  in  refectory  of  convent  of  Santa  Cruce, 
Florence. 


SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  185 

Whether  these  various  modes  of  spelling  had  anything  to  do 
with  writing  |HS  is  doubtful.  They  would  rather  indicate  that 
the  word  Jesus  was  pronounced  by  some  as  though  it  began  with 
an  aspirate.  The  last  example  would  seem  to  prove  this.  Per- 
haps many  people  were  as  reckless  in  their  use  of  the  letter  b 
as  some  of  our  English  cousins  ;  or  perhaps  many  believed  that 
the  Greek  Eta  (H)  was  to  be  sounded  as  an  aspirate.  The  last 
supposition  may  not  be  far  from  right,  for  in  Greek  the  sign  H 
before  it  represented  long  £  was  used  for  the  rough  breathing, 
and  may  have  thus  passed  over  to  the  Latin.  Philology  alone 
can  decide  this  question.  In  the  old  Latin  bibles  Jerome  is 
spelled  Hieronymus,  and  Jerusalem,  Hierusalem.  Some  have 
Iheronimus  and  Iherusalem. 

The  same  difficulties  seemed  to  puzzle  the  ancients.  Amala- 
rius  of  Metz,  author  of  De  Officiis  Ecdesiasticis  asks  in  a  letter  to 
Jeremiah,  archbishop  of  Sens,  in  the  year  827,  why  the  name  of 
Jesus  is  written  with  an  aspirate,  an  H.  and  expresses  the  opinion 
that  according  to  the  Greek  it  should  be  written  |  HC-'''  To  this 
Jeremiah  answers  that  it  is  not  an  aspirate  but  the  Greek  Eta. 
He  also  asks  bishop  Jonas  whether  it  were  more  correct  to  write 
I  US  or  I  HC)  a^d  was  answered  that  the  latter  form  was  pref- 
erable, the  first  two  letters  being  taken  from  the  Greek  and  the 
last  from  the  Latin,  as  had  been  done  in  XPS- 

An  explanation  is  offered  by  James  O.  Halliwell,t  who  holds 
that  the  Latin  scribes,  not  knowing  Greek,  confused  the  Latin  H 
with  the  Greek  Eta  when  they  transcribed  |HS  ^s  tbS  in  min- 
uscule texts.  This  would  seem  to  be  the  correct  explanation  in 
the  case  of  l  b  C  which  is  found  in  some  manuscript  sermons  in 
my  possession,  of  probably  the  Fifteenth  Century.  Here  lb  C 
was  doubtless  derived  from  I  HC-  I^^  this  manuscript  Jesus  is 
uniformly  written  IbC,  dative  Ib'U,  accusative  lb  111.  Christ 
is  written  IPC,    also    ipS,  genative   ipl  or  N^,  dative  IPO, 

*  D'Achery,   Spiniegiuin,  iii,  330,  quoted  in  McClintock  and  Strong, 
t  A  Few  Hints  to  Novices  in  Manuscript  Literature. 


186  MEMOIRS. 


accusative  XPHl.  Antichrist  is  written  3ntil*pC.  Holy  Spirit 
is  written  in  the  genitive  |  pC  |  Ct  for  Spiritus  Sancti.  Notice 
the  Greek  C  for  the  Latin  0.  Thompson  *  cites  CPC  for  episco- 
piis,  tpC  for  te^npus.  While  it  may  be  true  that  the  mediaeval 
monks  who  copied  manuscripts  knew  little  lyatin  and  less  Greek, 
and  doubtless  made  many  errors,  yet  we  must  also  remember  that 
language  like  other  human  phenomena  does  not  always  develop 
along  logical  and  conventional  lines.  When  we  study  the  early 
use  of  IHS  or  tbS  we  are  hardly  justified  in  declaring  that  it 
was  due  to  ignorance.  Take  for  example  the  Greco-Latin  codi- 
ces of  the  New  Testament — manuscripts  in  which  the  Greek  and 
Latin  texts  are  written  in  parallel  columns.  In  the  Codex  Bezae, 
written  probably  in  the  Fifth  Century,  we  find  uniformly  in  the 
Greek  column  |HC  and  in  the  corresponding  Latin  passages 
ibS,  both  in  the  uncial  hand.  The  accusative  is  written,  Greek 
IHN;  Latin  tblTl.  Other  bi-lingual  uncials  most  likely  have 
the  same  thing. 

We  might  also  refer  to  the  Gothic  forms  of  this  monogram, 
but  this  paper  would  become  too  lengthy.  One  other  feature  de- 
serves mention  and  that  is  the  cross  which  often  surmounts  the 
monogram.  This  was  obtained  in  the  Greek  uncial  and  Latin 
capital  forms  by  a  single  verticle  stroke  drawn  through  the  con- 
traction mark.  Thus  \\\Q,  and  |p|3-  Or  in  the  Latin  min- 
uscule form  by  crossing  the  verticle  line  of  the  bwith  the  con- 
traction   line.     ThusmQ. 

That  the  Holy  Name  was  often  used  in  conjurings  and  in- 
cantations is  not  surprising,  and  when  written  for  such  purposes 
usually  took  the  form  of  the  monogram.  Mr.  C.  W.  King  in- 
forms us  that  IHS  NAZARENVS  was  an  inscription  very 
good  against  epilepsy  and  therefore  is  frequently  found  on  silver 
rings   of    mediaeval    make.     Also  the  phrase  "|HS  autem  tran- 


Handbook  of  Greek  and  Latin  Paleop-aphy  by  Edward  M.  Thompson, 


SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  1S7 

siens  per  medium  illorum  ibat"  i.  e.  "Jesus  going  through  the 
midst  of  them  passed  by"  (John  8:  59)  was  a  safeguard  against 
all  dangers  in  traveling  by  sea  and  land.  Saj'S  an  old  writer, 
"And  therefore  seyen  some  men  when  thei  dreded  them  of  theses 
on  any  way,  or  of  enemyes,  '  |HS  autem  etc'  in  tokene  and 
mynde  that  our  Lord  passed  through  oute  of  the  Jewes'  crueltie 
and  scapte  safely  fro  hem."  Edward  III  had  these  words  in- 
scribed on  his  gold  noble  *  in  memory  of  his  miraculous  escape  at 
the  naval  battle  off  Sluys. 

The  Roman  church  has  instituted  a  festival  in  honor  of  the 
Holy  Name  (Aug. 7)  on  which  special  services  are  held.  An  old 
Sequence  of  this  festival  has  the  following  verse  preserved  in  the 
Sarum  Missal  and  with  this  we  close. 

Hail!  Name  so  precious  to  the  ear! 

Sweet  Jesus!  Name  which  all  revere: 

May  naught  on  earth  prevail  to  tear 
This  title  from  our  heart. 

By  this  let  sin  be  done  away, 

To  this  let  each  one  homage  pay, 

Through  this  in  heavenly  bliss,  we  pray, 

May  we  obtain  a  part." 


Edwin  F.   Keever. 


Catasauqua,  Pa. 


*  See   Century  Dictionary. 


SInlirx 


Absolution  —  Difference  be- 
tween sermon  and,  VI :  65,  71 ; 
Lutheran  conception  of,  VI : 
74;  what  is,  VI:  65. 

Accuracy,  Liturgical  —  De- 
mands proper  music,  V :  96 ; 
demands  strict  fidehty  to  the 
very  words  of  the  service,  V : 
95 ;  meaning  of,  V :  92 ;  rea- 
sons for,  V :  90-91 ;  vital  ques- 
tions affecting,  V :  93-94  ;  why 
insist  on,  V :  90. 

AdiGphora — Sacramental,  in  the 
Lutheran  Church,  V:  75. 

Advent — Duration  of,  IV:  18; 
earliest  mention  of,  IV :  18 ; 
position  since  6th  century,  IV : 
19;  purpose  of,  IV  :  18. 

Agenda — Earlier  than  or  con- 
temporaneous with  Luther's 
formula  Missae,  VI:  17. 

Agciide  —  Incongruities  of  the 
American  of  1818,  IV:  90. 

Agnus  Dei  —  Development  of 
1 :  58 ;  origin  of,  1 :  57 ;  use  of 
in  the  Lutheran  Church  differ- 
entiated from  that  in  the  Ro- 
man, 1 :  58. 

Agape — What  it  was,  III :  2 ; 
separated  from  regular  Sun- 
day service,  VII :  65. 


Altar — Change  in  form  of,  VI : 
92 ;  comparison  between  Lu- 
theran, Roman  Catholic,  and 
Reformed,  II:  11- 12;  decora- 
tion of,  VI :  94 ;  distinction  be- 
tween Jewish  and  Christian, 
II:  8-9;  earliest  Christian, 
what  it  was,  VI :  92 ;  effect  of 
the  Renaissance  on  the,  VI : 
90;  facing  the,  V:  16,  93; 
llowers  on  the,  VII :  119;  form 
of,  VI :  94 ;  now  sacrificial 
in  its  significance,  II:  10; 
Loehe's  views  of  the,  VI :  93 ; 
meaning  to  Episcopalians,  II : 
12;  to  Lutherans,  II:  10;  to 
Romanists,  II:  11-12;  to  other 
Reformed  bodies,  II:  12;  ob- 
ject of,  II:  9;  position  of,  II: 
5  ;  VII :  80,  82,  89,  90,  91 ;  pur- 
pose for  which  erected,  II:  7; 
sacrificial  character  under  Old 
Testament  dispensation,  11:8; 
significance  of,  VI :  93 ;  size 
and  elevation  of,  II :  5 ;  the 
place  of  prayer,  VI :  93 ;  vest- 
ments for,  VII:  116;  where 
built  in  early  times,  II:  7. 

Amho — Use  of  in  early  times, 
11:4. 

Anglican,  High  Church — The 
peculiar  problem  presented  by 
the,  III:  33. 

Antcpendiiim — A  fitting  place 
for  embroidery,   VI :  97 ;  pur- 


pose  of,  Vi:  94;  VII:  119; 
symbolism  on,  VI :  97 ;  what  it 
is,  V:  94. 

Antiphon  —  By  whom  intro- 
duced into  Christian  worship, 
II :  45 ;  origin  of  antiphonal 
singing,  II :  45 ;  present  form 
ascribed  to  Gregory  the  Great, 
II :  46 ;  retention  of  in  XVI 
century  KOO,  II :  46. 

Apostlks'  Creed — See  Creeds. 

Architecture,  Church — Altar 
space  in,  VII :  88 ;  chancel-rail 
in,  VII :  82 ;  decoration  in, 
VII :  83  ;  difference  between 
Lutheran  and  Roman  Catholic, 
II :  79 ;  doctrine  in.  IV:  79-80 ; 
efifect  of  Reformation  on,  VII : 
76;  Eisenach  Regulative  on, 
VII :  84 ;  form  and  character 
of  art  in,  VII:  107;  galleries 
in,  VII :  83,  93 ;  Gothic  style 
of,  I:  22;  VII:  79;  handbook 
needed  on  and  what  such  book 
must  contain,  VII :  777^ ! 
latitude  allowed  in  style,  VII : 
85-87 ;  liturgical  canons  gov- 
erning, VI :  92 ;  material  in, 
VII :  87  ;  orientation  in,  VII : 
84;  place  for  organ  and  choir, 
VII:  81;  propositions  for  dis- 
cussion on,  VII :  79-83  ;  provi- 
sion for  Sunday  School  in, 
VII:  80;  Smend  on,  VII:  95- 
loi ;  styles  of  Christian,  II : 
89;  the  laity  and,  V:  28;  the 
tower  in,  VII:  88,  112;  the 
sacristy  in,  VII:  94;  technical 
requirements  in  making  plans, 
VII :  loi ;  the  Wiesbaden  pro- 
gram, VII:  95-96;  what  it 
should  express,  VI :  90. 

Art — A  handmaid  to  religion, 
VI :   98 ;  beginning  of   Chris- 


tian, III:  no;  characteristics 
of,  II:  96-97;  difTerence  be- 
tween heathen  and  Christian, 
II :  87 ;  domain  of  plastic  and 
pictonial,  III:  no;  form  and 
character  of  in  Church  archi- 
tecture, VII:  107;  Goethe's 
views  on,  VI :  99 ;  meaning  of 
in  worship,  II:  83-84;  pre- 
Raphaelite  school  of,  1 :  22 
relation  of  to  worship,  II :  83 
stained  glass  and,  VII :  168 
teachings  of  Christ  and  Apos- 
tles not  hostile  to,  VI :  86 ;  use 
of  in  Lutheran  Church,  II :  97- 
99;  use  of  in  Tabernacle  and 
Temple,  II :  85 ;  value  of  dec- 
orative,  V 1 :  98. 

Ascension — Origin  and  purpose 
of,  IV:  25. 

Asii  Wednesday — Origin,  cus- 
tom and  purpose  of,  IV :  23. 

At  HAN  ASIAN  Creed — See  Cneeds. 

Augustine,  St. — Opposition  of 
to  the  Donatists,  VI :  68 ;  the 
germs  of  the  Collects  in,  1 :  19 ; 
the  sacrificial  according  to, 
III :  96-97. 

B 

Bagger,  Bishop  Hans — Strange 
pastoral  advice  in  his  "Book 
of  Service,  VII :  38. 

Baptism — According  to  Gal- 
ilean, Gelasian  and  Gre- 
gorian Liturgies,  III :  18  ; 
account  of  Ly  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem, III:  117;  Agenda  on, 
III:  121;  chiefly  by  immer- 
sion in  early  Church,  III:  113, 
1 14,  115;  Church  membership 
by,  V :  81 ;  compared  with 
Confirmation,    V:     80;    direc- 


tions  for  in  Didache,  III:  114; 
distinction  between  the  Rom- 
ish conception  and  the  Luther- 
an, III:  120-121 ;  earthly  ele- 
ment in,  V:  76;  earthly  ele- 
ment, where  applied,  V :  yy ; 
in  Ethiopic  Church,  III:  117; 
instruction  in  the  catechumen- 
ate  for,  III:  116;  instruction 
necessary,  V :  78 ;  intention  of 
the  catechumenate  concerning, 
III:  120;  liturgy  used  by  the 
Apostles,  III:  115-116;  mode 
of.  III:  114;  V:  76;  modes 
sanctioned  by  the  Council  of 
Ravenna,  III:  115;  often  long_ 
delayed,  III:  116;  place  for 
administering,  V :  yy ;  Sacra- 
ment of  Regeneration,  III : 
113;  same  for  infants  as  for- 
adults,  III:  119;  "Solemn," 
III:  115;  the  Word  in,  V:  yy ;■ 
validity  of,  V :  76 ;  validity  of 
and  benefits  distinguished, 
Y:yy. 

Adult — Distinguished  from  in- 
fant, V:  80;  how  applied.  III : 
119;  in  primitive  church.  III: 
113;  in  Church  of  Denmark, 
II:  66-68. 

Bniergency — Consciousness  nec- 
essary to  validity,  V :  82 ;  lay 
Ijai)tism,  V:  81;  necessity  de- 
termines externals,  V  :  81  ;  Ro- 
man Catholic  Baptism  of 
blood,  of  desire,  V :  82. 

Infant — As  a  regulation,  V:  yy, 
never  to  be  repeated,  \' :  80; 
relation  of  the  infant  to 
Church,  to  God,  to  parents,  V: 
78 ;  in  Church  of  Denmark, 
II:   66-68. 

BiCNiiuiCTiox — By  whom  pro- 
nounced, 1 :  62 ;  character  of. 


1 :  63 ;  form  of,  1 :  62 ;  large 
number  of,  1 :  62 ;  Luther's 
practices  regarding,  1 :  62 ;  in 
Matins  and  Vespers,  II :  56, 

Bcncdictus  —  By  whom  intro- 
duced into  Latin  Church, 
II:  50;  use  in  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches,  II:  50; 
why  a  Matin  Canticle,  II:  50. 

Bidding  Prayer — See  Prayer. 

Bishops  —  Appointment  of  in 
Danish  Church,  II:  59. 

BoARDMAN,  Dr. — On  the  use  of 
a  Liturgy,  1 :  10. 

Brenz,  John — Life  of,  IV:  12; 
liturgical  labors  of,  IV:  13; 
the  part  he  took  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  Brandenburg- 
Nurnberg  KO,  IV:  13. 

BuGENiiAGEN,  John — Aids  or- 
ganization of  Church  in  Den- 
mark, II:  59;  life  of,  IV:  10; 
liturgical  position  and  direc- 
tions of,  IV:  12;  most  lasting 
monument  of,  IV :  11;  work 
as  a  Church  ot'ganizer,  IV : 
1 1 ;  Luther,  Melanchthon  and 
contrasted,  IV:  3. 

BuNSEN,  B.\R0N — Influence  of 
on  Anglican  Service,  1 :  24. 

Burse — How  made,  II:  34;  ma- 
terial and  size,  II:  34;  what  it 
is,  II :  33-34. 


Calendar,  the  Ecclesiasticai, 
— Great  events  that  form  the 
foundation  of,  IV:  18;  two 
types  of,  IV:  18;  what  it  is, 
iV:   17. 


Canticlks  —  See  Benedictus, 
Magnificat,  Nunc  Dimittis, 
Te  Deum. 

Ceremonials — Custom  versus, 
V :  74 ;  Luther's  ideas  regard- 
ing, IV:  31,  35  ;  Lutheran  reg- 
lation  of,  V:  74;  Roman  con- 
ception of,  V:  71. 

Chancei.  —  Derivation  of  the 
word,  II :  i ;  furniture  of,  II : 
3 ;  organic  center  of  the 
Church,  11:6;  position  in  the 
Church,  11:2;  size  of,  II :  2-3  ; 
symboHsm  of,  II :  6. 

Chant — Ambrosian  and  Grego- 
rian in  Church  Music,  II :  94. 

Charisma — In  the  Apostohc 
Church,  VI:  51,  58,  59,63. 

ChareEmagne — Efforts  of  in 
behalf  of  the  Pericopes,  IV : 
50;  efforts  of  to  make  the  Lit- 
urgy more  than  an  opus  op- 
eratnm,  I:  26;  Homiliarius  of, 
IV:  51. 

Choir — Composition  of,  II :  95  ; 
spirit  of,  II :  95. 

Chrisma,  the,  or  Chi  Rho — 
Addition  of  Alpha  and  Omega 
to,  VII:  1/7;  antiquity  of, 
VII :  170 ;  coins  and  the,  VII : 
symbol;  VII:  173;  form  of, 
VII:  170;  Greek  forms  of, 
VII:  170;  Greek  influence  in 
Latin  forms,  VII:  175;  Latin 
forms  of,  VII:  174;  origin 
commonly  though  incorrectly 
ascribed  to  Constantine,  VII : 
171 ;  popularized  by  Constan- 
tine, VII:  175;  the  Circle  and 
the,  VII:  177;  the  Maltese 
Cross  and  the,  \^II :  177;  used 


frequently  on  books,  pottery 
and  secular  documents,  VII : 
176;  variety  of  forms  of,  VII : 
176. 

Christ — The  center  of  our  wor- 
ship, I:  15. 

Christian  III,  King  oe  Den- 
mark— Labors  of  in  behalf  of 
the  Church,  IV:  97;  "Ordi- 
nance" of  in  Church  of  Den- 
mark, II:  58;  "Ordinance"  of 
introduced  into  Icelandic 
Church,  IV :  98 ;  influence  of 
on  Norwegian  Liturgy,  VII : 
36-37- 

Christmas — Date  of,  IV:  19; 
purpose  of,  IV :  20. 

Church — Calvinistic  doctrines 
on  the,  III:  28;  Roman  Cath- 
olic doctrine  of  the  Church, 
II:  22,  26;  Luther's  distinc- 
tion of  the,  III:  26;  marks  of 
the,  III :  27 ;  parallelism  be- 
tween the  history  of  the  and 
the  Liturgy,  III:  19;  what  is 
the,  VI :  yy:  worship  in  the 
Pentecostal,  III :  90. 

Church,  Mediaeval — Distinc- 
tion between  the  sacramental 
and  the  sacrificial  lost  sight  of 
in  the,  VI :  79 ;  causes  leading 
to  this  loss,  VI :  79 ;  import- 
ance attached  to  the  sacrificial 
in  the,  VI :  79. 

Church,  Post  -  Apostolic  — 
Character  of  Second  Century, 
VII :  50 ;  conception  of  Sacra- 
ment in,  VII :  61  ;  Didache  on 
Christian  worship  in,  VII:  56; 
observance  of  Easter,  Lent, 
and  Station  Days  in,  VII :  53- 
45 ;    observance     of     "Saints' 


Days"  in,  Vli  :  55  ;  observance 
of  Sunday  in,  Vli:  51  ;  prayer 
in,  VII:  59;  prophetic  charac- 
ter of  Sacrament  in,  VII:  61  ; 
temptations  lying  in  the  path- 
way of  the  student  of  Christian 
worship  in,  VI:  49;  variations 
of  prayers  in  the,  VII:  69-71. 

Churches  —  Distinctive  differ- 
ences between,  1 :  10. 

Church  Year — Basis  of,  V: 
24 ;  development  of  the,  IV : 
18 ;  VI :  25 ;  effect  of  on  the 
expression  of  worship,  VI : 
26 ;  the  liturgical  colors  and 
the,  VII :  13. 

Circumcision — Origin  of  festi- 
val of,  IV:  20. 

Cloth,  Altar — How  placed,  II: 
31 ;  material,  II :  31 ;  ornamen- 
tation of,  II:  31;  VII:  116; 
when  used,  II:  31  ;  width  and 
length  of,  II :  31. 

Collects,  the — As  congrega- 
tional prayers,  V :  45  ;  contents 
due  to  specific  causes,  V :  47- 
48 ;  examples  illustrating  the 
marks  of,  V  :  46 ;  Gelasian,  V  : 
48-50;  Gregorian,  V:  51; 
Leonine,  V :  47 ;  intended  for 
public  use,  V :  44 ;  Luther's 
ideas  on  the  use  of,  III :  45  ; 
marks  of,  V :  45  ;  meaning  of 
the  word,  V :  44 ;  origin  of, 
III:  45;  V:  47;  other  than 
those  de  tempore,  V:  51; 
sources  of,  1 :  48 ;  their  beauty, 
1 :  48-49 ;  their  fitness.  III :  46 ; 
what  they  are.  III:  45;  where 
found,  1 :  47. 

Collect  (Matins) — Form  in  I 
and    II.    Edward    the    Sixth, 


II:  54;  in  Common  Service, 
II:  54;  in  Gregorian  Sacra- 
mentary,  II :  54 ;  germ  in 
Gelasian  Sacramentary,  II : 
53  ;  Roman  version  of,  II :  54; 
version  in  Sarum  Breviary, 
11:54. 

Collect  for  Peace — Common 
Service  form,  II :  56 ;  different 
forms  of,  II :  56;  first  found  in 
Gelasian  Sacramentary,  II : 
56. 

Colors,  Liturgical — Adiapho- 
ra,  VII:  17;  application  of  in 
Old  Testament  Church,  VII : 
3 ;  appointments  of  in  our 
Church,  VII:  14-15,  118; 
Christ's  life  and  work  and  the, 
VII:  16;  defense  of  the,  VII: 
13;  divine  authorization  of  in 
Old  Testament  Church,  VII : 
4;  dogma  and  the,  VII:  8; 
Durandus  on  the  and  their 
symbolism,  VII:  10-12;  help- 
ful to  the  worshipper,  VII : 
17;  origin  of  use  of,  VII:  i; 
purple  and  its  symbolism, 
VII:  7;  the  Church  Year  and 
the,  VII:  13;  those  in  use, 
VI :  I ;  VII :  i  ;  tradition  and 
the,  VII:  8;  two-fold  sense  of, 
VII;  i;  scarlet  and  its  sym- 
bolism, VII :  7 ;  significance  of 
the.  VI :  95  ;  symbolism  in  the, 
VII:  I  ;  symbolism  as  seen  by 
Josephus,  VII :  5  ;  symbolism 
as  seen  by  Meurer,  VII:  14; 
symbolism  and  Roman  use  of, 
VII:  13;  use  of  in  Old  Testa- 
ment Church,  VII:  12;  white 
and  its  symbolism,  VII :  6. 


Conies    Hieronymi 
to  1 :  5 1  ;  I V :  49. 


Reference 


Common  Prayer,  Book  of — At- 
titude of  Westminster  Assem-I 
bly  towards,  III :  6i ;  First 
and  Second  Prayer  Books  of 
Edward  the  Sixth,  III:  64; 
EngHsh  and  American  com- 
pared, III :  66 ;  comparative 
tables,  III :  72-73  ;  non-unity  of 
in  Holy  Communion;  III:  69; 
our  indebtedness  to  the,  III : 
71 ;  rubrics  of  the  and  their 
elasticity,  III :  63 ;  similarity 
between  First  Edward  VI  and 
the  Lutheran  Orders,  III :  65 ; 
strange  juxtaposition  of  va- 
rious parts  of,  III :  64-65  ; 
theology  of,  HI:  62;  unique- 
ness of,  III :  61 ;  wherein  lies 
its  power,  HI :  60 ;  wide  devo- 
tional use  of  the,  III :  60. 

Common  Service — Analysis  of 
and  application  of  fundamen-  i 
tal  principles  in  the,  V : 
61-67;  American  Lutheran 
Church  influences  in,  VI:  14; 
ancient  Church  influences  in, 
VI :  6 ;  Church  of  England  in- 
fluences in,  VI:  10;  Gentile- 
Christian  influences  in,  VI : 
6 ;  Greek  influences  in,  VI :  4 ; 
influences  of  the  i6th  Century 
Church  in,  VI :  11;  Jewish  in- 
fluences in,  VI :  2  ;  Luther's 
influences  in,  VI:  ii;  New 
Testament  influences  in,  VI : 
5 ;  old  Catholic  influences 
in,  VI :  7 ;  Reformation  influ- 
ences in,  VI:  II;  Reformed 
influences  in,  VI:  12-13;  Ro- 
man influence  in,  VI:  9-10; 
Influence  of  Pietism,  VI :  14 ; 
present  day  influence,  VI:  15; 
the  sacramental  and  the  sacri- 
ficial in  the,  V:  85. 

Confession — A  form  of  used  in 


the  loth  to  1 2th  Centuries, 
VI :  74 ;  form  of  prayer  of- 
fered by  priest  about  to  hear, 
VI:  69;  two  parts  in,  VI:  65. 

Confession  and  Absolution — 
By  whom  instituted,  V 1 :  66 
Bugenhagen's  form  of,  VI 
72 ;  Donatistic  view  of,  VI 
68 ;  declaration  of  Branden- 
burg-Nurnberg  Order  of  1533 
concerning,  VI :  72 ;  effect  of 
Thirty  Years'  War  on,  VI :  74 ; 
five  periods  in  history  of, 
VI :  66 ;  form  of  in  Lutheran 
Church,  VI :  65  ;  idea  under- 
lying Lutheran,VI :  y2 ;  institu- 
tion of  private,  VI :  68  ;  in  the 
Lutheran  Church,  VI :  68 ; 
Luther's  declaration  bearing 
on,  VI :  70-71 ;  Montanists' 
teaching  concerning,  VI :  67 ; 
New  Testament  teaching  con- 
cerning, VI :  66 ;  parts  of  the 
Lippish  Order  of  1538,  VI: 
71 ;  Pietism  and,  VI :  75  ;  prac- 
tice of  excommunication  and 
redemption  in,  VI :  69 ;  pres- 
ent day  progress  in,  VI :  75  ; 
present  usage  of,  VI :  65  ;  ra- 
tionalism and,  VI :  75 ;  Re- 
formed views  concerning,  VI : 
73 ;  retention  in,  VI :  73 ; 
Shepherd  of  Hermes'  declara- 
tion concerning,  VI :  67 ;  Spe- 
ner's  views  concerning,  VI : 
'74;  St.  Augustine's  opposition 
to  Donastic  view  concerning 
VI :  68 ;  teachings  of  Calen- 
berg  and  Luneberg  Orders 
concerning,  VI :  72 ;  Tertullian 
and  Cyprian  on,  VI :  67. 

Confirmation  —  Beginning  of 
custom,  HI :  9 ;  catechumenate 
in  ancient  Church,  HI:  9;  in 
Middle  Ages,  HI:  12;  Chem- 


nitz  on.  III:  14;  compared 
with  baptism,  V :  80 ;  effect  of 
Pietism  on,  III:  13;  effect  of 
Rationalism  on,  III:  17;  in 
Church  of  Denmark,  II :  68- 
69;  Luther's  views  on.  III: 
13;  opposition  to  in  Reforma- 
tion era,  III:  13;  reference  to 
Dr.  B.  M.  Schmucker's  views 
on,  III:  16;  revival  of  in  19th 
Century,  III:  18;  Spener's  ef- 
forts in  behalf  of,  III:  17; 
teaching-  of  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion on.  III:  14;  views  of  in 
1 6th  Century,  III:  15. 

Confitcor — Origin  of,  I:  44; 
sources  of  various  parts,  I : 
45 ;  usage  in  Roman  Catholic 
and  Lutheran  Churches,  I : 
44. 

Consecration — Abraham  Lin- 
coln's idea  of  the  term,  VII : 
25 ;  Apostolic  Succession  and, 
VII:  22;  degeneration  of, 
VII :  22 ;  difference  between 
Romish  and  Lutheran  idea  on 
of  Churches,  VII :  23 ;  differ- 
entiated from  Dedication  and 
Benediction,  in  DuFresne's 
Glossary,  VII:  20;  etymology 
of  term,  VII :  20;  Gerber's  de- 
scription of  a  Church,  VII : 
24-25 ;  in  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Churches,  VII:  21 ;  infor- 
mation furnished  by  Church 
History  and  History  of  Doc- 
trines, VII:  21;  Luther's  ad- 
dress at  a  Church,  VII:  24; 
necessity  of  in  the  Romish 
Mass,  VII:  21;  of  bells,  pul- 
pits, organs,  altars,  fonts,  cem- 
eteries, etc.,  VII :  25 ;  of 
Churches,  VII :  23  ;  Ordina- 
tion and,  VII :  22 ;  principle 
undenlying,  VII :  26. 


Corporal — Definition  of,  II:  31 ; 
how  laundered,  li :  32;  orna- 
mentation of,  II:  32;  size  of, 
II:  31;  symbolism  of,  11 :  32. 

Creeds — A  witness  to  the  uni- 
versality of  our  faith,  VII: 
32 ;  an  expression  of  our  per- 
sonal convictions,  VII :  33 ; 
order  of  relative  value,  VII : 
27;  purpose  of,  VII:  30;  sac- 
rificial character  of,  VII:  30; 
subjective  benefits  of,  VII : 
31;  use  of  in  the  Anglican 
Liturgy,  VII :  29. 

Nicene — Brief  history  of  pre- 
Reformation  and  Reformation 
usage,  VII :  27-28 ;  first  usage 
of,  I:  52;  VII:  27,  origin  and 
development  of,  1 :  51 ;  position 
of  in  the  Service,  VII:  29-30. 
ment,  VII:  28;  early  employ- 

Apostles' — Basis  of  and  develop- 
ment, VII:  28;  early  employ- 
ment of,  VII:  28;  limited  use 
of,  1 :52 ;  proper  sphere  of, 
VII:  28;  uncertainty  when  in- 
troduced into  office,  VII :  28  ; 
uncertain  when  completed, 
VII:  27. 

Athanasian  —  Canon  Liddon's 
defense  of,  VII:  29;  date  and 
origin  of,  VII:  27;  names  by 
which  known,  VII:  29;  limit- 
ed use  of,  1 :  52 ;  use  in  Angli- 
can Church,  111:  65;  in  Luth- 
eran Church,  VII :  28. 

CuLTus — The  Lutheran  Church 
and,  VI :  2t,;  always  harmon- 
ious in  expression,  VI :  24. 

Cyprian  —  Views  concerning 
Confession  and  Absolution, 
VI :  67  ;  views  on  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Church,  III:  21,  26. 


Cycle — The  Christmas,  IV:  19; 
the  Victorian,  IV:  2.2.. 

D 

Decoration — Altar,  VI :  94 
lectern,  VI:  95;  pulpit,  VI 
95 ;  tendencies  in  Church,  VI 
91. 

De;nmark  —  Early  introduction 
of  the  Reformation  into  Den- 
mark, 11:  57. 

De;te;rioration — Range  of  litur- 
gical, IV:  67. 

DidacJie — Directions  for  baptism 
in.  III:  114;  on  Christian  wor- 
ship in  Post-Apostolic  Church, 
VII:  56. 

Distribution,  Formula  of — Dif- 
ferent forms  of,  1 :  61 ;  origin 
of,  1 :  61 ;  source  of  that  in' 
Common  Service,  I:  61. 

DoNATiSTS — Views  on  the  be- 
stowal of  Absolution,  VI:  68. 


Easter — Derivation  of  name, 
IV:  24;  origin  of,  IV:  20; 
present  mode  of  determining 
date  settled  at  Council  of  Nice, 
IV:  21;  rule  for  determining 
date,  IV:  21;  why  a  movable 
festival,  IV:  21. 

Edification — Service  for,  VI : 
50;  idea  underlying,  VI:  51- 
52 ;  the  four  elements  of,  VI : 

52. 

Education,  Liturgical  —  Ad- 
vantages of,  III :  84 ;  effect  of 
early.  III:  86;  necessity  of, 
III:  81  ;  our  part  in,  III:  83; 


pastor's  and  teacher's  part  in, 
III:  87;  responsibility  of  Sun- 
day School  in.  III :  82,  83. 

Embroidery — Beauty  and  fit- 
ness of,  VI :  96 ;  effect  of  Cru- 
sades on,  VI :  97 ;  history  of, 
VI :  96. 

England — German  influence  in, 
I:  24. 

EpicleAis — Meaning  of,  1 :  33  ; 
restoration  in  some  Service 
Books,  1 :  33-34. 

Epiphany — Date  of,  IV:  19; 
origin  of,  IV:  19;  purpose  of, 
IV:  20. 

Epistle — Designation  in  ancient 
Liturgies,  1 :  49 ;  early  and 
later  custom  of  reading  the, 
I:  49. 

Exhortation  —  Origin  of,  i : 
56 ;  purpose  underlying,  1 :  56. 


Festivals — Greek  Church,  IV : 
26-27;  Luther's  views  on,  IV: 
36. 

First  Apology  of  Justin  Mar- 
tyr— Description  of  Eucharis- 
tic  Service  in,  VII :  64 ;  de- 
scription of  regular  Sunday 
worship,  VII :  65  ;  elements  of 
the  Service  in,  VII:  66-68; 
kiss  of  peace  in,  VII:  67; 
prayer  in,  VII :  67. 

Font — Location  of,  II :  3  ;  VI : 
95;  VII:  83,  90,  114. 

Form  —  Necessity  for  some, 
111:75. 

Formula'  Missac — A  liturgical 
classic,  VI :  17. 


Furniture,  Church — Articles* 
of  and  their  significance,  VI : 
92 ;  doctrine  in,  IV :  80 ;  sym- 
bolism of,  II:  91. 


Galleries — Their  fitness  in  a 
Church,  VII :  83,  93. 

Glass,  Stained — Characteristic 
qualities  of,  VII :  163 ;  de- 
signs on,  VII :  167 ;  function' 
of,  VII :  166 ;  medium  to  be 
employed  in,  VII :  162 ;  need 
of  attention  on  the  subject  of, 
VII:  159;  perspective  and, 
VII:  166;  "pot-metal"  or 
"painted,"  which?  VIII:  162; 
pictures  and,  VII:  163;  struc- 
tural necessities  in,  VII:  160; 
true  art  to  be  sought  in,  VII : 
168. 

Gloria  in  Bxcelsis — Age  and 
original  form  of,  1 :  47 ;  au- 
thor of,  1 :  47 ;  use  in  Roman 
and  Lutheran  Churches,  1 :  47. 

Gloria  Patri — Early  forms  of, 
1 :  46 ;  how  distinguished  in 
Matins  and  Vespers  from  its 
use  in  Chief  Service,  II :  40 ; 
origin  of,  1 :  45-46 ;  reasons 
for  present  form  of,  1 :  46. 

Gospel — Arrangement    in     Ro- 
man Church  and  present  usage 
^         in  the  Common  Service,  1 :  50- 
5 1 ;  by  whom  read,  1 :  50 ;  rev- 
erence accorded  it,  1 :  50. 

Gnosticism — Efifect  of  on  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church,  III : 
21. 

Grace,  Means  oe — Doctrine  of, 
exalted,  I:  17. 


Gregory  the  Great — Antipho- 
nary  of,  V :  2  ;  author  of  Plain 
Song  or  Gregorian  Chant,  V : 
3 ;  doctrine  of  Purgatory,  V : 
5 ;  efifect  of  his  principles  of 
worship,  V:  6;  Homilies  of, 
V:  2;  labors  in  behalf  of 
*  Church  Music,  V :  3 ;  Litanies 
in  his  age,  V :  6 ;  Order  of  the 
Mass,  V  :  3  ;  Sacramentary  of, 
V :  I ;  transubstantiation  clear- 
ly taught  bv  him,  V :  5  ;  unique 
position  of,  V :  i. 


H 


Hallelujah  and  Sentence — 
Early  use  in  Jewish,  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches,  1 :  49 ; 
origin  of  sentences,  1 :  49-50 ; 
when  omitted,  1 :  49. 

HoMiLiARius  —  Charlemagne's, 
VI:  35;  IV:  51,  57,  59;  basis 
of  Luther's  Kirch  en  Postille, 
VI:  35- 

Hours,  Canonical — Addition 
and  development  by  Cyprian, 
II :  36 ;  efifect  of  the  Reforma- 
tion upon  the,  II:  37-38; 
eighth  hour  added  by  Benedict 
of  Nursia,  li :  37;  Luther's 
combination  of  the,  II :  38 ; 
names  of  and  services  per- 
formed at  these,  II :  37 ;  refer- 
ence to  in  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions, II:  36;  Scripture  refer- 
ence to,  II :  35  ;  why  a  seventh 
hour  was  added,  II :  37. 

Hymnology — Christian,  II :  93  ; 
work  of  Olavus  Petri  in  behalf 
of,  II:  21;  labors  of  Lauren- 
tius  Petri  in  behalf  of,  II :  22. 


10 


Hymns — Apostolic  Church,  II: 
92;  VI:  55;  essentials  of  true, 
II:  93;  Litany,  VII:  152. 


I.  H.  S.— See  The  Holy  Name. 

Introit — Change  of,  1 :  45  ;  il- 
lustrations of  thematic  har- 
mony, 11:  77-82;  Luther's 
opinion  as  to  use  of  the,  II : 
45 ;  omitted  in  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  III :  65  ;  origin 
of,  1 :  45  ;  purpose  of,  II :  76 ; 
use  of,  VI :  33. 

Invitatory — Eastern  origin  and 
form  of,  II :  40-41 ;  use  in 
Eastern,  Western  and  Luther- 
an  Churches,   II:  41. 

Iceland — Introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity into,  IV :  95 ;  of  the 
Reformation,  IV:  96. 

J 

Jonas,  Justus — Life  of,  IV:  15  ; 
liturgical  labors  of,  IV:  15. 

K 

Koo — Types  of,  IV:  2-3. 

Kyric — Early  use  of,  1 :  46 ;  how 
used  in  Greek  Church,  1 :  46 ; 
Luther's  views  on  the,  1 :  47 ; 
repetition  of,  VII :  131 ;  use  in 
Matins  and  Vespers,  II :  52 ; 
use  in  Roman  Church,  1 :  46. 


Laity — Need  for  a  liturgically 
well-informed,  V:  21  ;  purpose 
of  enlightening  our,  V :  22 ;  the 
defense  and  upbuilding  of  our 
Church  depends  upon  a  litur- 


gically well-informed,  V:  22; 
the  pastor's  part  in  instruct- 
ing the,  V :  26 ;  two  methods 
of  instructing  our,  V:  21. 

Lectio  Continua — See  Pericopes. 

Lections — Common  Service  as- 
signmient  of  the,  II :  48 ;  dif- 
ferent Lectionaries,  1:51;  ear- 
ly assignment  of  different 
books  of  the  Bible  to  different 
seasons,  II :  46-49;  how  closed, 
II:  48;  idea  of,  VI:  38:  later 
changes  shortening  the,  II  :48 ; 
Luther's  advice  and  retention 
of  the  II :  47 ;  VI :  35  ;  origin 
of,  I:  51;  effect  of  the  Ref- 
oiimation  on  the,   II :  48. 

Lectern — Arrangement  of  the, 
VII:  113;  defense  of  the,  VI: 
95 ;  form  and  decoration  of 
the,  VI :  95  ;  origin  of  the,  II : 
4 ;  position  of  the,  11:4;  VII : 
80. 

Lent — Origin  and  fixity  of,  IV : 
23-24. 

Letter,  Dominicae — How  de- 
termined, II :  24. 

Linen,  Altar — See  Altar  Cloth, 
Burse,  Corporal,  Pall,  Purifi- 
cators.  Veil. 

Litany — A  product  of  the  West- 
ern Church,  VII:  129;  Angli- 
can form  of  the,  VII :  137 ;  ap- 
pointment of  Rogation  or  Lit- 
any Days,  II:  51;  changes 
made  by  Luther  in  the,  iii : 
43 ;  contents  of  Roman,  III : 
43 ;  different  forms  of  and 
their  origin.  III :  42  ;  early  us- 
age of,  III :  42 ;  four-fold  use 
of  in  Western  Church,  VII : 
130;  general  divisions  of  Me- 


11 


diasval  Litanies,  VII :  36 ; 
Hymns  growing-  out  of  the, 
VII:  152;  its  introduction  into 
the  Mass,  VII :  148 ;  Loehe's 
tribute  to  the,  VII :  148 ;  Lu- 
theran form  of  the,  VII :  145  ; 
manner  of  rendering  the,  VII : 
151;  Moravian  form  of,  VII.' 
141 ;  origin  of  the,  II :  51 ;  or- 
igin of  Litania  Scptiformis, 
II :  52 ;  III :  42  ;  VII :  132 ;  or- 
igin of  the  term,  HI:  42; 
origin  of  the  specific  formula 
uncertain,  VII:  132;  rapid 
muItipHcation  of  the,  II:  52; 
VII:  134;  reduction  to  three, 
II :  52 ;  Reformation  usage  of 
the,  VII:  149;  rejected  by  the 
Reformed  Churches,  III :  44 ; 
responses  in  the,  III :  43 ;  rise 
of  litanical  form  of  prayer  un- 
certain, VII:  132;  Roman 
CathoHc  use  of  the  "Great," 
VII:  136;  that  of  the  Com- 
mon Service,  II :  52 ;  the  in- 
vocation of  Saints  and  the, 
VII :  135  ;  use  of  in  connection 
with  processionals,  II:  51 ;  use 
of  in  Common  Service,  VII : 
150;  when  used.  III:  43. 

Literature — Romantic  move- 
ment in,  1 :  22. 

LiTURGics — Bound  up  with  Dog- 
ma  and    Doctrine,    III:    106; 
development  of,  III:  104;  his- 
torical character  of,  ITT:  106 
individualism  and,    III:    105 
proper    department    for,    TIT 
105. 

LiTURGisT — Sphere  of  the  prac- 
tical, 1 :  36-37. 

Liturgy  (General  Subject) — A 
legacy  of  history.  III:  105;  a 
preserver  of  doctrine,  TV :  70 ; 


Apostolic  Church  and,  III : 
102  ;  architecture  and  the,  III : 
no;  beauty  and  glory  of  our, 
V:  41-42;  charges  of  oppo- 
nents against  a,  V:  88;  devel- 
opment of  Roman  in  Reforma- 
tion era,  IV  :  64 ;  devotion  and 
the.  III:  109;  divisions  of  the 
in  early  times,  VI :  2J ;  doc- 
trines affecting  the,  III :  20 ; 
doctrine  in,  IV :  81 ;  doctrines 
taught  in  our,  IV:  81-82;  Eth- 
ics in  relation  to  the,  III :  108 ; 
groundlessness  of  charges 
against  a,  V:  89;  Homiletics 
in  relation  to  the,  III:  108; 
limit  set  to  the.  III:  34;  music 
of  the.  III:  no;  position  of 
Christ  with  reference  to  a, 
III:  101-102;  proper  balance 
of  a.  III :  loi ;  reasons  as- 
signed for  a,  V :  86-88 ;  ref- 
ormation of  the,  TIT:  29;  re- 
lation between  doctrine  and 
the,  IV:  79;  specific  doctrines 
taught  in,  IV:  81-82;  starting 
points  of  Luther  and  Calvin  in 
the  reformation  of  the.  III : 
29;  three  doctrines  that  serve 
to  explain  the,  III:  107;  uni- 
versal priesthood  of  believers 
exemplified  in  our,  IV :  82 ; 
why  we  have  a,  V:  85. 


Spcciiic — Bunsen's  Capitoline, 
1 :  22 ;  first  types  of  Lutheran, 
1 :  24 ;  for  Garrison  Church  at 
Berlin,  1 :  22 ;  for  Prussian 
Church,  1 :  23  ;  Knox's,  1 :  14 ; 
proposed  for  use  in  Presbyte- 
rian Church,  I:  14;  Reformed 
Church  in  the  United  States, 
I:  15;  St.  James',  I:  14;  the 
Greek,  I:  11,  12;  the  Roman, 
I:  12;  Zwingli's  I:  14. 


12 


American  Lutheran  of  1748 — 
Basis  and  preparation  of,  IV: 
86;  how  long  in  use,  IV: 
88;  publication  and  material 
changes  of,  IV:  88;  revisions 
and  deteriorations  noted,  IV: 
88-89;  rubrics  of,  IV:  87; 
translation  of,  IV:  87;  views 
of  Dr.  B.  M.  Schmucker  on, 
IV:  88. 

Of   18 17  —  Rationahstic  and 
un-Lutheran,  IV:  89. 
Of  1818  —  Its    incongruities, 
IV:  90. 

Of  1833— Based  on  that  of 
1786,  IV:  91. 

Of  1847— History    and     esti- 
mate of,  IV:  91-93. 
Of   1855— History,   parts   and 
estimate  of,  IV:  93. 
Of  i860  (English)— Estimate 
of,  IV:  94. 

Danish — Chief  Service  of  the, 
II :  61-65 ;  Lord's  Supper  in, 
II :  70-73  ;  Matins  and  Vespers 
in,  II :  65 ;  order  of  Service 
in  cities  and  rural  places,  II : 
57;  use  of  the  vernacular  in, 
II:  58;  work  of  Palladius  in 
behalf  of,  II:  59-61. 

Icelandic — First  Liturgy,  IV: 
95 ;  first  Service  officially 
adopted,  IV :  loi ;  post-RefJ 
ormation  Liturgy,  IV:  103; 
present  Service,  IV:  104;  fu- 
ture Service,  IV:  107. 

Norzvegian — Influence  of  Lu- 
ther's "German  Mass"  on,VII : 
35 ;  influence  of  the  "Ordi- 
nance" of  King  Christian  HI 
on,  VII:  36-37;  optional  use 
of,  VII:  2>7\  order  of  "Ordi- 
nance," VII:  38-39;  compari- 


son of  "Ordinance"  and 
"Ritual,"  VII:  38-39;  later 
changes  in,  VII :  40 ;  the  "New 
Order  of  Service"  and  basis 
of,  VII :  43 ;  estimate  of  New 
Order,  VII:  46-47;  effect  of 
Pietism  and  Rationalism  on, 
VII :  40. 

Sivedish — Order  of  that  of 
1 53 1,  II:  17-20;  similarity  be- 
tween it  and  Luther's  Formu- 
la Missae,  II:  20-21;  later 
changes  in,  II :  21 ;  changes  in 
those  of  1541,  1641,  181 1, 
1874,  1894,  II:  21,  24,  25,  26. 
27. 

Luther — Address  at  the  conse- 
cration of  a  Church,  VII:  24; 
attack  of  the  "Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass,"  VI :  80 ;  Bugenhagen, 
Melanchthon,  and  contrasted, 
IV:  13  ;  declaration  bearing  on 
Repentance,  VI :  70-71 ;  doc- 
trine of  the  Church,  III :  26 ; 
doctrine  of  the  Ministry,  HI : 
2'/;  doctrines  of  the  Church 
and  Ministry  affecting  the  Lit- 
urgy, HI:  30;  his  Deutsche 
Messe,  IV:  41-4- ;  his  Formu- 
la Missjae,  IV :  39-40 ;  his  Ord- 
nung  des  Gottesdienst  in  der 
Gcmeine,  IV:  37-38;  his  Tauf- 
huechlein,  of  1523  and  1526, 
HI:  121;  IV:  45;  his  idea  of 
a  Service,  HI:  29;  ideas  re- 
garding Divine  Service,  IV : 
30;  influences  of  in  Common 
Service,  VI :  11;  reasons  for 
changing  old  Order  of  Ser- 
vice, IV:  32-33;  reply  to 
Carlstadt  concerning  the  use 
of  pictures,  VI:  44;  the  first 
outline  of  a  purified  Service, 
IV :   T^y ;  the  Formula  Missae 


13 


and  Deutsche  Messe  paral- 
lelled, I V :  44 ;  views  on  Cere^ 
monies,  IV:  31,  35;  Collects, 
III :  45  ;  Confirmation,  III : 
13 ;  external  observances,  IV : 
34;  festivals,  IV:  36;  Introit, 
1 :  45  ;  Kyrie,  1 :  47 ;  Lections, 
II :  48 ;  Paraments,  VI :  90 ; 
Pax,  I:  60;  Pericopes,  IV:  51- 
52 ;  pictures,  II :  88 ;  the  sacra- 
mental, VI :  80 ;  the  Salutation 
and  Bencdicanius,  1 :  62. 

M 

Magnificat — Early  use  of,  II: 
150;  Greek  and  Latin  Church 
assignment,  II:  50;  later  and 
present  use,  II :  50;  restoration 
to  Evensong  in  American 
Episcopal  Church,  III :  65. 

Malmo  Book — Changes  made 
by  the  Danish  Reformers  in, 
IV :  loi ;  order  of  service  of, 
IV:  9q;  strength  and  weak- 
ness of,  IV:  100. 

Martyr,  Justin — Description  of 
worship  at  his  time,  III:  36; 
his  conception  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  VII:  71-74.  See  also 
First  Apology  of. 

Mass — Center  of  the  Roman,  I : 
15;  Protestant  opposition  to 
the,  IV:  64;  in  Swedish,  II: 
22;  the  Roman,  I:  lo-ii. 

Masses — Questionable  features 
in  Strassburg,  VI :  21. 

Melanchthon,  Philip — Life, 
place  and  work  of,  IV :  4 ;  lit- 
urgical position  of,  IV  :  6 ;  his 
outline  of  a  Church  Service, 
I V  :  9 ;  on  the  relation  between 
the  sacramental  and  the  sacri- 


ficial, VI :  81 ;  Luther,  Bugen- 
hagen,  and  contrasted,  IV :  3. 

MeurER — On  the  symtolism  of 
the  Liturgical  Colors,  VII : 
14 ;  views  on  the  position  of 
the  pulpit,  II :  4. 

Minister — Agent  in  mediating 
the  Word,  V:  10;  extempore 
prayers  and  the,  V:  18;  his 
arbitrary  conduct  in  changing 
formulas,  V:  19;  his  attitude 
in  prayer,  V:  16;  his  bearing 
and  deportment,  V:  12;  his 
bearing  in  the  Chancel,  V :  13  ; 
his  bodily  movements  in  gen- 
eral, V:  14-15;  his  personal 
appearance,  V:  13;  his  prep- 
aration for  the  service,  V:  12; 
his  reading  of  the  Word,  V: 
15  ;  his  self-control,  V :  14 ;  the 
representative  of  the  congre- 
gation, V:  II. 

Ministers — Two  classes  of  in 
early  Church,  III :  20 ;  later 
distinction  of.  III:  21. 

Ministry — Catholic  conception 
of  the,  III :  25 ;  Luther  on  the 
Doctrine  of  the.  III :  27. 

Missa  Catechumenorum — What 
it  was.  III :  24. 

Missa  Fidclium — What  it  was, 
III:  24. 

Missals — Differences  noted  in, 
II:  15;  pre-Reformation  Mis- 
sals of  the  Church  of  Sweden, 
II:   15. 

Monograms,  Sacred — See  Chris- 
ma  and  The  Holy  Name. 

Montanists — Heresv  of  the, 
VI :  67. 


14 


Muhlenberg,  Dr.  H.  M. — His 
work  on  the  liturgy  of  1748, 
IV:  86. 

Music — Doctrine  in,  IV:  80; 
must  be  in  accord  with  the  Lit- 
urgy, II:  92,  94;  proper  kind 
of,  V :  26 ;  proper  use  of,  II : 
94-95 ;  the  Sunday  School  the 
place  for  the  introduction  of 
good,  V:  26   28. 

N 

Name,  the  Hoey  (I  H  S)  — 
Festival  in  honor  of,  VI :  187 ; 
Greek  forms  of,  VII:  180;  in- 
terpretations of  the  symbol 
I  H  S,  VII:  179;  Latin  forms 
of,  VII :  182 ;  meaning  as- 
signed it  by  the  Jesuits,  VII : 
179;  MSS.  in  which  various 
forms  of  are  found,  VII :  180- 
181  ;  origin  of  the  Cross  in 
connection  with,  VII :  186 ; 
popularized  in  the  West  by 
Bernard  of  Sienna,  VII:  183; 
probably  a  contraction  of  the 
Greek  for  Jesus,  VII:  180; 
problems  confronting  us  in  the 
study  of,  VII:  184;  Sequence 
in  Sarum  Missal  on,  VII :  187; 
tri-literal  Greek  form  of,  VII : 
182;  use  of  in  conjurings  and 
incantations,  VII:  186:  vari- 
ous spellings  of  in  full,  VII : 
184. 

Napoleon — Efifect  of  conquests 
of  on  the  Service,  1 :  22. 

NicENE  Creed — See  Creeds. 

Number,  Golden — How  deter- 
mined, IV :  22. 

Nunc  Dwiiffis — Authority  for  its 
use,  1 :  61 ;  mentioned  in  x\pos- 


.  tolic  Constitutions,  II :  50 ;  res- 
toration to  Evensong  in  Amer- 
ican Episcopal  Church,  HI: 
65 ;  use  in  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Churches,  II :  50 ;  why  a 
Vesper  Canticle,  II :  50. 

O 

Offertory — Lutheran  idea  of  the, 
1 :  52 ;  origin  of,  1 :  52  ;  usage 
in  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
1:52. 

Opus  Operatum — The  Roman 
Liturgy  an,  1 :  22 ;  Charle- 
magne's efforts  to  make  the 
Liturgy  something  else  than 
an,  1 :  26. 

Order — The  question  of  litur- 
gical. I:  35. 

"Ordinance'' — Order  and  parts 
of,  II:  58;  influence  on  Ice- 
landic Liturgy,  IV  :  97 ;  influ- 
ence on  Norwegian  Liturgy, 
VII:  36-37- 

Ordination — Consecration  and, 
VII:  22;  distinction  created 
by,  HI :  23. 

Organ — Location  of,  VI :  81,  92, 
104;  proper  use  of  in  worship, 
H:  95. 

Organist — Importance  of  the 
Church,  HI :  47 ;  power  and 
dignity  of  his  position,  HI : 
56;  why  he  should  study  the 
Liturgy,  HI :  48. 

Osiander,  Andrew — Life  of, 
IV:  14;  prepared  first  draft  of 
Brandenburg  -  Nurnberg  KO, 
IV :  14 ;  strong  evangelical  po- 
sition of,  IV :  14. 

Oxford  Movement  —  Influence 
of  on  liturgical  reform,  1 :  23. 


15 


Painting — Early  Christian,  II: 
87. 

Pai.l — Definition  of,  II:  32;  ne- 
cessity of,  II :  ^2;  ornamenta- 
tion of,  II :  32 ;  size  of,  II :  33  ; 
usage  of,  II :  32. 

Palladius,  Peder — Work  of  in 
behalf  of  the  Danish  Liturgy, 
II:  59,  61. 

Paraments — Definition  of,  VI : 
89 ;  Luther's  attitude  towards, 
VI :  90. 

Paramentics — Beauty  and  fit- 
ness of  embroidery,  VI :  96 ; 
importance  of  the  subject,  VI: 
89 ;  in  America,  VI :  89 ;  in 
Germany  and  England,  VI : 
89 ;  limitation  of,  VI :  98 ; 
Loehe's  views  on,  VI :  90 ;  per- 
ils of,  VI :  98. 

Pax — Luther's  views  of,  1 :  60 ; 
origin  and  development  of  the, 
1 :  58-59 ;  place  in  standard 
Ms.  of  the  Common  Service, 
I:  60;  rejection  and  retention 
of  in  1 6th  Centurv  Orders,  I: 
60. 

Peace,  Kiss  of — Abolition  of 
the,  1 :  60 ;  doubtful  whether  it 
had  any  part  in  the  worship  of 
the  Apostolic  Church,  VI :  63  ; 
origin  of,  1 :  58 ;  place  in  the 
Service,  1 :  59 ;  traces  remain- 
ing in  Russian  and  Roman 
Churches,  1 :  60. 

Pentecost — Origin  and  purpose 
of,  IV :  25. 

Pericopes,  The — Criticized  by 
Luther,  IV :  51;  difference  be- 
tween those  of    the  Lutheran 


Orders  and  the  Missale  Ro- 
manian, IV:  56;  differences  in 
detail,  IV:  56-58;  first  intro- 
duction in  Rome,  IV :  49 ; 
gradual  development  of,  IV : 
49 ;  Homiliarius  of  Charle- 
magne, IV  :  50 ;  introduced 
into  France  through  eft'orts  of 
Charlemagne,  IV:  50;  in  Nor- 
wegian Church,  VII:  42;  lists 
of  Epistles  and  Gospels  in 
Luther's  German  New  Testa- 
ment, IV :  53 ;  Lutheran  Agen- 
da favoring  retention  of,  IV: 
52-53 ;  Agenda  recommending 
the  Lectio  Coiitinna,  IV:  53; 
Old  and  New  Testament  cus- 
tom of  reading  the  Word,  IV  : 
47 ;  some  difficult  questions  en- 
gaging attention,  IV:  55;  the 
Lectio  Continua  an  early  cus- 
tom, IV:  49;  the  Lectio  Con- 
tinua  retained  in  Matins  and 
Vespers,  IV:  49. 

Petri,  Laurentius — His  work 
on  Swedish  Service  Book  of 
1541,  II:  21 ;  effects  in  behalf 
of  Hymnology,  II :  22. 

Petri,  Olavus — His  independ- 
ence in  Service  Reform,  II : 
16;  his  Manuals  for  the 
Church,  II:  16-17;  his  Ser- 
vice Book  for  the  Swedish 
Church,  II:  17;  his  work  in 
behalf  of  Hymnology,  II:  21  ; 
his  work  for  the  Swedish 
Church,  II :  16. 

Pictures  —  Luther's  reply  to 
Carlstadt  concerning  the  use 
of,  VI :  98. 

Pietism — Influence  of  on  Con- 
fession and  Absolution,  VI : 
75 ;  influences  of  in  Common 
Service,  VI :   14 ;  influence  of 


16 


on  the  Liturg-y  in  Germany, 
IV:  69-70;  influence  on  the 
Norwegian  Liturgy,  VII :  40. 

Poetry — As  a  vocal  art  in  wor- 
ship, II :  q2,  94. 

Prayer — By  whom  offered,  VI : 
53 ;  distinction  between  pubhc 
and  private,  III:  39;  extem- 
pore, V :  18 ;  grounds  for  pub- 
lic, III :  35  ;  in  the  assembly  of 
the  first  Christians,  VI :  48 ;  in- 
cluded in  Psalm,  VI :  52  ;  min- 
ister's attitude  in,  V:  16;  nec- 
essary for  the  Church,  III :  40; 
proper  place  for  the,  III:  41. 

Prayer,  the  Bidding — Eastern 
Church  use  of,  VII:  124-125; 
Loehe's  rubric  as  to  use  of, 
VII:  127;  Lutheran  retention 
of,  VII:  126;  source  of  our, 
VII :  122 ;  the  question  of 
kneeling  during  the,  VII :  128 ; 
traces  of  in  Anglican  Liturgy, 
VII:  126;  two  forms  of  given 
by  Loehe  and  their  analysis, 
VII:  123;  Western  Church 
use  of,  VII:  125. 

Prayer,  the  General — Differ- 
ent usages  for,  1 :  53 ;  distinc- 
tive   nature    lost    in    Roman 
Catholic  Church,  1 :  53 ;  form 
and  contents  of,  1 :  52-53 ;  his- 
tory and  development  of,  III : 
35-39;  VI:   53;  origin  of,  I: 
52 ;  parallel    between   that    of 
Church  Book  and  early  traces 
in  Apostolic  Constitutions,  I 
53-54;  place  in  early  times,  I 
52;  position  in  later  ages,  I 
52 ;  restored  again   in  Refor- 
mation era,  1 :  53 ;  sources  of 
that  in  the  Church  Book,   I: 

55- 


Prayer,  the  Lord's — Character 
of,  1:57;  earliest  testimony  to 
its  use,  1 :  59 ;  integral  part  of 
the  Liturgy,  i  :57 ;  pre-Refor- 
mation  usage.  1 :  57 ;  not  used 
in  worship  of  the  Apostolic 
Church,  VI:  54;  use  in 
Matins  and  Vespers,  II :  53. 

Preccs — See  Suffrages. 

Preface — Age  of,  1 :  55  ;  con- 
stancy of  the,  1 :  55 ;  origin 
and  development  of  the  Prop- 
er, I:  56;  the  Common,  where 
found,  1 :  56 ;  the  Common 
Service,  1 :  56. 

Priesthood  —  Development  of 
the,  III:  22;  the  universal  of 
all  believers,  I:  10;  III:  93. 

Prophecy — Meaning  of  in  Ap- 
ostolic Church,  VI :  58. 

Psaems,  the — Changes  of  the 
the  1 :  62. 

Psalter  necessitated  by  the 
Reformation,  II :  45  ;  Monas- 
ticism  and  the,  II :  42 ;  number 
of  in  the  Church  Book,  and 
Books  of  Worship,  II :  45  ;  the 
Greek  Church  and  the  Psalter, 
II :  42 ;  use  of  in  Apostolic 
times,  II:  42;  usage  in  later 
eras,  II :  42 ;  weekly  arrange- 
ment of  Benedictine  and  Gre- 
gorian Psalters,  11 :  43-44. 

PuEPiT — Decoration  of  the,  VI : 
95 ;  Meurer  on  the  location  of 
the,  11:4;  most  approved  lo- 
cation, II:  4;  VI:  95;  VII: 
80,  82,  89,  90,  91,  95,  96,  112, 
113;  various  positions  in  dif- 
ferent ages,  II :  3-4. 

Purgatory — Beginning  of  the 
doctrine  of  a,  VI:  68;  origin 


17 


of  pravinc:  souls  out  of,  VI : 
69. 

PuRiFiCATORS  —  Number,  size 
and  ornamentation  of,  II:  32; 
how  folded,  II :  32 ;  why  nec- 
essary, II:  33. 

R 

Rail,  Chancel — Un-Lutheran, 
VI :  94 ;  VII :  82-88. 

Rationalism — Illustrations  from 
rationalistic  Agendas  affecting 
(a)  Baptism,  (b)  Confession 
and  Absolution,  (c)  Lord's 
Supper  (d)  Lord's  Prayer, 
(e)  Benediction,  IV:  73-77; 
influence  of  on  Confession  and 
Absolution,  VI :  75  ;  influences 
of  in  Common  Service,  VI : 
14;  influence  of  on  the  Liturgy 
in  Germany,  IV:  71-72;  influ- 
ence of  on  the  Norwegian  Lit- 
urgy, VII:  40. 

Red  Book  —  The  Romanizing 
Swedish  Liturgy  of  John  III, 
11:22. 

Reform,  Liturgical — Direction 
of.  III :  76 ;  education  in.  III : 
76 ;  element  of  taste  in,  1 :  28 ; 
eras  of,  1 :  25 ;  expected  re- 
sults from,  1 :  37-39 ;  how  ef- 
fected, III:  76;  in  Germany, 
1 :  23  ;  necessity  of,  1 :  21  ;  or- 
igin of,  1 :  20 ;  pastor's  part  in, 
III:  yy;  problems  of,  I:  28; 
questions  of  texts  in,  I:  31; 
reasons  for,  1 :  20 ;  two-fold 
tendency  of.  Ill:  75;  within 
the  Church  of  Rome,  1 :  26 ; 
IV:  63. 

Reformation,  the — What  it 
was  and  emphasized.  Ill:  26; 
VI:  80;  Tercentenary  of,  I: 
22. 


Reredos — Origin  of  the,  VII: 
in;  remnant  of  reliquaries, 
11:5;  taste  in  its  construction 
and  enrichment,  II :  5. 

Responsory — Not  known  by 
whom  introduced,  II:  49; 
place  of,  II :  49 ;  what  it  was 
originally,  II :  49. 

Revolution,  French — Effect  of 
the,  1 :  22. 

Ritual — Questions  in  develop- 
ment of,  1 :  32. 

Rock,  Dr. — On  the  celebration 
of  the  Roman  Mass,  I:  10. 


Sacraments,  the — Number  of, 
V :  69 ;  practice  and  doctrine 
in  relation  to,  V :  69 ;  the 
Friends  and  the,  V:  69;  the 
Reformed  Church  in  general 
and,  V:  70. 

SacramEiNTal  —  Luther's  views 
concerning  the,  VI :  80 ;  Mel- 
anchthon  on  the  relation  be- 
tween the  sacramental  and  the 
sacrificial,  VI :  81 ;  position  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  concern- 
ing the,  VI :  85  ;  the  sacramen- 
tal element  in  the  Apostolic 
Church,  VI:  78-79;  this  ele- 
ment lost  sight  of  in  the 
Mediaeval  Church,  VI :  79 ;  the 
sacramental  elements  in  the 
Reformation  Service,  VI:  83; 
this  element  not  limited  to  the 
minister,  VI :  84 ;  the  sacra- 
mental elements  in  the  Com- 
mon Service,  VI :  85  ;  Zwing- 
li's  depreciation  of  the,  VI : 
86. 


18 


Sacrifice  —  Development  and 
meaning  of,  III :  23 ;  Luther's 
attack  of  the  "Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass,"  VI :  80. 

Sacrificial  —  Augustine's  idea 
of  the,  III:  96-97;  Augustine 
contrasted  with  Cyprian  on 
the.  III:  95;  deterioration  of 
the,  III:  91;  development  of 
the  at  the  time  of  Innocent  I, 
Leo  I,  and  Gregory  the  Great, 
III:  97;  era  of  normal  appli- 
cation of  the.  III:  89;  import- 
ance attached  to  the  in  the 
Mediaeval  Church,  VI :  79 ; 
Luther's  German  Mass  in  re- 
lation to  the,  III:  98;  Mel- 
anchthon  on  the  relation  be- 
tween the  sacrificial  and  the 
sacramental,  VI  :8i ;  not  limited 
to  the  congregation,  VI :  84 ; 
position  of  Justin  Martyr,  Ire- 
naeus,  Tertullian  and  Cyprian, 
III:  91,  95;  position  of  the 
Greek  Church,  III :  95 ;  Re- 
formed tendencies  toward  the 
and  their  general  effect,  VI : 
86-88 ;  restoration  of  the  in  the 
Reformation  era,  III:  98;  the 
sacrificial  in  worship,  III:  89; 
the  sacrificial  element  in  the 
Apostolic  Church,  VI :  78-79 ; 
this  element  lost  sight  of  in  the 
Mediaeval  Church,  VI :  79 ;  the 
sacrificial  in  the  Reformation 
era,  VI :  83 ;  the  sacrificial  ele- 
ments in  'he  Common  Service, 
III:  99;  VI:  85. 

Salutation  and  Benedicamiis — 
Luther's  directions  concerning 
the,  1 :  62 ;  origin  and  use  of 
the  I:   62. 

Salutation  and  Response — Usage 
in    early    Greek    Liturgies,    I : 


47;  in  Mediaeval  Church,  I: 
47;  in  KOO  of  i6th  Centurv, 
1:47- 

Sanctus — Addition  of  Benedic- 
tus  and  Hosanna  to  the,  1 :  56 ; 
differentiated  from  Trisagion, 
1:56;  origin  of  the,  1 :  56 ;  use 
in  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches,  1 :  56. 

Sculpture  —  Use  in  early 
Church,  II :  88 ;  position  ac- 
corded by  the  Protestant 
Church,  II:  88. 

Semester  Domini  and  Ecclesiae 
Meaning  of,  IV:  25. 

Sermon — Part  of  and  place  in 
the  Service,  VI :  39. 

Service — Doctrine  of  the  Church 
and  Ministry  affecting  the 
III:  30;  elements  of  the  in 
Apostolic  Christianity,  VI :  47; 
intoning  the,  V:  17;  Luther's 
idea  of  a.  III:  29;  the  sacra- 
mental and  the  sacrificial  ele- 
ments in  the,  VI :  83 ;  vica- 
riousness  not  an  element  of 
our,  1 :  10. 

Service,  Divine — Definition  of, 
V:  53;  origin  of,  V:  53;  ob- 
ject of,  V:  57;  liturgical  forms 
in,  V :  59 ;  necessity  for  an 
Order  of,  V:  58. 

Shepherd  of  Hermes — Decla- 
ration of  concerning  Confes- 
sion and  Absolution,  VI :  67. 

Sources  —  Liturgical,  of  the 
Chief  Service,  of  the  Common 
Service,  1 :  44-63  ;  Scriptural, 
I:  41-44;  liturgical,  of  the  Mi- 
nor Services,  II:  40-56;  Scrip- 
tural, II :  38-39. 


19 


Sponsors  —  Discontinuance  of, 
V :  79 ;  regulations  concerning, 
V:  79- 

Suffrages — Etymology  of  the 
word,  VII:  156;  manner  of 
rendering  the,  VII:  156;  name 
by  which  anciently  known,  II : 
51  ;  origin  of  obscure,  II:  51 ; 
VII:  154;  origin  of  Morning 
and  Evening  in  Church  Book, 
VII:  154-155;  pre-Reforma- 
tion  use  of,  II :  51  ;  remnant  of 
in  Anglican  and  American 
Episcopal  Churches,  VII :  155  ; 
rubrics  on,  VII:  156. 

Sunday — Observance  of  in  post- 
Apostolic  Age,  VII:  51. 

Sunday,  Trinity — Origin  and 
fixity  of,  IV:  25. 

Supper,  the  Lord's — Adminis- 
tration of  in  the  first  Christian 
congregation,  III :  i ;  in  third 
and  fourth  centuries,  III :  3 ; 
in  the  Apostolic  Church,  VI : 
45-47 ;  in  Danish  Church,  II : 
70-73 ;  by  whom  to  be  admin- 
istered, V :  83  ;  customs  in  dif- 
ferent Churches,  III :  4-5  ;  es- 
sentials to  a  proper  adminis- 
tration, III :  6-8  ;  frequency  of, 
111:4;  influence  of  doctrine 
in.  III:  6;  institution  of,  III: 
I ;  Methodist  admission  to,  V : 
84;  object  of  Confessional  Ser- 
vice before,  V :  84 ;  question  of 
essentials  and  non-essentials 
in,  V:  82;  rejection  of  abuses 
in,  V :  82 ;  self-examination 
before,  V :  83 ;  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation  and,  V :  71  ; 
the  act  of  Consecration  in,  V : 
84;  the  culmination  of  Chris- 
tian worship,  VI :  78  ;  West- 
minster Confession  rubric  on. 


V :  83 ;  what  constitutes  valid- 
ity of,  V :  84 ;  who  are  to  par- 
take of,  V :  84 ;  withdrawal  of 
the  cup  in,  III :  6. 

Supper,  the  Lord's,  in  Apos- 
tolic Church  —  Consecration 
and  reception  of  in,  VI :  62 ; 
special  service  for,  VI :  60 ; 
purpose  of  this  service,  VI : 
60;  St.  Paul's  view,  VI:  61. 

Sursum  Corda — General  use  of 
the,  1 :  55 ;  minor  diflfercnces 
in,  I:  55- 

Symbolism — Argument  in  be- 
half of,  V:  32;  as  science  and 
art,  V:  31;  Christianity  and, 
V :  32  ;  Judaism  and,  V :  32  ; 
material  for,  V :  36 ;  origin  of, 
V :  37 ;  in  early  Church,  II :  87  ; 
in  every  religion,  V:  34;  in 
Liturgical  Colors,  VII :  i ;  in 
nature,  V:  33;  in  Revelation, 
V:  35;  in  Sacraments,  V:  33; 
symbolic  passages  of  the  Old 
'Testament,  V  :  35  ;  symboliza- 
tion  of  Chief  Christian  doc- 
trines and  of  the  Evangelists, 
V:  32,  33,  34;  the  Antepen- 
dium  and,  VI :  97 ;  use  of,  V : 
36. 

Symbols — Defense  of,  VI :  07 ; 
lists  and  signification  of  va- 
rious, V:  37-40;  VI:  97. 


Tausen,  Hans — Author  of  Mal- 
mo  Book,  IV :  99. 

Taufbucchlcin — Luther's  of  1523 
and   1526,   III;   121,  IV;  45. 

Teactitng,  Apostolic  Church 
— Of  what  it  consisted,  VI : 
56.  57- 


20 


Te  Dcum — Origin  obscure,  II : 
49 ;  use  in  Mediaeval  Church, 
li:  50;  why  accepted  by  and 
its  use  in  the  Lutheran 
Church,  II:  50. 

Tennessee:  Synod — Sponsor  for 
Liturgy  of  1833,  based  on  that 
of  1786,  IV:  91. 

TbrTullian — Idea  of  the  rela- 
tion of  the  Sermon  to  Absolu- 
tion, VI :  67. 

Thanksgiving,  the — Great  di- 
versity of  noted  in  old  Orders, 
1 :  62  ;  origin  of,  1 :  62. 

Thoreaksson,  Bishop — Labors 
of  in  behalf  of  Icelandic 
Church,  IV:  98. 

Thursday,  Maunday — Origin 
of,  IV:  24. 

Tongues — Meaning  of  in  Apos- 
tolic Church,   V  i  :  50. 

Tower — Necessity  of  a,  VII : 
88;  position  of,  VII:  112. 

V 

Veil,  The — Color  and  material, 
II :  33  ;  ornamentation,  II :  33  ; 
use  in  Roman,  Anglican  and 
Lutheran  Churches,  II :  33. 

Venite,  The — Difference  between 
Eastern  and  Western  Church 
in  the  use  of,  II :  41 ;  its  intro- 
duction into  and  use  in  Mat- 
ins, II:  41-42. 

Vernacular — Use  of  in  Reforma- 
tion era,  IV:  65. 

Versicles,  The — Antiquity  and 
origin  of  those  used  at  opening 
of  Matins  and  Vespers,  II :  40 ; 
use  made  of  them  by  the  KOO 


of  the  i6th  Century,  li :  40; 
time  of  introduction  of  that 
preceding  Vespers  Canticles  a 
question,  II :  49 ;  pre-Refor- 
mation  and  present  form,  II : 
49 ;  that  at  the  close  of  Ves- 
pers has  no  pre-Reformation 
usage,  II :  55 ;  the  Da  Pace  in 
of  the  i6th  Century  KOO,  II : 
55- 

W 

War,  Thirty  Years' — Effect  of 
on  the  Liturgy,  IV:  67. 

JVhit-Sunday — See  Pentecost. 

William,  Frederick  III,  oE 
Prussia  —  Unionistic  efforts 
of,  1 :  22. 

William,  Frederick  IV — At- 
tempt to  unite  the  German  and 
Anglican  Churches,  1 :  24. 

Word — Efficacy  of  the  Divine, 
V:  II. 

Words  of  Institution — Essen- 
tiality and  use  of  the,  1 :  57. 

Worship — Art  a  handmaid  to, 
1 :  6-7 ;  center  of  Christian,  I : 
5,  15  ;  danger  attending,  1 :5-6 ; 
divine  element  in,  1 :  4,  11,  12 ; 
divine  purpose  in,  1 :  2-3 ;  di- 
vine and  human  elements  con- 
trasted, 1 :  4-5  ;  doctrine  re- 
flected in,  I:  9,  16,  17;  earliest 
form  of,  III :  24 ;  four  distinct 
types  of  Christian,  III:  31-32; 
human  element  in,  I:  3,  11, 
12;  idea  underlving,  I:  i ;  Lu- 
theran Order  of  explained,  I : 
13-15  ;  meaning  of  the  term,  I : 
2 ;  Reformed  idea  of,  1 :  14 ; 
relation  of  Principle  and 
Form  in,  1 :  9 ;  Roman,  Greek, 


21 


Reformed  and  Lutheran  con- 
trasted, I:  10-12;  sacramental 
character  of,  1 :  5 ;  sacrificial 
character  of,  1 :  5 ;  three  fac- 
tors in,  V  :io;  three  ways  of 
arriving  at  the  expression  of 
congregational,  V :  23 ;  time 
and  place  of ,  1 :  6 ;  uniqvieness 
of  Christian,  III :  89 ;  vicarious 
character  of  in  non-liturgical 
Churches,  I:  lo-ii  ;  what  it  is, 
1:3,  II  ;  Word  and  Sacrament 
in,  1 :  12. 

Worship,  Apostolic  Church — • 
Development  of  in  the  Gentile- 
Christian    Churches,  VI :    49 ; 


difficult  to  obtain  a  clear  idea 
of,  YI :  41;  elements  of  the 
Service  in,  VI :  47  ;  worship  in 
the  Church  at  Jerusalem,  VI : 
43  ;  in  private  houses,  VI :  44 ; 
number  of  services,  VI :  50 ; 
prayer  in  the  assembly  of  the 
first  Christians,  VI :  48 ; 
sources  of  our  knowledge  of, 
VI :  42,  49 ;  time  of  assembly 
for,  VI:  49;  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per in,  VI :  4S-47 ;  use  of  the 
Temple  in,  VI :  44. 


Year — See  Church  Year. 


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